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LOUISIANA 


Comprising    Sketches   of    Parishes,   Towns, 

Events,   Institutions,  and    Persons, 

Arranged  in  Cyclopedic 

Form 


EDITED   BY 


ALCEE    FORTIER,    LIT.    D. 

PROFESSOR  OF  ROMANCE   LANGUAGES 
IN   TULANE  UNIVERSITY 


IN    THREE    VOLUMES 


VOLUME  I 


Century  Historical  Association 
1914 


Copyright,  1914 

BY 

CENTURY  HISTORICAL  ASSOCIATION 


BIOGRAPHICAL  EDITION 


EDITOR'S    INTRODUCTION. 

Till'  |)iirpose  of  tliis  work  is  to  give  a  coucn-tc  knowledge  of  the 
State  of  Louisiana — a  record  of  the  social,  political,  industrial  and 
institutional  development  of  its  people — in  such  a  way  as  to  conihine 
the  best  features  of  the  popular  history,  for  continuous  reading,  with 
the  cyclopedic  style  for  ready  ivference. 

It  has  been  said  that,  "If  history  can  be  made  immediately  accessible, 
without  in  any  way  impairing  its  accuracy  and  readableness,  a  forward 
movement  has  been  made  in  popularizing  its  study."  It  is  hoped  and 
believed  that  the  methods  herein  employed  will  accomplish  this  end, 
and  that  the  work  will  receive  alike  the  endorsement  of  the  serious 
student  of  history  and  the  busy  man  of  affairs. 

In  the  selection  of  titles  or  captions  for  the  vai-ious  topics  inchuled 
in  the  work,  the  compilers  have  endeavored  to  select  such  as  a  majority 
of  readers  would  be  likely  to  look  for,  but  in  order  to  facilitate  the 
work  of  those  who  may  seek  information  under  some  other  heading,  or 
in  cases  where  a  subject  is  but  a  subdivision  of  a  larger  theme,  cross 
references  have  been  freely  used. 

Considerable  biographical  matter  has  been  included  in  the  form  of 
brief  sketches  of  those  who  have  left  the  impress  of  their  lives  upon  the 
state's  history.  In  the  first  two  volumes  the  aim  has  been  to  include  in 
the  biographical  mention  of  men  now  living  only  such  as  have  held 
official  position,  or  who  in  some  other  way  have  been  unusually  promi- 
nent in  promoting  the  progress  and  development  of  the  state  or  some 
of  its  institutions.  In  this  connection  it  is  well  to  state  that  the  editor 
is  responsible  only  for  those  biographies  that  are  intimately  interwoven 
with  the  history  of  the  state  along  the  lines  above  suggested. 

The  editor  and  his  assistants  desire  to  express  here  their  apprecia- 
tion of  the  courtesies  shown  them  in  the  preparation  of  the  work  by 
the  officers  of  various  societies,  such  as  the  Bankers',  Bar,  Medical, 
Press  and  Teachers'  associations,  the  fraternal  orders,  and  the  libra- 
rians and  attaches  of  the  Louisiana  State,  the  New  Orleans  Public  and 
the  Howard  Mimiorial  libraries.  They  also  desire  to  acknowledge  their 
indebtedness  to  the  following  works: 


Offirlal  l'iil)lir(ilioiis.—lA"/\>i\nU\-i-  Journal.s,  Reports  of  tlu'  Slate 
Departments,  Govenioi-s"  Messages.  Proeeediiigs  of  the  State  ami  Con- 
stitutional Conventions,  Session  Laws  of  Louisiana.  Reports  of  the 
State  Supreme  Court.  American  State  Papei-s.  Reports  of  llie  U.  S. 
Census  IJurean  and  tlie  lUireau  of  Ethnology.  Congressional  Record, 
Congressional  Direefory.  and  the  Records  of  the  V.  S.  War  l)i'|iarl- 
ment. 

IJislaiir.s  of  Laiiisiann. —  Franc.-ois  X.  JIartiii.  Charles  Gayarre. 
Alcee  Fortiei-.  John  IS.  S.  Dimiti'y.  ]\Iaurice  Thonipsou,  Goodspeed's 
Memoirs  of  Louisiana.  W.  IL  Perrin's  History  of  Sontliwestern  Louisi- 
ana. ljonner"s  History  of  Louisiana,  etc. 

MiscellaneoHS. — Shea's  Translation  of  Hennepin's  Description  of 
Louisiana.  Latour's  Historical  Jlemoir  of  the  War  in  Louisiana  and 
Wi'st  Florida.  Pierre  ]\Iargry's  Works,  pul)lished  hy  act  of  the  l'.  S. 
Congress, Darby 's  Louisiana. Hrackeuridge's  Views  of  Louisiana  with 
a  Journal  of  a  \'oyage  up  the  jMissouri  rive)-  in  1811.  Stoddard's 
Sketches  of  Louisiana.  French's  Collections.  Publications  of  the 
Louisiana  Historical  Society,  Grace  King's  New  Orleans,  the  Place 
and  the  People.  Norman's  New  Orleans  and  Environs,  iiarnwell's  New 
Orleans  Hook.  Fortier's  Louisiana  Studies,  Monette's  Valley  of  the 
^Mississippi.  Hamilton's  Colonial  Mobile,  Marcy's  Exploration  of  the 
Red  River.  Alexander  II.  Sti'phens"  History  of  the  War  Between 
the  States.  Confederate  Military  History,  National  Cyclopedia  of 
American  Biography,  Appleton's  Annual  Cyclopedia.  Newspaper 
I-'''iles,  Pamphlets,  Manuscripts,  etc.  In  the  archives  of  the  Louisiana 
Historical  Society  are  to  he  fouml  important  manuscript  documents 
relating  to  the  histoi'y  of  Louisiana  during  the  French  and  Spanish 
dominations. 

ALCKE   FORTIER,   l-JdUor. 


LOUISIANA 

A 

Abbeville,  the  capital  of  Vermiliou  parish,  is  located  in  the  north- 
eastern part  of  the  parish  on  the  Southern  Pacific  K.  K.,  near  the 
point  where  that  line  crosses  Bayou  Vermilion,  which  bayou  is 
navigable  for  steamers  of  moderate  capacity,  thus  adding  to  Abbe- 
ville's transportation  facilities.  The  site  of  the  city  was  originally 
the  plantation  of  Joseph  Le  Blanc,  which  was  purchased  by  Father 
Megret,  who  remodeled  the  Le  Blanc  residence  and  converted  it 
into  a  Roman  Catholic  chapel.  Abbeville  was  incorporated  by  act 
of  the  legislature  in  1850  and  two  years  later  was  made  the  parish 
seat  by  the  same  authority.  The  Abbeville  of  today  is  one  of  the 
thriving  cities  of  southwestern  Louisiana.  The  population  accord- 
ing to  the  United  States  census  of  1910  was  2,907.  It  has  important 
manufactures  of  cotton  seed  oil,  brick,  etc.,  two  banks,  several  large 
mercantile  establishments,  good  waterworks,  well-kept  streets  and 
sidewalks,  both  public  and  private  schools,  and  is  the  trading  center 
for  a  large  and  prosperous  agricultural  district.  The  Catholic 
church  is  the  prevailing^  religion,  the  large  convent  there  having 
been  erected  in  1885,  though  there  are  also  churches  of  other  de- 
nominations. 

Abeille. — ^L'Abeille  de  la  Nouvelle-Orleans  (The  New  Orleans 
Bee)  is  the  oldest  newspaper  in  that  city,  having  been  founded  in 
1827.    (See  Newspapers.) 

Abell,  Edmund,  a  New  Orleans  lawyer,  was  a  ineral)er  of  tlie 
constitutional  convention  of  1864,  and  under  the  provisions  of  the 
constitution  at  that  time  adopted  was  made  judge  of  the  First 
district  court  of  New  Orleans.  In  ,the  summer  of  1866,  when  an 
attempt  was  made  to  reassemble  the  convention  for  the  purpose  of 
revising  the  constitution,  his  court  was  the  only  court  of  record 
sitting  in  New  Orleans  that  had  jurisdiction  of  offenses  against  the 
laws  of  the  state.  On  July  2.3  he  charged  the  grand  jury  that  the 
convention  would  be  an  unlawful  assemblage  in  case  it  was  called 
together.  Acting  upon  his  instructions,  the  grand  jury  took  steps 
to  find  indictments  against  any  and  all  members  of  the  convention 
that  might  assemble.  (See  Riot  of  1866.)  On  March  19,  1867, 
Gen.  P.  H.  Shei'idan  assumed  command  of  the  5tli  military  district, 
with  headquarters  in  New  Orleans,  and  on  the  27th  he  removed 
Judge  Abell  as  an  "obnoxious  official  who  was  in  his  opinion  dan- 
gerous to  the  peace  of  tlie  community."  Judge  Abell  protested 
against  Sheridan's  action,  and  in  defense  of  his  course  the  preced- 
ing July,  called  attention  to  a  letter  written  by  him  to  Gen.  Sher- 
idan. He  claimed  that  he  had  always  performed  his  official  duties 
in  harmony  with  the  laws,  and  declared  his  intention  to  carry  the 
1—2 


18  LOUISIANA 

matter  before  tiie  general  government.  At  tlie  time  the  removal 
was  made,  Sheriilau  assigned  no  specific  reason  for  his  action. 
When  Judge  Al)ell  called  the  attention  of  President  Grant  to  the 
ease,  the  latter  demanded  of  Slieridan  an  explanation.  This  brought 
forth  a  reply  in  wliieh  Slieridan  said :  "The  court  over  which  Judge 
Abell  presided  is  the  only  criminal  court  in  the  city  of  New  Orleans, 
and  for  a  period  of  at  least  five  mouths  previous  to  July  30t'h  he  had 
been  educating  a  large  jjortion  of  tlie  community  to  the  pei'petra- 
tion  of  tliis  outrage,  by  almost  ]>romising  no  prosecution  in  his  court 
against  the  offenders,  in  case  such  an  event  occurred.  The  records 
of  this  court  will  sliow  that  he  fulfilled  his  promise,  as  not  one  of 
the  guilty  ones  has  been  prosecuted." 

Judge  Abell  wrote  to  President  Grant,  denying  the  charges  made 
by  Sheridan,  and  asking  that  he  and  the  other  officers  removed 
might  be  permitted  to  serve  until  their  successors  should  be  chosen 
under  a  new  constitution  as  provided  for  by  law,  b\it  his  request 
passed  uniieeded.  It  appears  tliat  liis  greatest  offeuse  was  in  up- 
holding tile  state  government  created  liy  the  constitution  of  1864, 
when  tli(>  men  who  established  tliat  government  would  have  over- 
tlirown  the  constitution  because  some  of  its  provisions  stood  in  the 
way  of  their  selfish  schemes. 

Abita  Springs,  a  village  in  the  central  part  of  St.  Tammany  parish, 
on  the  Eastern  Louisiana  R.  R.,  4  miles  east  of  Covington,  the 
parish  seat.  It  has  a  money  order  postoffice :  as  it  lies  in  the  famous 
"Ozone  Belt"  has  become  a  well  known  summer  aud  wiuter  resort. 
Many  people  from  the  northern  states,  who  are  affected  with  pul- 
nioiiai-y  tliseases.  winter  hei-e. 

Academy  of  the  Sacred  Heart. — 'i'he  following  sketch  of  this 
institution,  situated  in  St.  James  parish,  La.,  is  taken  from  Fay's 
History  of  Education  in  Louisiana  as  furnished  him  by  the  mother 
superior.  The  educational  institution  known  under  the  title,  "Or- 
der of  the  Sacred  Heart,"  wliich  sprang  up  in  France  at  the  close 
of  the  Revolution,  was  introduced  into  this  country  in  tlu>  early 
years  of  the  nineteenth  century  by  a  truly  apostolic  woman.  Phil- 
ippine Duchesne,  a  woman  endowed  wit'li  the  resistless  energy  of 
cliaracter  traditional  in  lier  family,  and  wliieli  rendered  the  name 
one  of  historic  note  during  the  Reign  of  Terror.  ^ladaine  Duchesne 
sailed  from  Bordeaux  on  ^larch  19,  1818,  accompanied  by  four  com- 
panions, one  of  wliom,  Eugenie  Ande,  had  been  a  brilliant  and  flat- 
tered member  of  the  imperial  court,  which  she  deserted  in.  the  bloom 
of  youth  to  devote  herself  to  the  service  of  God  in  the  shadow  of 
the  sanctuary.  It  was  only  after  a  voyage  of  two  months  and  a  half 
that,  on  tlie  2!1tli  of  :May,  tlie  heroic  band  readied  New  Orleans, 
where  the  first  act  of  the  enthusiastic  foundress  was  to  kneel  and 
kiss  the  land  she  had  come  to  evangelize.  Going  northward  to 
.Mi.ssouri,  then  known  as  Upper  Louisiana,  she  opened  her  first 
school  in  the  city  of  St.  Louis,  and  it  was  not  until  1821,  on  receiv- 
ing reinforcements  from  PVanee,  that  she  returned  to  Louisiana 
proper  and  established  at  Grand  Coteau  an  educational  institution 
on  property  presented  by  a  rich  and  pious  lady,  the  widow  of  Mr. 


LOUISIANA  19 

Charles  Smith.  Foiir  years  later,  iu  1825,  she  laid  the  foundatiou 
of  the  present  flourishing  and  widely  known  institution  in  the  par- 
ish of  St.  James  known  as  the  Convent  of  St.  Michaels.  Establish- 
ments in  Natchitoches  and  Baton  Rouge  were  founded  respectively 
in  1847  and  1851,  while  the  schools  of  the  order  were  spreading 
rapidly  in  the  northern  and  eastern  states.  These  women  of  rare 
refinement  and  high  intellectual  culture  did  not  confine  their  care 
to  the  privileged  classes  who  thronged  to  tlieir  schools  eager  to 
profit  by  the  advantages  presented ;  they  had  crossed  t'he  ocean 
to  seek  and  save  the  children  of  the  wilderness,  and  they  lavished 
their  apostolic  labors  equally  on  the  negroes  and  the  Indians,  with 
whom  they  disdained  not  to  dwell  among  the  wilds  of  the  forest 
and  prairies.  Recently  a  second  school  has  been  established  in  the 
city  of  New  Orleans,  and  the  success  attained  in  all  these  academies 
proves  them  worthy  of  the  renown  which  attends  the  order  through- 
out Europe,  where  it  holds  the  first  rank  as  an  educational  insti- 
tution. 

Acadia  Parish,  one  of  the  new  parishes,  was  created  in  1886,  dvii'- 
ing  the  administration  of  Gov.  Samuel  D.  JIcEnery,  out  of  the 
southwestern  part  of  St.  Landry  parish,  and  named  in  memory  of 
the  old  county  of  Acadia,  settled  by  the  exiled  Acadians  (q.  v.) 
early  in  the  18th  century.  It  is  situated  in  the  southwestern  i)art 
of  the  state  and  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  St.  Landry  parish;  on 
the  east  by  St,  Landry  and  Lafayette  parishes;  on  the  south  l)y 
Vermilion  parish;  and  on  the  west  by  Calcasieu  parish,  from  which 
it  is  separated  by  the  Mermentau  river  and  Bayou  Nezpique. 
Acadia  lies  in  the  very  heart  of  the  old  "Attakapas  District,"  as  all 
that  vast  stretch  of  country  from  the  Atchafalaya  river  to  the 
Sabine,  was  known  during  the  French  and  Spanish  occiipancy  of 
Louisiana.  The  early  settlement  of  and  history  of  St.  Landry, 
Lafayette  and  Calcasieu  parishes  includes  that  of  Acadia,  as  it  was 
not  erected  as  a  parish  until  comparatively  a  recent  date.  One  of 
the  most  interesting  historical  facts  iu  regard  to  the  settlement  of 
the  parish  was  the  colonization  of  this  portion  of  the  country  in 
1870-71,  by  German  immigrants.  Joseph  Fabacher  of  New  Or- 
leans, had  amassed  a  fortune  before  the  war,  and  when  it  was  de- 
cided to  build  a  railroad  (Southern  Pacific)  through  this  section, 
Fabacher,  with  keen  insight  saw  in  the  undeveloped  resources  of 
tlie  rich  country  the  immense  opportunities  presented  to  energetic 
farmers.  He  took  up  great  tracts  of  land,  upon  which  he  intended 
to  put  a  colony  of  German  farmers,  l)uilt  a  large  saw-mill,  and  suc- 
ceeded in  everything  but  getting  the  railroad,  which  missed  his 
land  by  some  distance.  He  noticed,  however,  that  the  Acadian 
farmers  were  planting  rice  in  t'he  mud,  and  after  making  inquiries 
as  to  its  success,  determined  to  carry  out  his  original  idea  and  plant 
a  German  colony  to  carry  on  rice  culture.  In  a  short  time  he  had 
some  families  direct  from  the  "Fatherland"  located  upon  his  lands. 
Their  descendants  are  among  the  most  prosperous  farmers  of  Aca- 
dia, and  rank  among  the  great  rice  growers  of  Louisiana.  Mr. 
Fal)acher  introduced  into  the  district,  the  first  machine  for  thresh- 


20  LOUISIANA 

iug  rice,  of  wliieh  several  thousand  ear-loads  are  shipped  annually 
from  tlie  parish.  Aeadia  has  an  undulating  surface  of  633  square 
miles,  comprising  woodland  and  i)rairie.  The  soil  is  fertile  and 
productive,  well  drained  by  Bayou  Xezpicjue  and  Queue  de  Tortue 
on  the  south,  and  tlirough  its  central  portions,  l)y  Bayous  Cannes 
and  Plaquemines  Brulee.  The  general  direction  of  the  streams  is 
southwest :  they  are  all  quite  deep,  with  high  banks,  which  were 
originally  covered  with  fine  timber.  The  water  supply  is  ample  for 
all  purposes.  Tlie  prairies  are  monotonously  level,  and  in  summer 
are  eoA-ered  with  luxuriant  grass  several  feet  high.  Twenty-five 
years  ago  the  site  of  Crowley  was  a  pasture,  but  when  the  new 
parish  Mas  organized  the  town  was  laid  out  and  became  the  parish 
seat.  It  has  an  ideal  location,  being  half  way  between  New  Orleans 
and  Houston.  Tex.  ^lany  Northern  people  have  settled  in  and 
around  Crowley  since  the  creation  of  the  parish.  Some  of  the  other 
towns  in  the  parish  are  Rayne.  Estherwood,  ]Morse,  Church  Point, 
Mermenton,  Egan  and  Evangeline.  Rice  and  sugar  are  the  big 
export  crops,  as  Acadia  produces  more  rice  than  any  other  parish 
in  the  state,  but  corn.  hay.  cotton,  oats,  tobacco,  and  all  kinds  of 
garden  vegetables  are  grown.  Soil  and  climate  combine  to  make 
horticulture  a  profitable  industry.  Stock-raising  is  a  leading  in- 
dustry, tliousands  of  slieep  and  cattle  being  raised  on  the  prairies, 
where  fine  pasture  can  lie  obtained  the  entire  year.  ^lany  farmers 
are  interested  in  wool,  as  sheep  thrive  and  increase  remarkably 
well  here.  Timber  sufficient  for  all  domestic  purposes  is  found 
along  the  bayous  and  coulees.  It  consists  of  dift'erent  varieties  of 
oak.  cypress,  cottonwood,  elm.  gum,  ash,  siigarwood,  sycamore,  per- 
simmon and  willow.  Oil  and  gas  have  been  struck  in  the  parish. 
Tlu're  are  a  number  of  pajnng  wells,  and  several  gushers  of  con- 
.sidorable  magnitude  have  been  struck.  Ample  transportation  facil- 
ities are  furnished  by  the  Southern  Pacific  R.  R.  and  the  Opelousas, 
Gidf  &  Northeastern  R.  Rs.,  affording  an  outlet  in  every  direction 
for  the  products  of  the  parish.  The  United  States  eensiis  for  1910 
gives  the  following  statistics  regarding  the  parish :  Number  of 
farms.  3.222:  acreage.  273.932:  acres  improved.  240.593:  value  of 
land  exclusive  of  biiildings,  $8,009,986:  value  of  buildings.  !^1.060.- 
577:  value  of  live  stock,  $1,488,040:  total  value  of  all  crops,  $2,- 
547.419.     The  population  in  1910  was  31.847. 

Acadians. — In  1605  Port  Royal  was  founded  by  De  Monts.  and 
this  was  the  beginning  of  the  province  of  Acadia,  now  known  as 
Nova  Scotia.  By  the  treaty  of  Utrecht  in  1713,  Acadia  was  ceded 
to  Great  Britain,  but  the  Acadians  still  maintained  their  allegiance 
to  France.  In  1749  some  2.500  English  immigrants  landed  on  the 
Acadian  peninsida  and  founded  the  city  of  Halifax.  The  stubborn 
loyalty  of  the  Acadians  to  their  mother  country  led  to  frequent 
ruptures  between  them  and  their  English  neighbors,  and  in  the  fall 
of  1755  about  4.000  of  them  were  torn  from  their  homes,  crowded 
like  cattle  on  Britisli  sliips  and  transported  to  the  coasts  of  New 
Jersey,  Delaware.  ^Maryland  and  Virginia,  where  they  were  left  to 
shift  for  themselves  as  best  they  could.     Manj-  of  the  poor,  unfor- 


LOUISIANA  21 

timate  exiles  made  their  way  during  the  next  few  years  to  the 
French  settlements  on  the  lower  Mississippi.  There  seems  to  be 
some  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  date  when  the  first  Acadians 
arrived  in  Louisiana.  Martin  says  it  was  in  1755,  and  that  they 
received  lands  along  the  Alississippi,  the  place  where  they  settled 
afterward  becoming  known  as  the  "Acadian  Coast."  Thompson, 
in  his  Story  of  Louisiana,  says  "Six  hundred  and  fifty  of  them 
arrived  early  in  1756  and  were  sent  to  Attakapas  and  Opeloiisas," 
but  neither  of  these  statements  are  fully  corroborated.  Gayarre 
mentions  650,  under  the  command  of  Andry,  who  were  sent  to 
Attakapas  and  Opelousas,  but  gives  the  date  of  their  arrival  as 
"between  Jan.  1  and  May  13,  1765."  In  a  letter  written  April  6, 
1764,  d'Abbadie  speaks  of  the  arrival  of  four  families — 20  persons 
— from  New  York,  and  during  the  year  1765  Foucault,  commissaire 
ordonnateur,  frequently  refers  to  the  Acadians  in  his  correspond- 
ence. On  Feb.  28  he  wrote  that  193  had  arrived  a  few  days  before; 
on  May  4  he  speaks  of  80  who  had  .just  arrived  and  had  been  sent 
to  the  Attakapas,  and  on  the  13th  of  the  same  month  he  mentions 
48  families,  who  had  been  sent  to  the  Opelousas.  On  Nov.  16,  1766, 
he  notes  in  a  letter  the  arrival  of  216  Acadians,  and  it  was  about 
this  time  that  lands  were  granted  them  on  both  sides  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi above  the  German  coast,  whence  they  extended  their  settle- 
ments to  Baton  Rouge  and  Pointe  Coupee.  In  the  Revolution  of 
1768  the  Acadians  were  unanimous  in  their  opposition  to  Spanish 
i:'ule,  many  of  them  taking  up  arms  to  aid  in  the  expulsion  of  Gov. 
Ulloa.  (See  Revolution  of  1768.)  In  1787,  after  the  people  had 
become  reconciled  to  Spanish  rule.  Gov.  Miro  ordered  a  census  of 
the  Acadians,  which  showed  at  that  time  1,587  in  the  Province  of 
Louisiana.  Wbat  was  known  as  the  Acadian  coast  is  now  in  St. 
James  parish,  though  descendants  of  the  early  Acadians  are  to  be 
found  in  every  parish  in  lower  Louisiana.  They  are  described  as 
"generally  honest,  industrious  and  deeply  religious,  and  cling 
tenaciously  to  the  traditions  of  their  ancestors."  Among  the  emi- 
nent men  of  Acadian  origin,  who  have  achieved  prominence  in 
Louisiana,  may  be  mentioned  Alexander  Mouton,  at  one  time  gov- 
ernor of  the  state,  Joseph  A.  Breaux,  at  present  chief  justice  of  the 
supreme  court,  and  Robert  Broussard,  a  member  of  the  house  of 
representatives  of  the  United  States. 

Acklen,  Joseph  Hayes,  planter,  lawyer  and  politician,  was  born 
at  Nashville,  Tenn.,  May  20,  1850.  His  father  was  a  large  sugar 
planter  in  Louisiana,  and  his  liirtli  occurred  during  a  visit  of  his 
parents  at  Nashville.  He  was  educated  by  private  tutors  at  "Bel- 
mont," the  summer  home  of  his  parents  at  Nashville;  at  Burling- 
ton college,  and  finally  graduated  successfully  from  two  foreign 
universities.  Returning  to  America  he  graduated  from  the  law 
department  of  the  Columbian  university  at  Lebanon,  Tenn.,  and 
commenced  the  practice  of  law  at  Nashville,  where  he  continued 
for  several  years.  Later  he  removed  to  Memphis,  Tenn.,  and  aban- 
doned the  practice  of  law  to  personally  superintend  his  sugar  plan- 
tations in  Louisiana.     He  was  elected  to  the  45th  Congress  and  re- 


22  LOUISIANA 

ek'oti'd  to  tlif  46tli  as  a  Democrat,  and  at  the  close  of  his  second 
term  resumed  his  law  practice  at  Memphis,  Tenn. 

Acknowledgments. — (See  Deeds.) 

Actions. — All  actions  are  commenced  by  petition,  which  must  be 
addressed  to  the  proper  judge.  The  petition  mu.st  contain  the  name, 
surname  and  place  of  residence  of  plaiutitt"  and  defendant :  a  clear 
statement  of  the  cause  of  action :  a  prayer  for  citation  to  issue  to 
the  defendant,  and  for  judgment  in  conformity  with  the  allega- 
tions of  the  petition,  and  must  he  signed  either  by  the  plaintiff  or 
his  attorney.  Citation  is  then  issued  by  the  clerk,  addressed  to 
the  defendant,  requiring  him  to  comply  with  the  demand  of  the 
plaintiff,  or  tile  his  answer  in  writing  within  10  days  from  the  date 
of  service,  if  his  residence  be  within  10  miles  of  the  court-house, 
with  an  additional  delay  of  one  day  for  every  additional  10  miles. 
A  certified  copy  of  the  petition  must  accompany  tliis  citation.  This, 
together  with  the  citation,  must  be  served  by  the  sheriff  or  his 
deputy.  Service  can  never  be  made  by  publication,  except  in  the 
case  of  proceedings  in  rem.  At  the  expiration  of  the  above  men- 
tioned period,  if  the  defendant  does  not  appear  or  answer,  plaintiflF 
may  cause  a  judgment  to  be  entered  against  him  by  default,  and 
after  tlie  lapse  of  two  judicial  days,  prove  up  his  claim  and  obtain 
final  judgment.  Judgments  by  default  can  be  confirmed  on  ex  part;' 
aflfidavits  when  founded  on  aceoimts.  In  other  cases  proof  must  be 
taken  contradictorily  with  the  defendant.  In  city  courts  in  Nev,- 
Orleans  a  default  may  be  taken  in  four  days  after  citation,  and  the 
judgment  proved  up  and  made  final  after  two  judicial  days  from 
the  day  of  default.  In  justices"  courts  in  the  country  parishes,  a 
delay  of  10  days  from  the  day  of  service  is  given  the  defendant  to 
file  his  answer,  after  which  judgment  by  default  can  be  entered 
and  confirmed  on  proof  of  claim  being  made. 

Acme,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  southwestern  part  of  Concordia  par- 
ish, is  located  on  the  Black  river,  about  14  miles  west  of  Bougere, 
which  is  the  most  convenient  railroad  station. 

Acy,  a  money  order  post-hamlet  in  the  central  part  of  Ascension 
jiarish,  is  about  4V4  miles  northeast  of  Brittany,  the  nearest  rail- 
road town. 

Ada  is  a  post-hamlet  of  Grant  pari.sh,  about  ;{  miles  west  of 
Hcntley.  wliich  is  tlie  nearest  railroad  station. 

Adair,  Gen.  John,  was  born  in  Chester  county,  S.  C,  in  1758. 
Wlirii  he  was  about  twenty  years  he  went  to  Kentucky,  where  he 
served  in  the  legislature  and  held  a  commission  in  the  militia.  In 
180.J  he  was  elected  to  the  U.  S.  senate  from  Kentucky  and  served 
in  that  body  iintil  the  following  year,  when  he  came  to  Louisiana. 
Late  in  the  year  1806  he  was  arrested  by  Gen.  Wilkinson's  order  and 
sent  north  for  complicity  in  the  Burr  conspiracy,  but  subsequently 
returned  to  Louisiana.  He  conuiianded  the  Kentucky  riflemen  in 
the  battle  of  New  Orleans  and  won  a  flattering  encomium  from 
Gen.  Jackson  for  liis  skill  and  bravery.  The  Louisiana  legislature 
gave  him  a  vote  of  thanks  on  Feb.  2,  1815,  for  the  gallant  part  he 
played  in  that  engagement.     From  1831  to  1833  he  was  a  repre- 


LOUISIANA  23 

sentative  iu  Congress  from  Kentucky  and  served  on  the  committee 
on  military  affairs.     His  death  occurred  May  19,  1850. 

Adams,  Daniel  W.,  soldier,  was  one  of  the  gallant  leaders  in  the 
military  operations  of  Tennessee,  Kentucky,  Alabama  and  Missis- 
sippi. When  the  war  broke  out  he  entered  the  service  of  the  Con- 
federate States  as  second  lieutenant  of  Mississippi  state  troops, 
and  on  Oct.  30,  1861,  was  commissioned  colonel  of  the  1st  regiment, 
Louisiana  infantry,  at  Pensacola,  in  the  brigade  of  Gen.  Gladden. 
Later  'lie  served  at  Molnle,  and  in  the  spring  of  1862,  served  under 
Bragg  around  Corinth.  He  was  wounded  on  the  first  day's  battle 
at  Shiloh ;  on  May  23,  1862,  was  commissioned  brigadier-general, 
and  recovered  in  time  to  lead  his  command  in  tlie  Kentucky  cam- 
paign. On  Dec.  31  he  was  again  wounded,  at  the  battle  of  Mur- 
freesboro,  but  recovered  and  led  the  brigade  in  the  second  day's 
battle  at  Cliickamauga,  where  he  was  again  wounded.  Gen.  D.  II. 
Hill  coiinnented  upon  his  gallantry  as  follows:  "Brigadier-General 
Adams  was  for  the  third  time  severely  wounded.  It  was  difficult 
for  me  to  decide  which  the  most  to  admire,  his  courage  in  the  field, 
or  his  unparalleled  cheerfulness  under  sufl:'ering. "  Soon  after  re- 
covering from  his  wounds  he  was  exchanged  and  commanded  a  cav- 
alry brigade  operating  in  northern  Alabama  and  ]\Iississippi.  In 
Sept.,  1864,  he  was  given  command  of  the  district  of  central  Ala- 
bama, and  on  j\rarch  11,  1865,  of  the  entire  state  north  of  the  Gulf 
department.  He  evacuated  IMontgomery  and  fought  a  battle  at 
Columbus  on  April  16.  After  peace  was  restored  he  settled  in  New 
Orleans  and  engaged  in  business.  His  death  occurred  in  New  Or- 
leans, La.,  June  14,  1872. 

Address  to  Laussat. — (See  Laussat.) 

Adeline,  a  post-village  of  St.  Mary  parish,  is  a  station  on  the 
Southern  Pacific  R.  R.,  about  10  miles  northwest  of  Franklin,  the 
nearest  banking  town.  It  is  in  the  great  sugar  district  and  has  con- 
siderable sugar  manufactories.     The  population  is  750. 

Afton,  a  post-village  of  Tensas  parish,  is  located  in  the  extreme 
nortlii-astern  part  of  Bayou  Vidal,  which  forms  the  boundary  l)e- 
tween  Tensas  and  ^Madison  parishes. 

Agricultural  College. —  (See  State  University.) 

Agricultural  Experiment  Stations. —  (See  State  University.) 

Agricultural  Society. — The  first  state  agricultural  society  of  Lou- 
isiana was  called  into  existence  officially  on  March  29,  1833,  when 
the  general  assembly  passed  an  act  incorporating  such  an  institu- 
tion, and  naming  as  incorporators  the  following  well  known  gentle- 
men :  Lucien  La  Branche,  Robert  C.  Nicholas,  Thomas  Butler, 
John  S.  David,  Henry  Johnson,  Jaques  Dupre,  William  B.  Wilkin- 
son, Henry  Bry,  George  Eustis,  A.  Porter,  Jr.,  V.  Allain,  Sr.,  J.  B. 
Milligan,  A.  Fuselier,  Sr.,  J.  H.  Shepherd,  V.  Patin,  Phanor  Prud- 
homme  and  John  Compton.  The  management  of  affairs  was  vested 
in  a  board  of  13  directors,  and  the  act  named  A.  B.  Roman,  Joseph 
Nicholas,  Edmond  J.  Forstall  and  Charles  Derbigny  as  members 
of  the  first  board.  Any  one  might  become  a  member  of  the  society 
upon  the  payment  of  an  annual  membersliip  fee  of  $10.     The  right 


24  LOUISIANA 

of  the  state  to  subscribe  for  stock  of  the  Loiiisiaua  state  bank  to 
the  amount  of  $400,000  was  ceded  to  the  bank  for  an  equivalent, 
■wliich  was  transferred  to  the  society,  and  further  encouragement 
was  given  the  enterprise  on  Jan.  25,  1834,  when  the  legislature,  by 
the  adoption  of  a  resolution  to  that  etfect,  tendered  the  society  the 
free  use  of  a  room  in  the  state  house  "until  required  for  piiblic  iise." 
For  some  reason  the  society  did  not  prosper,  and  on  ]\Iarcli  S.  1841, 
the  act  of  incorporation  was  repealed,  all  subscriptions  to  be  re- 
fimded  to  the  stockholders,  the  property  of  the  society  to  be  sold 
by  tlie  treasurer  of  state,  and  the  books  and  records  to  be  turned 
over  to  the  state  library. 

Shortly  after  tliis  society  went  out  of  existence  the  Agricultural 
and  ^Mechanical  society  was  organized.  It  erected  the  l)uildiug  in 
New  Orleans  now  occupied  by  the  Washingtou  Artillery  as  an 
armory  and  gave  a  great  impetus  to  tlie  agricultural  interests  of  the 
state  by  holding  annual  fairs  and  offering  prizes  for  the  best  agri- 
cultural displays,  etc.  Judge  P.  A.  Rost  was  for  many  years  presi- 
dent of  tliis  society,  which  continued  its  operations  until  the  break- 
ing out  of  tlie  Civil  war.     (See  Fairs.) 

The  present  State  Agricultural  society  was  orgauized  in  1888, 
largely  througli  the  efforts  and  influence  of  Prof.  W.  C.  Stiibbs.  who 
for  many  years  was  the  director  of  tlie  agricultural  experiment  sta- 
tion. The  first  president  of  the  society  was  Gen.  J.  L.  Brent ;  the 
second  was  Dr.  Frierson;  the  third  was  John  Dymond,  editor  of 
the  Louisiana  Sugar  Planter;  the  fourth  was  Col.  Cliarles  Shuler, 
now  commissioner  of  agriculture  and  immigration,  and  the  fifth  and 
present  president  is  Charles  Moore.  By  article  306  of  the  t-onstitu- 
tion  of  1898  the  state  board  of  agriculture  and  immigration  was 
given  control  and  direction  of  all  state  organizations  for  the  im- 
provement of  agriculture,  farmers'  institutes,  fairs,  etc.,  and  since 
the  adoption  of  that  constitution  the  argricultural  society  has 
worked  in  harmony  with  the  state  board  in  the  study  of  condi- 
tions pertaining  to  agricultural  subjects,  such  as  insect  pests,  fer- 
tilizers, drainage,  etc. 

Agriculture. — Exclusive  of  water,  the  area  of  Louisiana  is  45.440 
square  miles  or  29,081,600  acres.  For  agricultural  purposes  the  land 
may  be  divided  into  seven  classes,  the  acreage  of  each  being  as  fol- 
lows:  Alluvial  lands,  8,483,200;  oak  and  hickorv  uplands,  5,185,- 
920;  long  leaf  pine  hills,  4,852,480;  long  leaf  pine  flats,  1,635,840; 
bluffs  and  bluft"  prairies,  3,672,960;  central  prairie  region,  502,400; 
coast  marslies,  4,748,800.  The  alluvial  region  proper  includes  the 
valleys  of  tlie  ilississippi  and  Red  rivers,  with  their  outlying  bayous, 
though  the  lands  classed  as  coast  marshes  are  also  of  alluvial  for- 
mation. 

Beginning  at  tlie  northern  boundary  of  the  state,  the  alluvial 
lands  of  the  Mi.ssissippi  include  the  parishes  of  East  Carroll.  Madi- 
son, Tensas,  Concordia,  the  greater  part  of  Avoyelles,  Pointe  Coupee, 
West  Baton  Rouge.  Iberville,  Ascension,  Assumption,  St.  James,  St. 
John,  St.  Charles.  Jefferson,  Orleans,  St.  Bernard.  Plaquemines,  La- 
fourche, Terrebonne,  and  parts  of  Morehoiise,  Ouachita,  Union,  West 


LOUISIANA  25 

Carroll,  Richland,  Franklin,  Caldwell,  Catahoula,  St.  Laudry,  St. 
Martin,  West  Feliciana  and  East  Baton  Rouge.  The  alluvial  lands  of 
the  Red  river  form  a  narrow  border  on  each  side  of  the  sti-eam,  extend- 
ing to  parts  of  the  parishes  of  Caddo,  Bossier,  Red  River,  De  Soto,. 
Natchitoches,  Grant  and  Rapides.  Another  narrow  strip  of  alluvial 
land  is  found  along  the  Sabine  river  in  the  extreme  western  part  of 
the  state. 

The  oak  and  hickory  uplands  (sometimes  called  the  good  uplands) 
lie  chiefly  in  the  northwestern  part  of  the  state.  The  parishes  of 
Sabine,  De  Soto,  Red  River,  Caddo,  Bossier,  Webster,  Claiborne,  Bien- 
ville, Lincoln,  Jackson  and  Union  consist  largely  of  oak  and  hickory 
iiplands,  while  lai'ge  tracts  are  to  be  found  in  the  parishes  of  Ouachita 
and  Caldwell,  and  smaller  ones  in  Winn,  Morehouse  and  Natchitoches. 
East  of  the  Mississippi,  the  parish  of  East  Feliciana  is  composed  al- 
most wholly  of  this  class  of  land,  the  tract  extending  into  the  parishes 
of  West  Feliciana  and  East  Baton  Rouge.  In  all  the  upland  parishes 
some  alluvial  land  is  found  along  the  streams. 

West  of  the  Mississippi  and  north  of  the  Red  river  is  a  large  area 
of  long  leaf  pine  hills,  including  practically  all  of  Grant  and  Winn 
parishes,  the  western  parts  of  Caldwell  and  Catahoula,  the  southeast- 
ern part  of  Jack.son,  the  northern  part  of  Natchitoches,  a  triangular 
shaped  tract  in  the  southern  part  of  Bienville,  and  the  northeastern 
part  of  Rapides.  South  of  the  Red  river  the  hills  embrace  the  parish 
of  Vernon,  the  northern  part  of  Calcasieu  and  St.  Landry,  the  western 
part  of  Rapides,  the  southern  part  of  Natchitoches,  and  the  south- 
eastern part  of  Sabine.  East  of  the  Mississippi  the  parish  of  Wash- 
ington, the  greater  portions  of  St.  Helena  and  Tangipahoa,  and  the 
northern  part  of  St.  Tammany  lie  in  the  long  leaf  pine  hills. 

South  of  this  formation  on  both  sides  of  the  Mississippi  lie  the  long 
leaf  pine  flats,  including  on  the  west  the  central  portion  of  Calcasieu 
parish,  and  on  the  east  the  eastern  half  of  Livingston  and  the  southern 
parts  of  St.  Helena,  Tangipahoa  and  St.  Tammany. 

In  the  state  are  three  well  defined  areas  of  bluff  lands.  The  first, 
which  lies  east  of  the  Mississippi,  embraces  the  western  half  of  Living- 
ston parish,  nearly  all  the  parishes  of  West  Feliciana  and  East  Baton 
Rouge,  and  a  small  tract  in  the  southwestern  part  of  East  Feliciana. 
On  the  west  side  of  the  Mississippi  the  larger  bluff  land  region  lies  in 
the  parishes  of  West  Carroll,  Richland  and  Franklin,  extending  south- 
ward a  short  distance  into  the  parish  of  Catahoula.  The  third  and 
smallest  area  of  bluff  lands  lies  between  the  Little  and  Red  rivers  in 
the  northwestern  part  of  Avoyelles  and  the  eastern  part  of  Rapides. 

The  central  prairie  region  lies  west  of  Bayou  Teche  and  south  of 
Bayou  Coeodrie,  extending  to  the  western  boundary  of  the  state,  and 
on  the  south  to  the  sea  marshes.  This  region,  in  many  respects  the 
most  beautiful  part  of  Louisiana,  includes  the  old  Opelousas  and  Atta- 
kapas  countries,  now  defined  by  Acadia  parish,  the  southern  part  of 
Calcasieu,  the  southwestern  part  of  St.  Landry,  and  the  northern 
part  of  Vermilion.  Most  of  the  inhabitants  of  this  section  are  of  Aca- 
dian descent,  of  whom  it  has  been  said  "Cafe  noir  is  their  nectar  and 
Perique  tobacco  their  ambrosia." 


26  LOUISIANA 

The  coast  marshes  lie  along  the  southern  border  of  the  state,  extend- 
ing from  Mississippi  on  the  east  to  Texas  on  the  west,  and  include 
portions  of  the  parishes  of  Orleans.  St.  Bernard.  Plaquemines.  Jeffer- 
son. Terrebonne.  Lafourche.  St.  Mary.  Iberia.  Vermilion  and  Cam- 
eron. In  some  instances  the  marshes  follow  the  courses  of  the  bayous 
far  inland,  parts  of  St.  James.  St.  John  the  Baptist  and  St.  Charles 
lying  within  the  coast  marsh  region. 

For  fertility  of  soil  and  diversity  of  products,  Louisiana  is  entitled 
to  stand  at  the  head  of  the  list  of  states.  In  the  northern  part  of  the 
alluvial  region,  as  in  the  good  uplands,  cotton  is  the  principal  crop, 
though  in  the  latter  section  corn.  oats,  forage  crops  and  tobacco  are 
grown  and  truck  farming  is  carried  on  to  a  considerable  extent.  South 
of  the  31st  parallel,  which  forms  the  boundary  between  Mississippi 
and  Louisiana  from  the  Pearl  river  to  the  Slississippi.  sugar-cane, 
com  and  rice  are  the  leading  products,  and  along  the  coast  marshes 
tropical  fruits — oranges,  figs,  etc. — thrive  well.  (See  Horticulture.) 
The  poorest  soil  in  the  state  is  that  of  the  long  leaf  pine  hills.  The 
same  crops  are  raised  here,  however,  as  in  other  parts  of  the  state, 
though  the  yield  is  somewhat  less.  The  lands  of  this  class  are  well 
adapted  to  grazing,  and  the  pine  land  parishes  lead  in  live  stock 
raising. 

From  the  earliest  history  of  Louisiana  agriculture  has  been  the  prin- 
cipal occupation  of  her  people.  The  first  reliable  agricultural  statis- 
tics taken  by  the  U.  S.  government  was  in  the  census  of  1850.  when 
the  number  of  farms  in  the  state  was  reported  to  be  13,432.  Ten 
years  later  the  number  had  increased  to  17.328.  Dxiring  the  following 
decade  the  agricultural  interests  of  the  whole  South  suffered  severely 
from  the  Civil  war.  Markets  were  destroyed :  investments  in  slaves 
were  lost :  large  areas  of  land  went  out  of  cultivation ;  the  value  of 
all  agricultural  lands  depreciated :  impi-ovements  in  many  cases  were 
totally  demolished :  and  at  the  close  of  the  war  the  planters  found 
themselves  bankrupt,  without  credit  or  a  sufficient  amount  of  working 
capital.  Notwithstanding  all  these  drawbacks,  in  the  year  1870  there 
were  28,481  Louisiana  farms  in  successful  operation.  In  1880  the 
number  had  increased  to  48.292.  and  by  1890  to  62.294.  The  U.  S. 
census  report  for  1900  says:  "In  the  South  Central  division  the 
number  of  farms  added  in  the  last  ten  years  was  twice  as  great  as  in 
the  largest  agricultiiral  division,  the  North  Central,  and  the  per  cent 
of  increase  in  the  former  division  was  nearly  four  times  as  great  as 
in  the  latter,  and  over  twice  that  for  the  United  States.  As  no  farms 
were  reported  for  Indian  Territory  in  1890.  the  per  cent  of  increase  in 
the  decade  can  not  be  expressed  for  that  territory.  Among  the  other 
states  and  territories,  the  greatest  percentages  of  gain  are  sho^Ti  in 
Oklahoma.  Louisiana.  Mississippi  and  Texas,  in  the  order  mentioned." 

The  United  States  census  report  for  1910  contains  the  following 
summaries  pertaining  to  agriculture  and  its  principal  crops  in 
Louisiana : 

Louisiana  ranks  twenty-fourth  in  population  and  thirty-first  in 
land  area  among  the  states  and  territories  of  continental  United  States. 
The  entire  area  of  the  state  lies  at  an  altitude  of  less  than  500  feet 


LOUISIANA  27 

above  sea  level,  while  the  average  altitude  is  estimated  at  100  feet. 
Nearly  one-third  of  the  state  consists  of  the  alluvial  bottom 
lands  of  the  Mississippi  and  Red  rivers  and  their  principal 
tributaries.  Only  a  small  portion  of  these  alluvial  bottoms  rises  more 
than  50  feet  above  tide  level.  The  northern  and  northwestern  por- 
tions of  the  state  and  a  small  area  in  the  extreme  eastern  portion  com- 
prise the  rolling  to  somewhat  hilly  Coastal  Plain  region  bordering  the 
alluvial  bottoms.  Immediately  along  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Missis- 
sippi river  there  occurs  a  small  area  of  the  silty  yellow  loam  known 
as  loess.  The  southwestern  portion  of  the  state  comprises  a  low  un- 
dulating portion  of  the  Coastal  Plain,  principally  occupied  by  prai- 
ries, although  in  part  timbered.  Within  the  alluvial  bottoms  fine 
sandy  loams  and  loam  .soils  occur  at  the  higher  elevations  immediately 
along  the  principal  streams,  while  the  lower  elevations  are  occupied 
by  heavy  silty  clays  or  clay  soils.  Wherever  drainage  has  been  per- 
fected these  soils  of  the  alluvial  bottoms  have  proved  to  be  of  high 
fertility.  The  soils  of  the  rolling  Coastal  Plain  are  chiefly  sands  and 
sandy  loams,  although  some  clay  soils  are  also  found.  A  large  part  of 
the  rolling  Coastal  Plain  is  still  forested.  The  soil  of  the  loess  region 
is  a  yellow  or  gray  silty  loam.  The  prairie  region  in  the  southwestern 
portion  of  the  state  is  occupied  principally  by  a  gray  silty  loam  soil, 
which  has  been  irrigated  extensively  for  the  production  of  rice.  A  small 
proportion  of  the  state  is  comprised  within  the  Flatwoods  section  of  the 
Coastal  Plain.  Of  the  state's  entire  land  area  more  than  one-third 
(35.9  per  cent)  is  in  farms.  The  percentage  varies  widely  in  the 
different  parishes,  but  the  most  common  is  from  20  to  40  per  cent, 
that  being  the  proportion  in  24  parishes  well  disti'ibuted  over  the 
state.  Only  9  parishes  have  less  than  20  per  cent  of  their  land  in 
farms.  The  proportion  is  from  40  to  80  per  cent  in  7  others.  Clai- 
borne Parish,  located  on  the  northern  boundary  of  the  state,  has  over 
80  per  cent  of  its  land  in  farms,  while  in  Lafayette  Parish,  in  the 
south  central  part  of  the  state,  the  percentage  is  over  90. 

For  the  state  as  a  whole,  the  average  value  of  farm  land  per  acre 
is  $17.99.  In  26  of  the  parishes  the  average  is  from  .+10  to  $25.  All 
but  three  of  these  parishes  are  in  whole  or  in  part  located  on  the 
alluvial  bottom  lands  of  the  state.  The  exceptions  are  Calcasieu  par- 
ish, in  the  southwestern  part  of  the  state,  and  Tangipahoa  and  St. 
Tammany  parishes,  in  the  southwestern  part,  all  three  lying  in  the 
rolling  Coastal  Plain.  The  average  value  exceeds  $25  in  18  parishes, 
all  located  in  the  alluvial  bottoms.  Sixteen  of  these  parishes  show 
an  average  of  $25  to  $50  per  acre,  and  1,  Jefferson,  of  $50  to  $75 ; 
while  in  Orleans  parish,  in  which  the  city  of  New  Orleans  is  located, 
the  average  is  over  .$230  per  acre.  In  16  parishes  l.ying  in  the  Coastal 
Plain  region  the  average  is  less  than  $10. 

Between  1900  and  1910  there  was  an  increase  of  4,577,  or  3.9  per 
cent,  in  the  number  of  farms  in  Louisiana,  as  compared  with  an  in- 
crease of  19.9  per  cent  in  the  population  and  of  13.1  per  cent  in  the 
acreage  of  improved  farm  land.  During  the  decade  the  total  amount 
of  land  in  farms  decreased  by  5.6  per  cent.  On  account  of  the  increase 
in  the  number  of  farms  and  of  the  decrease  in  farm  acreage  the  aver- 


28  LOUISIANA 

age  size  of  farms,  which  was  95.4  acres  iu  1900,  had  decreased  to  86.6 
acres  in  1910.     Total  number  of  farms  iu  state,  113,249. 

The  total  value  of  farm  property,  which  includes  that  of  land, 
buildings,  implements  and  machinery,  and  live  stock  (domestic  ani- 
mals, poultry,  and  bees),  is  $301,221,000,  indicating  an  increase  of 
51.7  per  cent  since  1900.  Laud  alone  increased  in  value  74.3  per  cent, 
compared  with  an  increase  of  54.8  per  cent  in  the  value  of  live  stock 
and  of  48.9  per  cent  in  that  of  buildings.  Implements  and  machinery 
decreased  in  values  33.5  per  cent.  In  considering  the  increase  of 
value  in  agriculture  the  general  increase  in  the  prices  of  commodities 
in  the  last  10  years  should  be  borne  in  mind 

The  average  value  of  a  farm,  including  its  equipment  is  $2,499.  an 
increase  of  46  per  cent  since  1900.  During  the  decade  the  average 
value  of  laud  per  acre  increased  by  $8.25  or  almost  doubled. 

In  the  60  years  since  1850  the  population  of  the  state  has  increased 
by  1,138,626  or  219.9  per  cent.  The  gain  has  been  gi-eater  during  the 
last  decade  than  during  any  other,  and  the  decade  of  least  increase 
was  that  between  1860  and  1870.  For  the  entire  60  yeai's  since  1850 
the  number  of  farms  increased  from  13.422  to  120.546.  or  at  rate 
averaging  1,785  per  year.  Between  1890  and  1900  the  average  rate 
of  increase  was  4.668  per  year,  while  during  the  last  decade  the  num- 
ber increased  at  the  rate  of  458  per  year. 

The  land  surface  of  Louisiana  is  approximately  29.061.760  acres,  of 
which  area  10,439,481  acres  or  35.9  per  cent  are  included  in  farms. 
Of  the  farm  acreage,  5,276.016  acres  or  50.5  per  cent  are  reported  as 
improved  land.  The  total  amoiint  of  land  in  farms  is  less  by  619.646 
acres  than  that  reported  in  1900.  At  that  time  several  hundred  thou- 
sand acres  of  land  iu  the  extreme  southern  part  of  the  state,  valued  at 
from  $1  to  $5  per  acre,  were  owned  by  resident  farmers,  who  reported 
such  land  as  part  of  tlieir  farms.  During  the  last  10  years,  however, 
non-resident  persons  have  pitrchased  large  quantities  of  this  land, 
which  not  being  used  for  agricultural  purposes,  is  not  here  reported 
for  1910.  This  fact  accounts  in  large  part  for  the  decrease  noted.  The 
reported  acreage  of  improved  farm  land  has  increased  by  609.484  or 

13.1  per  cent  during  the  last  decade.  Thus  the  proportion  improved 
is  higher  than  1900 — 50.5  per  cent,  as  compared  with  42.2  per  cent. 

In  1850  the  total  amouut  of  laud  in  farms  was  4.989.034  acres  or 

17.2  per  cent  of  the  land  area  of  the  state.  During  the  decade  1850- 
1860  the  farm  acreage  increased,  and  in  1860  occupied  32  per  cent  of 
the  land  area,  but  by  1870  had  fallen  to  24.2  per  cent.  During  the  30 
years  between  1870  and  1900  the  farm  acreage  increased  and  at  the 
latter  year  occupied  38.1  per  cent  of  the  land  area. 

The  improved  acreage  followed  practically  the  same  general  move- 
ment as  the  total  farm  acreage,  increasing  between  1850  and  1860, 
decreasing  during  the  Civil  war  decade,  and  again  iuci-easiug  after 
1870.  It  is  to  be  noted,  however,  that  the  ratio  of  increase  in  the 
improved  acreage  varied  from  that  in  the  total  acreage.  Tims  the  fact 
that  the  proportion  improved,  which  was  31.9  per  cent  in  1850.  de- 
creased to  29.1  per  cent  in  1860  indicates  that  during  that  decade  the 
increase  in  the  total  amount  of  land  aud  farms  was  relatively  greater 


LOUISIANA  29 

than  that  in  the  improved  farm  acreage.  Between  1870  and  1910, 
however,  the  improved  acreage  show.s  the  greater  relative  increase,  the 
proportion  improved,  which  was  29.1  per  cent  in  1870,  having  risen 
eontinuously  to  50.5  per  cent  in  1910. 

The  total  valne  of  live  stock  on  farms,  including  domestic  animals, 
poultry,  and  bees,  in  1910  was  $44,699,000,  of  which  domestic  animals 
contributed  $43,315,000.  The  value  of  cattle  i-epresented  26  per  cent 
of  the  total  value  of  live  stock ;  that  of  horses  and  mules,  61.3  per 
cent ;  that  of  swine,  8.6  per  cent ;  that  of  sheep  and  lambs,  0.8  per  cent ; 
and  that  of  poultry  3  per  cent,  the  other  classes  being  insignificant. 

The  total  value  of  crops  in  1909  was  $77,336,000.  Of  this  amount, 
94.4  per  cent  was  contributed  by  crops,  for  which  the  acreage  as  well 
as  the  value  was  reported,  the  remainder  consisting  of  the  value  of 
by-products  (straw,  garden  and  grass  seeds,  etc.,)  derived  from  the 
same  land  as  other  crops  reported,  or  of  orchard  friiits,  nuts,  forest 
products,  and  the  like.  The  combined  acreage  of  crops  for  which 
acreage  was  I'eported  was  3,586.348,  representing  68  per  cent  of  the 
total  improved  lands  in  farms  (5,276,016  acres).  Most  of  the  remain- 
ing is  improved  pasture,  land  lying  fallow,  horse  and  farm  yards, 
and  laud  occupied  by  orchards  and  vineyards,  the  acreage  for  which 
was  not  reported. 

The  general  character  of  Louisiana  agriculture  is  indicated  by  the 
fact  that  somewhat  less  than  one-third  (32  per  cent)  of  the  total  value 
of  crops  in  1909  was  contributed  by  the  cereals,  somewhat  more  than 
one-fourth  (26.2  per  cent)  by  cotton,  and  somewhat  less  than  one- 
fourth  (23  per  cent)  by  sugar  crops.  The  remainder,  representing 
18.8  per  cent  of  the  total  consisted  mostly  of  potatoes  and  other  vege- 
tables, of  forest  prodiicts,  and  of  hay  and  forage. 

The  value  of  crops  in  1909  was  23.4  per  cent  greater  than  in  1899. 
There  was  an  increase  of  5.2  per  cent  in  the  total  acreage  of  crops 
for  which  acreage  was  reported,  all  of  the  crops  showing  increases 
with  the  exception  of  cotton,  the  acreage  of  which  showed  a  material 
decrease;  the  greatest  absolute  increase  was  in  the  acreage  of  cereals. 

The  leading  crops  in  the  order  of  their  importance  as  iudged  bv 
value,  are  cotton,  $17,325,000;  corn,  $16,480,000;  rice,  $8,053,000; 
cotton  seed  (estimated),  $2,950,000:  hay  and  forage,  .$2,433,000;  and 
sweet  potatoes  and  yams,  $2,950,000.  It  will  be  observed,  however, 
that  several  crops,  particularly  sugar,  the  most  important  crop  of  the 
state,  statistics  for  which  appear  elsewhere,  are  more  important  than 
some  of  the  crops  mentioned. 

The  total  quantity  of  orchard  fruits  produced  in  1909  was  393,000 
bushels  valued  at  $314,400.  Peaches  and  nectarines  contributed 
about  three-fourths  of  this  quantity ;  pears,  apples  and  plums  and 
prunes  most  of  the  remainder.  The  production  of  tropical  fruits  in 
1909  was  valued  at  $320,974;  that  of  grapes  amounted  to  106.595 
pounds,  valued  at  $6,099.  and  that  of  nuts  to  796  pounds,  valued  at 
$73,169. 

The  total  value  of  sugar  cane  products  in  1909  was  $17,753,000  as 
compared  with  $14,627,000  in  1899,  while  the  value  of  sorghum  cane 
and  sirup  was  $34,277  in  1909,  as  compared  with  $18,367  in  1899. 


30  LOUISIANA 

On  April  I,  1880,  the  legislature  passed  an  act  creating  a  bureau 
of  agriculture  "to  provide  for  the  distrilmtion  of  any  seeds  that 
the  government  of  the  United  States  may  desire  to  introduce; 
make  arrangements  for  the  importation  of  seeds  that  may  be  val- 
uable to  the  state;  or  for  the  exc'hange  of  seeds  witli  foreign  couu- 
Iries  or  other  states."  The  bureau  was  also  to  study  the  various 
insects  atfecting  the  crops,  plants  and  fruits  of  the  state;  to  investi- 
gate and  report  upon  the  possibilities  and  profits  of  dairy  farming, 
the  culture  of  wool,  silk,  bees,  etc. ;  to  in(iuire  into  the  subject  of 
irrigation  and  how  the  state  might  derive  profit  from  it,  and  in 
fact  to  exercise  a  sort  of  general  supervision  over  the  agricultural 
industries  of  the  state.  An  annual  appropriation  of  $6,000  was 
made  to  defray  the  expenses  of  the  bureau,  and  under  its  influence 
the  agriculture  of  the  state  has  taken  a  wider  range,  the  prodiicts 
becoming  moi'e  diversified  every  year  since  its  estalilishmeut. 

A  writer  in  ■"Current  Events,''  in  discussing  the  agricultural  ad- 
vantages and  prospects  of  Louisiana,  says :  ' "  The  longer  growing 
season  makes  possible  the  cultivation  of  more  than  one  crop  on  the 
same  laud  the  same  year,  and  hence  double  the  efficiency  can  be 
obtained  than  from  lands  where  the  growing  season  is  short.  The 
money  value  «l)tained  per  acre,  according  to  the  U.  S.  census,  is 
higher  in  Louisiana  than  in  any  other  state  in  the  Union.  The  gen- 
eral farmer,  stock  raiser,  fruit  grower  or  truck  raiser  can  not  go 
amiss  in  Louisiana.  As  a  general  farmer  lie  has  a  greater  range 
of  production  than  can  be  found  in  any  other  state,  and  being  in 
position  to  ad.just  his  crops  to  the  needs  of  the  markets,  he  can 
produce  what  is  needed  and  cut  out  that  of  which  there  is  an  excess. 
Therefore  his  market  is  always  good,  because  rarely  if  ever  over- 
stocked with  any  one  product.  The  opportunities  of  the  stock  raiser 
are  e([ually  good.  The  climate  permits  grazing  longer  here  than 
elsewhere  and  also  permits  tlie  largest  production  of  forage  at  the 
smallest  cost.  While  the  fruit  grower  may  not  successfully  grow  a 
winter  apple,  he  has  possibilities  in  the  early  summer  varieties, 
which  bring  hig'h  prices  in  the  Northern  markets;  has  a  bonanza 
in  peaclies,  plums  and  strawberries  and  almost  an  exclusive  market. 
*  *  *  The  truck  raiser  can  have  strawl)erries  in  the  Chicago 
market  by  the  middle  of  February,  cabbage  and  cauliflower  in  Jan- 
uary, February  and  ^larch  ;  root  crops,  l)eans  and  pi>as  in  Febi-u- 
ary  and  ^larch,  and  Irish  potatoes  in  April,  ^felons  and  cante 
loupes  can  reach  the  Northern  markets  long  l)efore  anyone  else  has 
any,  and  he  need  not  worry  about  the  prices  he  can  obtain.  If  he 
operates  in  colonies  so  that  suffici(>nt  can  be  produced  to  ship  in 
carload  lots,  the  buyer  will  be  at  his  farm  early  and  late."  (See 
also  the  articles  on  Cotton,  Corn,  Rice,  Tobacco,  Jute,  etc.) 

Aime,  Valcour,  a  sugar  planter  of  St.  James  parish,  was  a  native 
of  Louisiana,  where  he  M-as  born  of  parents  of  French  origin,  in 
1798.  He  was  a  man  of  very  methodical  liabits.  one  of  which  was 
to  keep  a  'Tlantalion  Diary,"  giving  a  record  of  his  experiments 
in  sugar  culture,  the  various  changes  in  temperature,  and  many 
other  interesting  ])artienlars  bearing  on  a  planter's  life  and  oecu- 


LOUISIANA  31 

pation.  He  was  a  pioueer  in  refining  sugar  directly  from  the  cane- 
jiiice,  and  liy  his  experiments  and  efforts  in  this  direction  did  much 
to  promote  the  sugar  industry  of  the  state.  On  this  subject  he  was 
a  recognized  authority,  and  he  was  a  frequent  contributor  to  De 
Bow's  Review,  his  articles  on  sugar  and  the  sugar-cane  being  widely 
read  by  those  interested  in  that  line  of  activity.  He  was  a  philan- 
thropist and  gave  large  sums  of  money  to  religious  and  educational 
institutions,  having  been  the  principal  founder  of  Jefferson  college 
in  St.  James  parisJi.  His  flower  garden  was  the  most  beautiful  in 
Louisiana.  His  oldest  daughter,  ilrs.  Florent  Fortier  was  the 
mother  of  Prof.  Alcee  Fortier.    Mr.  Aime  died  in  1867. 

Aimwell,  a  post-hamlet  of  Catahoula  parish,  is  aliout  15  iiul(>s 
west  of  Harrisonburg,  the  parish  seat. 

Ajax,  a  little  post-hamlet  in  the  northwestern  part  of  Natchi- 
toches parish,  is  not  far  from  the  De  Soto  parish  line  and  about  10 
miles  northeast  of  Pleasant  Hill,  which  is  the  most  convenient  rail- 
road station. 

Akers  (R.  R.  name  Manchac),  is  a  money  order  postofRce  and  a 
station  on  the  Illinois  Central  R.  R.  in  the  extreme  southern  part  of 
Tangipahoa  parish.  It  is  the  center  of  a  large  truck  farming 
district. 

Albemarle,  one  of  the  principal  towns  of  Assumption  parish,  is  a 
station  on  the  Southern  Pacific  R.  R.,  about  6  miles  southeast  of 
Napoleonville.  It  has  a  money  order  postoffice,  an  express  office, 
some  good  mercantile  establishments,  is  a  shipping  point  of  consid- 
erable importance,  and  has  a  population  of  about  1100. 

Alberta,  a  village  and  station  in  the  southwestern  part  of  Bien- 
ville parish,  is  about  12  miles  southwest  of  Bienville.  It  is  located 
on  the  Louisiana  &  Arkansas  R.  R..  at  tlie  edge  of  the  western  long 
leaf  yellow  pine  district,  and  luis  an  express  office,  a  money  order 
postoffice  and  telegraph  facilities. 

Alden  Bridge,  a  village  of  Bossier  parish,  is  a  station  on  the  St. 
Louis  Soutliwestern  R.  R.  about  18  miles  north  of  Shreveport  and 
5  miles  east  of  the  Red  river.  It  has  a  money  order  postoffice  and  is 
the  trading  center  for  a  considerable  district.  Its  po]iiilati(iii  is 
about  300. 

Alderman,  Edwin  Anderson,  edui-atoi',  president  of  Tulane  Uni- 
versity, U)00-04,  was  born  in  Wilmington,  N.  C,  May  15,  1861,  son 
of  James  and  Susan  Alderman.  He  was  educated  at  Bethel  military 
academy,  Warrenton,  Va.,  entered  the  University  of  North  Caro- 
lina in  1878,  and  graduated  four  years  later  with  special  honors  in 
Latin  and  English  literature.  After  graduating  he  accepted  the 
position  of  superintendent  of  t'he  Goldsboro  high  school  and  three 
years  later  that  of  superintendent  of  tlie  Goldsboro  schools.  He 
next  became  superintendent  of  the  Asheville  and  Newton  normal 
schools,  holding  that  position  frotn  1885  to  1888.  In  1889  he  be- 
came assistant  superintendent  of  schools  in  North  Carolina  and 
while  holding  that  position  carried  on  a  vigorous  campaign  of  the 
entire  state  in  the  interests  of  public  education,  training  of  teachers, 
and  the  establishment  of  a  state  normal  college,  w^hich  was  built 


32  LOUISIANA 

in  1892,  aud  iu  which  he  was  appointed  professor  of  history  and 
literature.  In  1893  he  went  to  the  University  of  North  Carolina 
as  professor  of  pedagogy ;  was  superintendent  of  the  summer  school 
there  for  three  years;  was  elected  president  of  the  University  of 
North  Carolina  in  1896.  and  held  tliat  position  until  1900,  when  he 
succeeded  William  P.  Johnson  as  president  of  Tulane  University, 
but  resigned  in  1904  to  become  the  head  of  the  University  of  Vir- 
ginia. In  1893  Mr.  Alderman  was  a  member  of  the  board  of  A'isitors 
to  tlic  U.  S.  military  academy  at  AVest  Point.  He  is  vice-president 
of  tlie  National  Educational  association,  an  honorary  member  of 
the  Maryland  Historical  society,  and  a  member  of  the  Southern 
education  board.  In  1896,  he  published  the  "Life  of  William 
Hooper,"  and  a  "School  History  of  North  Carolina." 

Alexandria,  the  capital  of  Rapides  parish  and  one  of  tlie  prin- 
cipal cities  of  Louisiana,  occiipies  a  beautiful  site  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Red  river  in  the  northeastern  part  of  the  parish,  80  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  town  was  platted  by  and  received 
its  name  from  Alexander  Fulton,  who  was  the  first  merchant. 
Among  the  early  merchants  were  Antoine  Boissat  and  M.  Labat, 
who  came  over  from  France  with  Marshal  Rochambeau  and  took 
part  in  the  Revolutionary  war,  locating  in  Louisiana  after  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  United  States  was  established.  Alexandria  was 
made  the  seat  of  justice  when  Rapides  parish  was  created  in  1807. 
A  Catholic  church  was  erected  in  1817.  In  1818  John  Casson  do- 
nated grounds  for  a  college,  and  two  years  later  the  College  of 
Rapides  was  opened  for  students.  The  college  buildings  were  in 
ruins  iu  1860.  The  Bank  of  Louisiana  was  established  at  Alexan- 
dria in  1821  and  continued  in  successful  operation  until  1846.  In 
May,  1844.  a  Protestant  Episcopal  church  was  organized.  The 
"State  Seminary"  was  located  here  by  an  act  of  the  legislature  of 
1855,  and  the  institution  was  opened  on  Jan.  2,  1860,  with  Col. 
William  T.  Sherman  as  its  official  head.  A  severe  storm  in  April, 
1861.  destroyed  the  market-house,  Parker's  hotel  and  several  other 
buildings.  On  May  13,  1864,  a  destructive  fire  broke  out,  and  before 
it  could  be  brought  under  control  a  large  part  of  tlie  town  was 
consumed.  The  place  was  occupied  at  the  time  by  the  Federal 
troops  and  it  was  rumored  that  the  fire  was  started  by  order  of 
Gen.  Banks.  This  is  hardly  probable,  bowever,  as  the  soldiers  ex- 
erted ever.y  effort  to  extinguish  the  flames  and  save  property.  An- 
other bad  fire  occurred  in  :\Iay,  1879,  Imt  in  spite  of  storms  and 
fires  Alexandria  has  forged  steadily  to  the  front  until  it  occupies 
a  position  well  up  in  the  list  of  Louisiana  cities,  with  a  population 
of  11,213,  census  of  1910.  The  toAvn  was  first  incorporated  in  1851, 
a  new  charter  was  granted  by  the  act  of  Sept.  29,  1868,  and  in  1882 
Alexandria  Avas  incorporated  as  a  city.  The  street  railway  company 
was  organized  in  1881.  a  year  before  the  city  cbarter  was  obtained. 
At  the  present  time  Alexandria  is  one  of  the  most  progressive  cities 
of  the  South,  and  is  a  favorite  place  for  holding  conventions,  as- it 
is  easily  reached  by  tlie  Red  river  steamers  and  seven  lines  of  rail- 
way, viz. :  The  Chicago.  Rock  Island  &  Pacific :  the  Louisiana  Rail- 


LOUISIANA  33 

way  &  Navigation  company ;  tlie  Louisiana  &  Arkansas ;  the  South- 
ern Pacific ;  the  St.  Louis,  Iron  Mountain  &  Southern ;  the  St.  Louis, 
Watkins  &  Gulf,  and  the  Texas  &  Pacific.  The  Eapides  parish 
courthouse  is  one  of  the  finest  and  best  appointed  in  the  whole  state, 
and  the  other  public  buildings  are  substantial  structures  of  modern 
design  and  tasteful  architecture.  The  city  has  three  banks,  large  iron 
works,  boiler  and  engine  manufactories,  cotton  seed  oil  mills,  an 
ice  factory,  wholesale  and  retail  mercantile  concerns,  1  daily  and 
4  weekly  papers,  a  sanitarium,  waterworks,  a  good  lighting  sys- 
tem, and  is  an  important  depot  for  naval  stores, 

Alexton  (R,  R.  name  Alma),  a  post-town  and  station  in  the  north- 
ern part  of  Lincoln  parish,  on  the  Arkansas  Southern  R.  R.,  about 
10  miles  north  of  Ruston,  the  parish  seat. 

Alice,  a  post-hamlet  of  West  Feliciana  parish,  situated  in  the 
northeastern  part  of  the  parish  on  Thompson's  creek,  about  3  miles 
east  of  Laurel  Hill,  the  nearest  railroad  station. 

Allemands,  a  village  in  the  western  part  of  St.  Charles  parish, 
on  Bayou  Des-  Allemands,  about  30  miles  southAvest  of  New  Orleans. 
It  is  a  station  on  the  main  line  of  the  Southern  Pacific  R.  R.,  and 
has  a  money  order  postofBce  and  express  office.  Tlie  population  is 
350. 

Allen,  a  post-liamlet  in  the  western  part  of  Natchitoches  parish, 
about  6  miles  south  of  Timon,  the  nearest  railroad  station. 

Allen,  Henry  Watkins,  lawyer,  soldier  and  statesman,  was  born 
in  Prince  Edward  county,  Va.,  April  29,  1820,  the  son  of  a  phy- 
sician. In  his  boyhood  he  removed  with  his  parents  to  Missouri,  and 
was  educated  at  Rlarion  college.  Througli  a  misunderstanding  with 
his  father,  he  left  home  in  his  20th  year  and  established  a  school  at 
Grand  Gulf,  Miss.,  which  he  conducted  for  about  two  years,  study- 
ing law  in  the  meantime.  In  1842,  soon  after  his  admission  to  the 
bar.  Gen.  Sam  Houston,  president  of  the  Texas  republic,  called  foi: 
troops,  and  young  Allen  raised  a  company  and  went  to  Texas. 
There  he  acquitted  himself  in  a  manner  that  won  the  confidence  of 
his  men  and  the  respect  of  his  superior  officers.  After  a  few  months 
in  Texas  he  returned  to  Mississippi,  married  Miss  Salome  Anne 
Crane  of  Rodney,  and  resumed  his  law  practice.  In  1846  he  was 
elected  to  the  Mississippi  legislature.  Soon  after  the  expiration  of 
his  term  he  removed  to  Louisiana  and  became  a  planter.  In  1853 
he  was  elected  to  the  legislature  of  that  state,  and  the  next  year 
went  to  Harvard  to  complete  his  legal  education  by  a  higher  course 
in  law,  but  he  became  so  much  interested  in  the  struggle  of  the 
Italians  for  independence  that  he  sailed  for  Europe  with  the  inten- 
tion of  aiding  them.  The  trouble  was  over,  however,  before  he 
arrived.  He  then  made  a  tour  of  Europe,  and  on  his  return  home 
published  a  book  entitled  "The  Travels  of  a  Sugar  Planter."  He 
was  again  elected  to  the  legislature,  where  he  made  a  reputation 
that  extended  throughout  the  state.  When  the  Civil  war  broke  out 
he  was  appointed  lieutenant-colonel  in  the  Confederate  army  and 
was  stationed  at  Ship  island,  but  preferring  more  active  service 
he  asked  to  be  transferred  and  was  commissioned  colonel  of  the 
1—3 


34  LOUISIANA 

4th  La.  inl'auti-y.  He  was  wounded  at  Sliiloli ;  superiut ended  tlic 
construction  of  fortitieations  at  Vieksburg  under  heavy  fire ;  was 
wounded  in  both  legs  by  a  shell  at  Baton  Rouge  on  Aug.  5,  1862. 
In  Sept.,  1863,  lie  was  commissioned  brigadier-general  by  President 
Davis  and  ordered  to  report  to  Gen.  Kirby  Smith  at  Shreveport, 
La.  In  the  following  November  he  was  elected  governor  of  Louis- 
iana as  a  Confederate,  and  in  Jan.,  1864,  retired  from  the  army  to 
assume  the  duties  of  that  office.  On  June  2,  1865,  he  gave  up  the 
office  of  governor  and  went  to  the  City  of  Mexico,  where  he  estab- 
lished a  newspaper  called  The  Mexican  Times.  Gen.  Allen  died  in 
that  city  on  April  22,  1866.  Ilis  remains  were  brought  to  Loiiisiana 
and  were  placed  under  a  monument  erected  in  front  of  the  state 
liouse  at  Baton  Rouge. 

Allen's  Administration. — At  the  time  Gov.  Allen  entered  upon 
tlie  duties  of  bis  office  tbe  Federal  army  was  in  possession  of  the 
city  of  New  Orleans  and  the  adjacent  country.  He  therefore  estab- 
lished his  seat  of  government  at  Shreveport,  where  his  adminis- 
tration began  on  Jan.  25,  1864.  In  his  message  to  the  legislature 
the  next  day  he  said.:  "Start  the  hammer  and  the  loom.  Let  the 
furnace  smoke  and  the  anvil  ring.  Stimulate  capitalists  to  embark 
in  these  indTistrial  pursuits  at  home ;  for  while  the  blockade  stands 
you  cannot  get  such  articles  as  you  now  need  so  much,  iiuless  you 
make  tliem  yourselves.  If  one  half  of  the  capital  that  has  been  sent 
to  foreign  lands,  in  running  the  blockade,  had  been  invested  in 
manufactories  at  home,  our  country  would  be  this  day  in  a  far 
better  condition.  I,  therefore,  finally  recommend  that  you  establish 
a  mining  and  manufacturing  bureau  (to  which  may  be  attached 
a  laboratory  for  preparing  indigenous  medicines),  and  place  at  its 
head  men  of  intelligence,  of  energy,  of  undoubted  honesty.  This 
is  a  great  ;nidertaking;  but  we  are  a  great  people,  and  should  be 
equal  to  any  emergency.  On  the  field  we  are  the  equals  of  any  in 
the  world.  Let  us  learn  a  lesson  from  the  enemy  and  profit  by  their 
example.  They  manufacture  everything  at  home.  It  is  not  too  late 
for  us  to  begin.  We  have  immense  resources.  We  can  save  the 
currency  and  the  country.  We  will.  It  rests  with  you  to  say  it 
shall  be  done." 

On  March  4,  1864,  another  civil  government  was  established  for 
that  portion  of  the  state  within  the  Federal  lines,  with  I^Fiehael 
TTabn  as  governor.  AVhile  this  government  (See  Hahn's  Adminis- 
tration) was  wrangling  over  political  questions,  and  adopting  meas- 
ures that  in  some  instances  amounted  to  persecution  against  the 
Confederates,  Allen's  administration,  which  extended  to  three- 
fourths  of  the  state,  was  trying  in  every  po.ssible  way  to  ameliorate 
the  condition  of  the  people.  Gov.  Allen  established  state  stores, 
factories,  etc.;  a  state  dispensary  to  furnish  pure  medicines  at  cost; 
provided  for  the  payment  of  the  cotton  tax  to  the  Confederate  gov- 
ernment in  kind  :  opened  trade  Avith  Texas  and  ]\Iexico,  whereby 
cotton  was  exchanged  for  clothing,  medicines  and  other  necessities; 
and  distributed  cotton  cards  among  the  women  of  the  state  that 
they  mi^ht  be  able  to  produce  homespun  clothing  for  the  families. 


LOUISIANA  35 

He  was  tireless  in  liis  efforts  to  relieve  the  wants  of  the  people,  and 
was  always  on  tlie  alert  in  the  protection  of  their  rights.  Inside 
the  Federal  lines  martial  law  prevailed  and  the  writ  of  habeas  cor- 
pus had  been  suspended.  This  had  not  been  done  by  Gen.  Smith, 
but  occasional  conflicts  arose  between  the  civil  and  military  author- 
ities, and  in  these  cases  the  governor  used  all  his  skill  find  energy 
to  avert  any  encroachment  on  civil  rights.  By  the  exercise  of  power 
that  was  almost  dictatorial  he  suppressed  the  traffic  in  intoxicat- 
ing liquors,  his  success  in  this  direction  being  imprecedented,  and 
many  a  dollar  tliat  would  have  been  spent  to  satisfy  some  poor 
man's  appetite  for  drink  was  made  to  serve  a  better  piu'posc.  In 
Dec,  1864,  the  governor  wrote  to  Gen.  Smith,  earnestly  protesting 
against  tlie  proposed  destruction  of  cotton  in  sections  of  the  state 
liable  to  Federal  invasion.  He  insisted  that  if  it  was  right  to  de- 
stroy the  cotton  l)elouging  to  an  individual  citizen  to  keep  it  from 
falling  into  the  liands  of  the  enemy,  it  was  equally  right  to  destroy 
all  individual  property  tliat  the  enemy  could  use.  He  thouglit  that 
the  cotton  might  be  .iudiciously  left  as  an  inducement  for  the 
enemy  to  make  an  incursion  into  Confederate  territory,  as  that  was 
supposed  to  have  been  the  chief  incentive  to  Gen.  Banks  in  his  raid 
up  the  Red  river,  "a  diversion  of  the  Federal  forces,"  said  he,  "that 
contributed  immensely  to  oiir  great  success  in  tlie  now  closing  cam- 
paign of  1864.  A  similar  Federal  diversion  in  1865  would  be  cheaply 
bought  at  the  cost  of  every  bale  of  cotton  west  of  the  Mississippi." 
This  letter  was  the  means  of  saving  a  large  quantity  of  cotton. 
^  The  spring  of  1865  witnessed  the  close  of  the  long  and  disastrous 
war.  Gen.  Smith  surrendered  to  the  Federal  authorities  on  May  26, 
and  Gov.  Allen  determined  to  go  to  Mexico.  On  June  2  he  published 
his  farewell  address  to  the  people  of  Louisiana — an  address  full  of 
pathos  and  expressions  of  love  for  his  fellow-countrymen,  as  tlie  fol- 
lowing extracts  sliow:  "I  have  thought  it  my  duty  to  address  you  a 
few  words  in  parting  from  yon,  perhaps  forever.  My  administration 
as  governor  of  Louisiana  closes  this  day.  The  war  is  over,  the  con- 
test is  ended,  the  soldiers  are  disbanded  and  gone  to  tlieir  homes,  and 
now  there  is  in  Louisiana  no  opposition  whatever  to  the  constitution 
and  laws  of  the  United  States.  Until  order  shall  be  established,  and 
society  with  all  its  safeguards  fully  restored,  I  would  advise  that  j'ou 
form  yourselves  into  companies  and  .squads  for  the  purpose  of  pro- 
tecting your  families  from  outrage  and  insult,  and  your  propert.v  from 
spoliation.  A  few  bad  men  can  do  much  mischief  and  destroy  much 
property.  Within  a  short  while  the  United  States  authorities  will 
no  doubt  send  an  armed  force  to  any  part  of  the  state  where  you  may 
re<|uire  it,  for  your  protection. 

"Mj'  countrymen,  we  have  for  four  long  years  waged  a  war  which 
we  deemed  to  be  .just  in  the  sight  of  high  heaven.  We  have  not  been 
the  best,  the  wisest,  nor  the  bravest  people  of  the  world,  but  we  have 
suffered  more  and  borne  our  sufferings  with  greater  fortitude  than 
any  people  on  the  face  of  God's  green  earth.  Now  let  us  show  to  the 
world  that,  as  we  have  fought  like  men,  like  men  we  can  make  peace. 
Let  there  be  no  acts  of  violence,  no  heart-burnings,  no  intemperate 


36  LOUISIANA 

language,  but  with  manly  di-riiity  submit  to  the  inevitable  course  of 
events.  *  *  *  Let  u.s  not  talk  of  despair,  nor  whine  about  our 
misfortuues.  but  with  strong  arms  and  stout  hearts  adapt  oiirselves 
to  the  circumstances  which  surround  us. 

"If  my  voice  could  be  heard  and  heeded  at  Wa.shington  I  would 
say,  'Spare  this  distracted  land,  oh,  spare  this  afflicted  people.  In 
the  name  of  bleeding  Immanit.y,  they  have  suffered  enough!'  But, 
my  countrymen,  this  cannot  be.  I  am  one  of  the  proscribed — I  must 
go  into  exile.  I  have  stood  by  you.  fought  for  you.  and  stayed  with 
you  up  to  the  very  last  moment,  and  now  I  leave  you  with  a  heavy 
heart.  The  high  trust  with  wliich  yoii  have  honored  me  is  this  day 
returned.  I  leave  the  office  of  governor  with  clean  hands,  and  with  the 
conscious  pride  of  having  done  my  duty.  All  the  officers  of  state,  and 
all  the  employees  in  its  various  departments,  have  rendered  their  final 
accounts,  made  full  and  complete  statements.  I  thank  them  for  their 
uniform  kindness  to  -me  and  their  patriotic  devotion  to  the  .several 
duties  assigned  them.  These  accounts  are  in  the  hands  of  Col.  John 
jM.  Sandidge.  I  invite  the  closest  scrutiny,  not  only  of  these  papers, 
but  of  all  my  acts  as  governor  of  Louisiana. 

"I  go  into  exile  not  as  did  the  ancient  Romans,  to  lead  back  foreign 
armies  against  my  native  land,  but  rather  to  avoid  persecution  and  the 
crown  of  martyrdom.  I  go  to  seek  repose  for  my  shattered  limbs.  It 
is  my  prayer  to  God,  that  this  counti-y  may  be  blessed  with  permanent 
peace,  and  that  real  prosperity,  general  happiness,  and  lasting  con- 
tentment may  unite  all  who  have  elected  to  live  lander  the  flag  of  a 
common  country.  If  possible,  forget  the  past.  Look  forward  to  the 
future.  Act  with  candor  and  discretion,  and  you  will  live  to  ble.ss 
him  who.  in  parting,  gives  you  this  last  advice." 

Allen  Parish. — This  is  one  of  the  parishes  recently  formed  from 
Calcasieu  and  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Vernon  and  Kapides,  on 
the  east  by  Evangeline,  on  the  south  by  Jeff  Davis,  and  on  the  west 
by  Calcasieu  and  Beauregard  parishes.  It  contains  about  700 
square  miles  and  is  one  in  which  there  is  much  timber  and  a  large 
area  of  good  laud  that  is  being  rapidly  developed.  The  last  sta- 
tistics for  agriculture  by  the  U.  S.  census  include  this  area  with 
Calcasieu.  The  parish  seat  is  Oberlin,  and  Kinder,  in  the  soiithern 
liart.  is  a  lumber  town  of  much  importance. 

Allentown,  a  village  in  the  southeastern  part  of  Bossier  parish, 
is  on  the  Vicksburg,  Shreveport  &  Pacific  R.  R.,  about  20  miles  by 
rail  east  of  Shreveport.    It  is  a  money  order  postoffice. 

Alma,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  northwestern  part  of  St.  Tammany 
parish,  near  the  Tchefuncte  river,  is  about  4  miles  northwest  of  Foi- 
som.  the  nearest  railroad  station. 

Almadane,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  southwestern  part  of  Vernon 
parish,  near  the  Sabine  river,  is  about  17  miles  southwest  of  Neame, 
the  nearest  railroad  station.  It  is  a  trading  center  for  a  large  agri- 
cultural district  and  in  1900  reported  a  population  of  53. 

Almonester,  Don  Andres,  who  in  the  days  of  Spanish  supremacy 
in  Louisiana  held  the  offices  of  royal  notary  and  alferez  real,  was  one 
of  the  most  public-spirited  men  in  New  Orleans.     He  was  born  at 


LOUISIANA  37 

Mayrena,  Andalusia,  about  1723,  and  came  to  Louisiana  soon  after 
the  province  was  ceded  to  Spain.  In  1770  the  government  reserva- 
tions on  either  side  of  the  plaza  were  granted  to  the  city  of  New 
Orleans,  with  the  understanding  tliat  the  ground  rents  should  be  a 
source  of  perpetual  revenue.  Almonester  leased  the  reservations,  tore 
down  the  old  barracks  and  in  their  place  put  up  two  rows  of  stores, 
which  for  a  long  time  formed  the  principal  retail  district  of  the  city. 
After  the  great  fire  of  March  21.  1788,  which  destroyed,  among  many 
other  buildings,  the  Spanish  school  house,  he  gave  the  free  use  of  a 
room  that  the  school  might  continue.  Among  his  other  benefactions 
were  the  new  charity  hospital,  to  replace  the  one  blown  down  by  the 
hurricane  of  1779;  the  chapel  of  the  Ursulines;  the  St.  Louis  cathe- 
dral, which  took  the  place  of  the  parish  church  that  was  destro.yed 
by  the  fire  above  mentioned;  and  the  cabildo  (q.  v.),  for  which  he  was 
repaid,  the  total  cost  of  these  structures  being  in  the  neighborhood  of 
$200,000.  He  died  at  New  Orleans  on  April  26,  1796,  and  was  buried 
in  the  cathedral  which  he  had  founded.  He  was  the  father  of  Madame 
de  Pontalba,  who  built  the  buildings  on  both  sides  of  Jackson  Square, 
known  as  the  ' '  Pontalba  buildings. ' ' 

Aloha,  a  village  in  the  western  part  of  Grant  parish,  is  on  the 
Red  river,  about  7  miles  northwest  of  Colfax,  the  parish  seat.  It 
has  a  money  order  postoffice,  an  express  office,  and  is  situated  at  the 
junction  of  two  branches  of  the  Louisiana  Railway  &  Navigation  com- 
pany's lines. 

Alpha,  a  post-village  in  the  extreme  southeast  corner  of  Red 
River  parish,  is  the  terminus  of  a  branch  of  the  Louisiana  Railway 
&  Navigation  company  that  connects  with  the  main  line  of  that 
system  at  Grappe's  Bluff. 

Alsatia,  a  A'illage  in  the  southeastern  part  of  Bast  Carroll  parish, 
is  near  the  Mississippi  river.  It  is  a  money  order  postoffice  and  a 
station  on  the  St.  Louis,  Iron  Mountain  &  Southern  R.  R. 

Alto,  a  village  of  Richland  parish,  is  situated  on  the  Boeuf  river, 
about  10  miles  southwest  of  Rayville,  the  parish  seat,  and  4  miles 
northwest  of  Mangham,  t'he  nearest  railroad  station.  It  is  a  money 
order  postoffice  and  h'as  a  population  of  200. 

Alton,  a  village  and  station  in  the  southeastern  part  of  St.  Tam- 
jnany  parish,  is  on  the  New  Orleans  &  Northeastern  R.  R.  It  has 
a  money  order  postoffice. 

Ama,  a  village  of  St.  Charles  parish,  on  the  Mississippi  river, 
about  1  mile  north  of  Sellers,  the  nearest  railroad  station.  It  has 
a  money  order  postoffice,  some  mercantile  interests,  and  a  popula- 
tion of  500. 

Amelia  (R.  R.  name  Boeuf),  a  village  in  the  extreme  eastern 
part  of  St.  IMary  parish,  is  a  station  on  the  Southern  Pacific  R.  R., 
about  8  miles  east  of  Morgan  City.  It  has  a  money  order  postoffice, 
an  express  office,  and  a  population  of  300. 

American  Governors. — Following  is  a  list  of  those  who  have  held 
the  office  of  governor  under  the  American  domination :  William 
C.  C.  Claiborne,  governor  of  the  Territory  of  Orleans,  180-1-12 ; 
"William  C.  C.  Claiborne,  governor  of  the  State  of  Louisiana,  1812- 


38  LOUISIANA 

16;  Jiu-ques  Villere,  1816-20:  Thomas  B.  Kobertson,  1820-24  (re- 
signed; ;  Henry  !S.  Thibodaux,  one  month  of  unexpired  term  of 
Kobertson;  Henrv  Johnson,  1824-28;  Pierre  Derbigny,  1828-20 
(died  in  office)  ;  *Armand  Beauvais,  Oct.  7,  1829,  to  Jan.  14,  1830, 
and  Jacques  Dupre,  Jan.,  1830,  to  Jan.,  1831,  (unexpired  term  of 
Derbigny)  ;  Andre  Bienvenu  Roman,  1831-35 ;  Edward  D.  White, 
1835-39 ;  Andre  Bienvenu  Roman,  1839-43 ;  Alexandre  Mouton, 
1843-46 ;  Isaac  Johnson,  1846-50 :  Joseph  M.  Walker,  1850-53 :  Paul 
0.  Hebert,  1853-56;  Robert  C.  Wvckliffe,  1856-60;  Thomas  0.  Moore, 
1860-64;  George  F.  Shepley,  1862-64  (appointed  by  the  Federals  as 
military  governor)  ;  Henry  W.  Allen,  1864-65  (elected  as  a  Confed- 
erate) ;"  Michael  Hahn,  1864-65  (elected  as  a  Federal.  Feb.  22,  1864, 
served  to  ilarch  4,  1865)  ;  J.  Madison  Wells.  1865-67  (removed  by 
Gen.  Sheridan) ;  Benjamin  F.  Flanders,  1867  (appointed  when 
Wells  was  removed  and  served  until  Jan.,  1868) ;  Joshua  Baker, 
1868  (appointed  bv  Gen.  Hancock  to  succeed  Flanders  and  served 
until  June,  1868)  ;'Henry  C.  Warmoth,  1868-73:  John  McEnery  (de 
jure),  1873-77:  William  P.  Kellogg  (de  facto),  1873-77;  Francis 
T.  NichoUs,  1877-80;  Loiiis  A.  Wiltz,  1880-81  (died  in  office)  ;  Sam- 
uel D.  IMeEnerv,  1881-88  (succeeded  Wiltz  as  lieutenant-governor, 
elected  in  1884^  ;  Francis  T.  Nicholls,  1888-92;  Murphv  J.  Foster, 
1892-1900;  William  W.  Heard.  3900-04;  Newton  C.  Blanchard,  1904- 
08:  Jared  Y.  Sanders.  1908-12;  Luther  E.  Hall,  1912—. 

Amesville,  a  village  of  Jefferson  parish,  is  located  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Mississippi  river  about  9  miles  above  New  Orleans,  ft 
is  a  station  on  the  Texas  &  Pacific  R.  R.,  has  a  money  order  post- 
office,  an  express  office,  and  a  population  of  250. 

Amiens,  Treaty  of. — (See  Treaties.) 

Amite,  the  seat  of  justice  of  Tangipahoa  parish,  is  situated  on  the 
main  line  of  the  Illinois  Central  R.  R.,  a  little  west  of  the  Tangi- 
pahoa river,  in  the  west-central  part  of  the  pai-ish.  The  town  grew 
■up  after  the  railroad  was  bixilt  and  was  incorporated,  but  this 
charter  was  annulled  and  a  new  one  granted  in  1876.  When  Tangi- 
pahoa parish  was  created  in  1869,  Amite  was  chosen  for  the  parish 
seat.  For  some  years  court  was  held  in  the  upper  story  of  a  biis- 
iness  block;  the  present  court  house  was  completed  in  1884.  Amite 
is  an  important  station  on  tlie  Illinois  Central  R.  R.,  and  is  a  ship- 
ping point  of  considerable  importance  for  lumber  and  small  fruits. 
In  the  early  spring  strawberries  and  garden  vegetables  are  shipped 
by  car-load  lots.  There  are  several  manufacturing  establishments 
in  the  town,  the  gin  factory  is  one  of  the  largest  in  the  state,  giv- 
ing employment  to  several  hundred  men.  Amite  has  good  public 
schools  and  the  Amite  City  seminary,  which  provides  for  the  higher 
education  of  the  children.  The  Protestant  denominations  are  rep- 
resented by  the  Baptist,  Presbyterian  and  Episcopal  churches 
while  the  (Catholics  have  a  fine  church.  Amite  has  two  banks  and 
is  the  banking  point  for  a  considerable  district  of  pine  land  in  tlK- 
nortliern  and  western  part  of  the  parish.  There  are  telegraph,  ex- 
press and  teleplione  offices  in  the  town  and  in  1910  it  had  a  popu- 
lation of  1,677  inhabitants. 


LOUISIANA  39 

Anabel  is  a  post-liamlet  in  the  southern  part  of  Ouachita  parish, 
on  Cypress  creek,  a  tributary  of  the  Ouachita  river,  and  about  6 
mik'S  soutli  of  Lapine,  the  nearest  raih-oad  station. 

Anchor,  a  village  in  the  eastern  part  of  Pointe  Coupee  parish,  is 
on  the  Mississippi  river,  and  about  2  miles  east  of  St.  Clair,  the 
nearest  railroad  town.  It  has  a  money  order  postoffice  and  a  popu- 
lation of  about  250. 

Anderson,  Thomas  C,  politician,  was  somewhat  active  during; 
the  reconstruction  days.  In  1868  he  was  appointed  a  member  of 
the  retui-uing  board  and  served  until  1872,  when  he  was  nominated 
for  state  senator,  which  rendered  him  ineligilile  to  act  as  a  return- 
ing officer.  He  was  reappointed  on  the  board  in  1873,  and  on  Jan. 
28,  1878,  was  brought  to  trial  for  uttering  forged  and  counterfeit 
returns  from  Vernon  parish  in  the  election  of  Nov.  7,  1876.  On 
Feb.  1,  after  the  trial  had  proceeded  for  four  days,  he  applied  to 
Justice  Bradley  of  the  U.  S.  supreme  court  for  a  writ  of  "habeas 
corpus  cum  causa"  to  remove  the  case  from  the  state  court  to  the 
U.  S.  circuit  court,  but  the  application  was  denied.  The  trial  then 
proceeded  and  the  .jury,  after  a  short  absence  from  the  court  room, 
returned  a  verdict  of  guilty,  but  recommended  the  defendant  to  the 
clemency  of  the  court.  Anderson  was  sentenced  to  two  years'  im- 
prisonment in  the  penitentiary,  but  the  state  supreme  court  subse- 
quently set  aside  the  verdict — "not  because  the  act  charged  was 
not  committed,  but  because,  when  committed,  it  constituted  no 
crime  known  to  the  laws  of  the  I'nited  States."  He  does  not  appear 
to  have  figured  to  any  great  extent  in  Louisiana  aifairs  after  this 
event. 

Andrepont,  a  post-hamlet  of  Evangeline  parish,  is  about  12  miles 
northwest  of  Opelousas,  the  parish  seat,  with  which  it  is  connected 
by  telephone.  , 

Andrew,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  northern  part  of  Vermilion  parish, 
is  about  5  miles  northeast  of  Kaplan,  the  nearest  railroad  station. 

Angie,  a  village  in  the  northeastern  part  of  Washington  parish, 
is  a  station  on  the  main  line  of  the  New  Orleans  Great  Northern  R. 
R.,  and  about  4  miles  west  of  the  Pearl  river.  It  has  a  money  order 
postoffice,  express  service,  and  a  population  of  346. 

Angola,  a  village  in  the  extreme  nort'hwestern  part  of  West  Feli- 
ciana parish,  is  on  the  ]Mississippi  river,  has  a  money  order  post- 
office,  and  is  a  station  on  the  main  line  of  the  Louisiana  Railway 
&  Navigation  company. 

Ansley,  a  post-town  and  station  in  the  northwestern  part  of  Jack- 
son parish,  is  on  the  Chicago,  Rock  Island  &  Pacific  R.  R.,  about  5 
miles  north  of  Quitman.  It  has  an  express  office  and  telephone  ser- 
vice, and  some  retail  stores. 

Antioch,  a  post-hamlet  in  tlie  east-central  part  of  Claiborne  par- 
ish, is  about  8  miles  southwest  of  Summerfield,  the  nearest  railroad 
station. 

Antiquities. — (See  Archeology.) 

Antoine,  Pere. — (See  Sedella,  Antonio.) 

Antonio,  a  post-hamlet  and  station  in  the  east-central    part    of 


40  LOUISIANA 

Grant  parish,  is  a  station  on  the  St.  Louis.  Iron  ^Mountain  &  South- 
ern K.  R.,  about  20  miles  north  of  Alexandria. 

Antrim,  a  village  in  the  northwestern  part  of  Bossier  parish,  is 
situated  at  the  junction  of  the  St.  Louis  Southwestern  and  the  Red 
River  &  Rocky  Mountain  railroads,  about  15  miles  north  of  Benton 
and  5  miles  east  of  the  Red  river.  It  has  a  money  order  postoffice 
and  is  a  trading  center  for  a  considerable  cotton  district.  Its  pop- 
ulation is  250. 

April,  a  post-liamlet  in  the  extreme  northwest  corner  of  Calca- 
sieu parish,  is  about  3  miles  east  of  the  Sabine  river  and  6  miles 
north  of  Neale,  the  nearest  railroad  town. 

Arabi,  a  village  in  the  extreme  northwestern  part  of  St.  Bernard 
pari.sh,  is  located  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Mississippi  river,  some 
8  or  9  miles  below  New  Orleans.  It  has  an  international  money 
order  postoiBce  and  is  a  station  on  the  Louisiana  Southern  R.  R. 

Arbitration.  State  Board  of. — On  July  12,  1894,  the  general  assem- 
bly passed  an  act  authorizing  the  governor  to  appoint  five  competent 
persons — two  of  whom  should  be  employers,  two  employees,  and  the 
fifth  to  be  appointed  upon  the  recommendation  of  the  other  four— to 
serve  as  a  state  board  of  arbitration  for  the  adjustment  of  disputes 
between  employers  and  laborers.  Two  members  of  the  board  were  to 
be  appointed  for  2  years;  two  for  3  years,  and  one  for  4  years,  and 
the  governor  was  given  power  to  fill  vacancies.  The  act  pro\'ided  that 
any  employer  of  20  or  more  persons,  or  the  employees  of  any  indi- 
vidual, firm  or  corporation,  might  apply  to  the  board  for  an  adjudi- 
cation of  differences,  in  which  case  the  board  was  required  to  visit  the 
locality,  hear  statements,  make  inquiries,  advise  the  parties  to  the 
controversy  what  to  do,  and  to  render  a  written  decision  in  all  cases. 
The  board  was  also  requii-ed  to  publish  the  time  and  place  of  hearing 
complaints,  and  was  given  power  to  summon  witnesses  or  to  oi-der  an 
examination  of  books  and  papers,  so  far  as  the  same  might  relate  to 
the  points  in  dispute. 

It  was  further  provided  in  the  act  that,  whenever  any  strike  or 
lockout  occuiTed  or  was  imminent,  the  mayor  of  the  city  or  judge  of 
the  parish  district  court  should  at  once  notify  the  board  of  arbitration, 
which  should  endeavor  to  effect  an  amicable  settlement  of  the  ques- 
tions at  issue,  ilembers  of  the  board  were  to  draw  compensation  at 
the  rate  of  $5  a  day  and  actual  expenses  for  the  time  actively  em- 
ployed in  the  adjustment  of  labor  troubles,  and  the  board  was  required 
to  report  to  the  governor  biennially.  During  the  years  succeeding  the 
passage  of  this  act  the  services  of  the  board  were  frequently  called 
into  reciuisition,  and  in  a  majority  of  such  cases  their  decisions  were 
accepted  by  the  employer  and  the  employees  at  variance. 

"With  some  slight  modifications,  this  law  was  still  in  force  in  July, 
1908,  when  the  relations  between  the  steamship  agents  on  one  side  aiid 
the  screwnnen,  stevedores  and  longshoremen  on  the  other  became 
somewhat  strained.  On  July  6,  while  the  general  assembly  was  in  .ses- 
.sion  at  Baton  Rouge,  a  conference  of  the  steamship  agents  and  the 
.several  labor  organizations  above  mentioned  was  held  in  that  city,  and 
an  agreement  was  reached  for  the  appointment  of  a  permanent  state 


LOUISIANA  41 

board  of  arbitration.  Accordingly,  on  the  16th  Gov.  Sanders  ap- 
pointed W.  B.  Thomp.son,  president  of  the  New  Orleans  cotton  ex- 
change, and  E.  H.  Kohnke,  a  flour  merchant,  to  represent  the  em- 
ployers, and  Rnfns  M.  Ruiz  of  the  longshoremen  and  H.  D.  French 
of  the  brotherhood  of  railway  conductors  on  the  part  of  organized 
labor.  The  next  day  these  four  men  met  and  agreed  without  dissent 
upon  H.  G.  Hester,  secretary  of  the  cotton  exchange,  as  the  fifth  mem- 
ber of  the  board.     (See  Labor  Troubles.) 

Arbor  Day. — The  general  assembly  of  1904  created  a  department 
of  forestry,  and  the  act  directed  parish  school  boards  to  provide  for 
teaching  forestry  in  the  public  schools  by  textbooks  or  lectures,  or 
both,  and  also  to  provide  for  an  "arbor  day,"  when  trees  should  be 
planted  on  the  school  gi-ounds,  etc.  The  act,  however,  failed  to  name 
the  day  on  which  these  ceremonies  should  be  observed,  and  the  state 
board  of  education,  in  Nov.,  1905,  designated  the  second  Friday  in 
the  month  of  January  of  each  year  as  "Arbor  Day,"  on  which  day 
"those  in  charge  of  the  public  schools  and  institutions  of  learning  un- 
der state  control,  or  state  patronage,  shall  give  information  to  pupils 
and  students  on  the  subject  of  forestry,  its  value  and  interest  to  the 
state,  and  encourage  the  planting  of  forest  trees  and  the  protection  of 
song  birds." 

Arbroth,  a  village  in  the  northern  part  of  West  Baton  Rouge 
parish,  is  situated  on  the  Mississippi  river,  about  a  mile  east  of  the 
railroad  station  of  the  same  name.  It  has  a  money  order  postoffiee  and 
a  population  of  300. 

Arcadia,  the  seat  of  government  of  Bienville  parish,  is  situated 
in  the  northeastern  part  of  the  parish  on  the  main  line  of  the  Vicks- 
burg,  Shreveport  &  Pacific  R.  R.  Before  the  railroad  was  built, 
Arcadia  was  only  a  small  village  on  the  stage  coach  route  between 
Monroe  and  El  Paso,  but  after  the  railroad  was  completed  in  1884  it 
began  to  grow  rapidly,  and  in  1892,  the  parish  seat  was  removed  from 
Sparta  and  located  here.  It  draws  a  large  trade  from  the  surrounding 
rich  fai'ming  district,  being  located  on  one  of  the  most  fertile  high- 
lands in  Louisiana.  A  postoffiee  was  established  here  in  1866 ;  in  1883 
a  seminary  was  established  under  the  title  of  the  Arcadia  E.  A.  S.  Male 
college ;  three  years  later  the  Arcadia  Male  and  Female  college  was 
founded ;  in  1890  the  Arcadia  State  bank  was  organized,  and  its  offi- 
cers have  endeavored  to  build  up  the  interests  of  the  town.  Arcadia 
has  a  money  order  postoffiee,  express  office  and  telegraph  facilities*and 
now  has  a  population  of  1,079. 

Archaeology. — The  word  archaeology  is  derived  from  two  Greek 
words,  "archaios. "  from  the  beginning,  and  "logos,"  a  discourse.  A 
recent  writer  on  the  .subject  says:  "The  name  is  now  very  generally 
given  to  the  study  which  was  formerly  known  as  that  of  'antiquities.' 
The  term  is  well  enough  understood,  althoiigh  its  meaning  is  not  at  all 
definitely  fixed.  In  its  widest  sense,  it  includes  the  knowledge  of  the 
origin,  language,  religion,  laws,  institutions,  literature,  science,  arts, 
manners,  customs — everything,  in  a  word,  that  can  be  learned  of  the 
ancient  life  and  being  of  a  people.  *  *  *  In  its  narrower  but 
perhaps  more  popular  signification,  Archseology  is  understood  to  mean 


42  LOUISIANA 

the  discovery,  preservation,  collection,  arraugemeut.  authentication, 
publication,  description,  interpretation,  or  elucidation  of  the  materials 
from  which  a  knowledge  of  the  ancient  condition  of  a  country  is  to 
be  attained." 

The  arehipologist  makes  liis  investigations  by  the  study  of  fossil 
remains,  ruins.  nioni;ments.  inscriptions,  etc. :  by  written  manuscripts 
(palaeography);  and  by  printed  books  (bibliography).  The  world 
was  old  before  the  archffological  history  of  Louisiana  began  to  be  writ- 
ten. Conse(|uently  there  have  been  found  in  the  state  but  few  relics  of 
sufficient  importance  to  command  the  serious  attention  of  the  anti- 
quary. Jlention  is  made  in  the  article  on  Geological  Survey  of  the 
paper  read  before  the  American  Philosophical  society  in  1832.  relat- 
ing to  the  bones  of  a  lizard-like  animal  found  in  the  Tertiary  forma- 
tion of  Louisiana.  Such  bones  of  extinct  animals  have  been  found  at 
various  points  in  the  state,  but  none  of  them  date  back  to  an  earlier 
geologic  period  than  the  upper  Tertiary  era.  Bones  of  the  mastodon 
giganteus,  an  animal  which  survived  to  a  late  Pleistocene  date,  have 
been  found  on  Avery  island :  bones  and  teeth  of  the  giant  sloth  (Mylo- 
don),  also  of  the  Pleistocene  period,  on  Avery  and  Joor  islands,  and 
many  bones  of  an  extinct  species  of  hoi-se  have  been  found  in  different 
places.  Jlost  of  these  bones  are  preserved  in  the  museum  of  the 
Tulaiie  university  of  Louisiana.  On  Avery  island  wood  in  a  perfectly 
sound  state  was  found  with  the  bones  of  tlie  mastodon,  and  on  the 
same  island  ancient  potteiy.  bones  and  shells  have  been  found  a  few 
feet  below  the  surface  by  persons  engaged  in  sinking  shafts  for  the 
salt  mines. 

There  was  a  tradition  among  the  Indians  of  the  Opelousas  country 
that  a  great  many  years  ago  a  huge  animal  inhabited  the  prairie  in 
the  northern  part  of  the  present  parish  of  Lafayette  and  the  eastern 
part  of  St.  Landry;  that  when  this  great  animal  died  the  carrion 
crows  came  to  feed  upon  the  carcass,  and  that  notwith.standing  the 
crows  came  in  large  numbers,  it  was  a  long  time  before  the  last  vestige 
of  the  body  was  consumed.  It  was  from  this  tradition  that  the  Carrion 
Crow  bayou,  the  district  and  town  of  Carencro  received  their  names. 

A  few  relics  of  past  and  gone  inhabitants  have  been  found,  includ- 
ing stone  arrow  and  spear  heads  near  Amite,  in  Tangipahoa  parish; 
a  carved  stone  pipe  in  the  parish  of  Terrebonne ;  and  a  few  obsidian 
knives,  though  but  few  historically  important  specimens  of  the  mound- 
builders"  work  have  been  discovered.  Hilgard,  in  his  "Supplemen- 
tary and  Final  Report  of  a  Geological  Feeonnoisance  of  the  State  of 
Louisiana."  made  in  May  and  June.  1869.  speaks  of  mounds  on  the 
prairie  between  Opelousas  and  Ville  Platte.  lie  says:  ''On  this  prai- 
rie we  first  observed,  in  considerable  numbers,  those  singular  rounded 
hillocks  which  dot  so  large  a  portion,  both  of  the  prairies  and  wood- 
lands of  southwestern  Louisiana  and  adjoining  portions  of  Texas. 
"With  a  maximum  elevation  of  about  2  feet  above  the  general  surface, 
they  have  a  diameter  varying  from  a  few  feet  to  20  or  30;  their  num- 
ber defies  calculation.  They  do  not  show  in  their  internal  structure 
any  vestige  of  their  mode  of  origin :  or  rather,  being  totally  devoid  of 
structure  of  any  kind;  they  merely  prove  by  their  material  that  there 


LOUISIANA  43 

has  been  a  mixing  up  of  the  surface  soil  with  from  2  to  4  feet  of  the 
subsoil.  They  are  altogether  independent  of  formations  underlying 
at  a  greater  depth,  and  it  seems  impossible  to  assign  to  them  any  other 
origin  than  that  historically  known  of  their  brethren  in  Texas,  viz. : 
that  of  ant  hills.  As  to  the  physical  or  moral  causes  of  the  wholesale 
slaughter  or  emigration  of  this  once  teeming  population,  deponent 
saith  not.  Perhaps  some  of  the  aboriginal  Attakapas  tribes  might, 
if  consulted,  still  be  able  to  bear  testimony  on  the  subject."  Prof. 
George  Williamson,  of  the  Louisiana  state  normal  school,  and  Prof. 
George  Beyer,  of  the  Tulane  universitj^  have  made  important  studies 
in  the  archaeology  of  Louisiana  relating  to  the  Indians.-  (See  also 
Geology. ) 

Archer  (R.  K.  name  Spencer),  a  post-hamlet  and  station  in  the 
southeastern  part  of  Union  parish,  is  situated  on  the  St.  Louis,  Iron 
Mountain  &  Southern  R.  R.,  about  15  miles  east  of  Farmerville,  the 
parish  seat. 

Archibald,  a  village  and  station  in  the  southeastern  part  of  Rich- 
land parish,  is  a  station  on  the  New  Orleans  &  Northwestern  R.  R., 
about  10  miles  south  of  Rayville,  the  parish  seat.  It  has  a  money 
order  postoffice  and  is  a  trading  center  for  a  considerable  district. 

Areola,  a  village  and  station  in  the  nortiiwest  part  of  Tangipahoa 
parish,  is  on  the  main  line  of  the  Illinois  Central  R.  R.,  about  4  miles 
north  of  Amite,  the  parish  seat.  It  has  a  money  order  postoffice, 
telegraph  and  express  offices,  and  is  situated  in  one  of  the  great  berry 
raising  districts  of  the  south.    Its  population  is  100. 

Argo,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  southeastern  part  of  Catahoula  parish, 
is  located  on  the  Black  river,  about  16  miles  west  of  Bougere,  Con- 
cordia parish,  which  is  the  nearest  railroad  station. 

Ariel,  a  hamlet  in  the  western  part  of  Lafourche  parish,  is  situated 
on  the  Bayou  Lafourche,  4  miles  southwest  of  Lafourche  Crossing. 
Ewing  \s  the  nearest  railroad  station.  It  has  a  money  order  post- 
office  and  a  population  of  150. 

Arizona,  a  town  in  the  central  part  of  Claiborne  parish,  is  situated 
on  a  branch  of  the  Bayou  D'Arbonnc,  about  6  miles  east  of  Homer, 
the  parish  seat  and  nearest  railroad  station  and  banking  town.  Ari- 
zona was  incorporated  on  March  1,  1869.  It  has  a  money  order  post- 
office  and  a  population  of  50. 

Arkana,  a  post-hamlet  and  station  on  the  northern  border  of  Bos 
sier  parish,  is  on  the  St.  Louis  Southwestern  R.  R.,  about  a  mile 
south  of  the  Arkansas  line. 

Arkansas  Post. — "This  Post,"  says  Dumont  in  his  Historical  Mem- 
oirs, "is  properly  only  a  continuation  of  the  establishment  formed 
by  the  French  around  the  house  which  Joutel  and  his  companions 

reached  in  the  month  of  July,  1687 Prom  that  time  to  the 

present  the  nation  has  always  remained  in  possession  of  that  ter- 
ritory; and  when  j\I.  Le  Blanc  sent  men  to  take  possession  of  the 
grant  made  him  on  the  Yasouz  river,  140  leagues  from  the  capital, 
the  little  garrison,  kept  till  then  by  the  company  (Western)  at  that 
place,  retired  to  the  Acancas  post,  then  commanded  by  the  Sieur 
de  la  Boulaye.     There  is  no  fort  in  the  place,  only    four    or   five 


44  LOUISIANA 

palisades,  a  little  guard  house  and  a  cabin,  Avhich  serves  as  a  store- 
house. This  French  post  was  established  as  a  stopping  place  for 
those  going  from  the  capital  to  the  Illinois."  The  post  was  located 
some  three  leagues  from  the  mouth  of  the  Arkansas  river,  and 
only  a  few  leagues  from  where  the  Arkansas  or  Quapaw  ludians 
had  their  habitations.  When  Law's  German  colonists  came  to 
occupy  his  extensive  grant  on  the  Arkansas,  they  established  them- 
selves about  a  leagiie  from  the  post,  where  was  a  beautiful  plain 
surrounded  by  fertile  valleys,  and  watered  by  a  little  stream  of 
fine,  clear,  wholesome  water.  Upon  the  downfall  of  Law  all  but 
a  few  of  the  Germans  abandoned  the  settlement  and  returned  to 
New  Orleans,  and  the  Company  of  the  Indies  took  possession  of 
all  of  Law's  effects  at  his  concession.  When  la  Harpe  visited  the 
settlement  on  the  Arkansas  in  1722  during  his  .iourney  of  explo- 
ration up  the  river,  he  found  the  post  nearly  deserted  and  in  a 
struggling  condition. 

Armagh,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  western  part  of  Concordia  parish 
on  the  Black  river,  about  12  miles  west  of  Fish  Pond,  the  nearest 
railroad  station. 

Armant,  Leopold  L.,  soldier,  was  a  native  of  Louisiana.  He  en- 
tered the  Confederate  army  as  a  member  of  the  ISth  La.  volunteer 
infantry,  and  upon  the  reorganization  of  the  regiment  in  Oct., 
1862,  was  made  colonel.  A  few  days  later,  in  command  of  liis  reg- 
iment, he  was  with  Gen.  IMouton  in  resisting  the  advance  of  Gen. 
Godfrey  Weitzel  into  the  Lafourche  country.  Later  he  joined 
Gen.  Taylor  in  the  Red  river  valley  and  lost  his  life  in  the  battle 
of  Mansfield,  April  8,  1864.  Early  in  the  charge  of  Moiiton's  divis- 
ion he  received  a  wound  in  the  arm.  Changing  his  sword  to  his 
sound  hand  he  cheered  on  his  men.  when  he  was  again  slig'htly 
wounded  and  almost  immediately  afterward  a  ball  pierced  his 
brea.st,  killing  him  instantly.  Tlie  Confederate  Military  History 
says:  "Armant,  of  the  18th,  received  three  wounds,  the  last  one 
killing  him,  while  the  sword  of  defiance  still  gleamed  in  his  hand." 
Thus  ended  fhe  life  of  a  brave  man.  His  memory  is  still  honored 
by  civilians  and  revered  by  the  survivors  of  his  old  regiment — men 
who  followed  cheerfully  wherever  he  led. 

Armide,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  southeastei-n  part  of  St.  Landry 
parish,  is  a  station  on  the  division  of  the  Southern  Pacific  R.  R. 
that  runs  from  Port  Barre  to  Cades. 

Armistead,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  western  part  of  Bienville  parish, 
is  situated  aboiit  half-way  between  Lake  Bistineau  and  Thomas, 
which  is  the  nearest  railway  station. 

Amaudville,  one  of  the  old  towns  of  St.  Landry  parish,  was  in- 
corporated on  Feb.  17,  1870.  It  is  situated  in  the  southeastern  part 
of  the  parish,  on  Bayoii  Teche  and  is  a  station  on  the  branch  line 
of  the  Southern  Pacific  R.  R.  running  from  Port  Barre  to  Cades.  It 
has  a  money  order  postoffice  and  is  the  trading  center  of  a  rich 
farming  district.     Its  population  is  279. 

Ascension  Parish. — This  parisli  was  created  in  1807  when  the 
first  territorial  legislature  divided  Orleans  territory  into  19  parishes 


LOUISIANA  45 

and  was  named  after  the  old  ecclesiastical  district  of  Ascension. 
It  has  an  area  of  310  square  miles,  is  situated  iu  the  southeastern 
part  of  the  state,  and  is  divided  by  the  Mississippi  river,  which 
flows  through  the  southwestern  portion.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north 
by  East  Baton  Rouge  parisli,  on  the  east  and  northeast  by  Living- 
ston ;  on  the  south  by  St.  James  and  Assumption  parishes,  and  on 
the  west  by  Iberville  parish.  The  surface  is  about  equally  divided 
between  alluvial  land  and  wooded  swamp,  and  the  soil  is  exceed- 
ingly rich  and  highly  productive.  It  is  drained  by  the  Mississippi 
and  Amite  rivers.  Bayous  Manchac  and  Les  Acadians,  and  other 
smaller  water  courses.  Ascension  was  first  settled  about  1763  by 
a  colony  of  exiled  Acadians,  and  became  known  as  the  second 
"Acadian  Coast."  The  descendants  of  these  pioneers  are  many  of  the 
most  prominent  and  influential  families  of  the  parish  today.  "The 
parish  of  Ascension,"  was  the  name  given  the  ecclesiastical  division, 
by  the  promoters  of  the  Catholic  church,  sent  to  America  by  Charles 
III  of  Spain.  It  formed  a  part  of  Comte  d 'Acadia  until  the  division 
of  the  territory  of  Orleans  into  parishes  in  1807,  when  it  was  incoi-po- 
rated  as  one  of  the  original  19  parishes.  Donaldsonville  has  been  the 
seat  of  justice  since  the  foundation  of  the  parish.  A.scension  has  done 
much  for  public  education ;  there  are  many  public  schools ;  two  higher 
academies  at  Donaldsonville,  one  for  w'hite  and  one  for  colored  chil- 
dren ;  the  brothers  of  the  Sacred  Heart  established  a  school  in  Donald- 
sonville in  1887 ;  the  Convent  of  the  Sisters  of  St.  Vincent,  founded 
in  1848,  has  done  much  for  the  education  and  training  of  girls,  and 
the  sisters  of  the  Holy  Family  have  a  school  for  the  education  of  col- 
ored children.  The  Catholic  religion  predominates  throughout  the 
parish.  Ascension  Catholic  church  of  Donaldsonville  was  founded  in 
1772  by  Angelus  a  Reuillagodos,  a  Capuchiu  father.  The  church  of 
the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus,  at  New  River,  was  founded  by  Father  Les- 
saichere,  in  1864.  The  alluvial  lands  lying  on  both  sides  of  the  Missis- 
sippi river  are  as  rich  and  valuable  for  the  production  of  sugar-cane 
as  any  in  the  state,  and  Assumption  parish  has  some  of  the  largest  and 
best  equipped  sugar  plantations  in  Louisiana.  Since  1861  .sugar  has 
been  the  chief  product,  especially  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river, 
where  the  production  has  increased  from  50  to  100  per  cent.  Since 
the  Civil  war  the  growing  popularity  of  rice  culture  has  tended  to 
cut  down  the  .sugar  produced  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Mississippi  as 
rice  was  not  cultivated  to  any  great  extent  before  1868.  The  other 
productions  of  the  parish  are  cotton,  corn,  hay,  oats,  sweet  and  Irish 
potatoes,  tobacco  and  garden  truck.  While  horticulture  is  not  one  of 
the  chief  industries,  sucli  fruits  and  nuts  as  the  orange,  fig,  pome- 
granate, plum,  pear,  peach,  grape,  prune,  and  pecan  grow  rapidly  in 
the  mild  climate  and  rich  soil.  Game  is  plentiful  and  fish  abound 
in  the  streams.  Lumber  of  a  fine  quality  is  produced  from  the  cypress 
swamps,  and  the  ash,  oak,  willow  and  cottonwood  which  grow  on 
higher  ground.  Transportation  is  provided  thi'ough  the  center  of  the 
parish  by  the  Louisiana  Railway  &  Navigation  company,  in  the  south- 
western part  by  the  Yazoo  &  Mississippi  Valley  R.  R.,  which  runs 
from  northwest  to  southeast  along  the  east  bank  of  the  river,  and  by 


46  LOUISIANA 

the  Texas  &  Pacific  R.  R..  and  its  branches  on  the  west  side  of  the 
river,  while  the  steamboats  on  the  Mississippi  river  aflford  cheap  traus- 
portatiou  by  water.  The  following  statistics  regarding  the  farms, 
manufactiu-es  and  population  of  the  parish  are  taken  from  the  United 
States  census  for  1910:  Number  of  farms,  1.170:  acreage.  104.253; 
improved,  57.119:  value  of  land  exclusive  of  buildings.  ^3.149,870; 
value  of  farm  buildings.  $884.325 :  value  of  live  stock.  $460.762 :  value 
of  all  crops.  $1,334,203.    The  population  for  1910  was  23.887. 

Ashland,  a  village  near  the  northern  border  of  Natchitoches 
parish,  is  a  station  on  the  main  line  of  the  Louisiana  &  Arkansas  R.  R. 
It  has  a  money  postoffice  and  some  retail  stores. 

Ashly,  a  post-village  in  the  northeastern  part  of  ^Madison  parish, 
is  about  2  miles  south  of  Mausford.  the  nearest  railroad  station,  and 
5  miles  northeast  of  Tallulah,  the  parish  seat. 

Ashton,  a  post-village  of  St.  ]Mary  parish,  is  a  station  on  the 
Southern  Pacific  R.  R..  about  8  miles  northwest  of  Franklin,  the  par- 
ish seat.  It  has  a  money  order  postoflfice  and  is  the  trading  center  of 
a  rich  farming  district. 

Ashwood,  a  hamlet  in  the  nortlieastern  part  of  Tensas  parish,  is 
on  the  west  bank  of  the  Jlississippi  river  and  4  miles  east  of  Somer- 
set, the  nearest  railroad  town.  It  has  a  money  order  postoffice  and 
is  a  landing  for  steamboats. 

Assumption  Parish  is  an  irregular  shaped  parish  in  the  southern 
part  of  the  state.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Iberville  and  Ascen- 
sion parishes:  on  the  east  by  St.  James  and  Labourclie  parishes:  on 
the  .south  by  Terrebonne  parish,  and  on  the  west  by  Grand  lake,  which 
separates  it  from  the  parishes  of  St.  I\Iary  and  St.  ^lartin.  The  parish 
has  an  extreme  length  of  25  and  an  extreme  width  of  18  miles,  which 
gives  it  a  land  surface  of  485  square  miles.  It  is  drained  by  Bayous 
Lafourche,  Grant  and  Vincent,  and  by  Grand  river  and  Grand  lake, 
which  flows  south  to  the  gulf.  Under  French  and  Spanish  rule  As- 
sumption formed  a  part  of  the  "Lafourche  Settlement."  The  first  pei-- 
manent  settlements  in  this  region  were  made  by  the  French  and  Span- 
ish about  the  middle  of  the  18th  century  along  the  Lafourche,  be- 
tween the  present  towns  of  Donaldsonville  and  Napoleonville.  From 
1755  to  1765.  the  population  was  increased  by  the  immigration  of  the 
exiled  Acadians,  who  had  been  torn  from  their  homes  in  Acadia,  and 
sought  Louisiana,  over  which  floated  the  lilied  banner  of  France.  To 
achieve  this  purpose  they  overcame  many  difficulties,  traveled  over- 
land more  than  1.000  miles  through  a  wilderness  until  they  reached 
the  Tennessee  river,  where  they  hastily  constructed  boats  and  em- 
barked. ]iassing  from  the  Tennessee  river  to  the  ^Mississippi,  and  down 
it  to  Plaiiuemines  bayou,  where  they  were  met  by  friends  and  kind- 
ness. JIany  families  settled  along  the  Teche  and  Lafourche ;  cleared 
their  lands  and  built  comfortable  homes,  and  their  descendants  are 
still  numerous  in  the  parish  today.  In  1785  Assumption  had  a  popu- 
lation of  646.  By  an  act  of  the  legislature  of  Orleans  territory  in  1807, 
Assumption  was  created  the  Sth  parish  of  the  territory.  "  ! . .  .From 
that  portion  of  the  settlement  of  Lafourche  lying  nearest  the  river, 
to  contain  one-half  the  population  of  the  settlement."  Napoleonville, 
situated  on  Bayou  Lafourche,  at  about  the  center  of  the  parish,  is  the 


LOUISIANA  47 

parish  seat.  In  1823,  John  Toley,  Aiigustin  and  Thomas  Piigh  and 
D.  M.  Williamson  were  aliont  the  only  Americans  in  the  parish.  Mr. 
Guillet,  Dr.  Joseph  Martin,  Mr.  Tournillon,  and  Joseph  La  Lande 
were  prominent  French  citizens.  The  soil  of  the  entire  parish  is  alln- 
vial  and  divided  into  three  classes;  sandy  loam,  mixed  soil,  in  which 
sand  and  humus  are  about  e(|ual.  and  black  land,  in  which  there  is 
little  or  no  sand.  The  inhabitants  call  this  "terre  gras, "  which  means 
fat  land.  Each  grade,  except  "terre  gras"  has  its  advantages  for 
different  crops.  This  black  land  grows  fine  clover  for  pasture,  is  well 
adapted  to  rice,  and  causes  cane  to  ripen  earlier  than  other  soil,  but 
is  objectionable  because  it  stiffens,  making  it  hard  to  cultivate  and 
drain.  The  sandy  loam  is  of  a  warmer  and  more  durable  nature  than 
the  mixed  soil.  The  most  valuable  land  of  the  parish  lies  along  Bayou 
Lafourche,  extending  back  from  SO  to  100  acres;  no  better  land  than 
this  is  to  be  found  in  the  state.  In  proportion  to  its  area.  Assumption 
parish  produces  more  sugar  than  any  parish  of  Louisiana.  Rice  cul- 
ture has  been  introduced  since  the  war,  and  is  a  large  and  growing 
industry.  In  1900  there  were  about  four  times  as  many  acres  in  cane 
as  in  rice  or  corn,  and  considerable  in  meadow  and  pasture. 

Aswell,  James  Benjamin,  of  Natchitoches,  was  born  in  Jackson 
Parish,  Dccendier  23,  1869.  He  graduated  from  Peabody  Normal 
College  in  1892  receiving  the  degree  of  A.  B.  and  A.  M.,  also  from 
the  University  of  Nashville  in  1893-1898.  Mr.  Aswell  taught 
country  school,  high  school,  did  graduate  work  at  the  University 
of  Chicago,  specialized  in  literature,  pedagogy  and  political  science. 
He  became  state  institute  conductor  1897-1900,  and  president  of 
Louisiana  Industrial  Institute  1900-1904.  He  was  elected  twice  to 
the  office  of  state  superintendent  of  public  education  without  op- 
position 1904-1908,  and  was  elected  Chancellor  of  University  of 
Miss,  in  1907.  He  served  1908-11  as  President  of  State  Normal 
School,  receiving  the  degree  of  LL.  D.  from  the  University  of  Ar- 
kansas. In  1907  he  married  Miss  P^lla  Poster,  of  Mansfield,  and 
they  have  two  children.  ]\Ir.  Aswell  reorganized  the  State  Public 
School  System,  and  was  elected  to  63rd  Congrses. 

The  following  statistics  concerning  the  parish  were  taken  from  the 
U.  S.  census  for  1900 :  Number  of  farms  in  the  pai-ish,  448 ;  acreage 
in  farms,  95,142;  acres  improved.  54.069;  value  of  land  and  improve- 
ments, exclusive  of  buildings  $3,777,210;  value  of  farm  buildings, 
$831,385  ;  value  of  live  stock,  .$661,645 ;  total  value  of  all  crops,  $2,314,- 
363.     The  population  for  1910  was  24,128. 

Asylums. — The  necessity  for  public  institutions  for  the  protec- 
tion and  care  of  destitute  orjihan  children  has  been  particularly  great 
in  New  Orleans,  owing  to  the  ravages  of  the  epidemics  which  have 
swept  through  the  city.  Families  deprived  of  their  breadwinners  and 
children  bereft  of  one  or  both  parents  were  common  sights  in  the 
wake  of  these  scourges.  There  is  no  city  in  the  country  which  has 
so  many  asylums  as  New  Orleans,  nor  any  in  which  they  receive  such 
enthusiastic  support.  The  a.sylums  are  managed  in  some  cases  by 
church  sisterhoods  and  in  others  by  governing  board.s,  composed  of 
public-spirited  citizens.  Bequests  and  gifts  from  charitable  persons, 
proceeds  from  sales,  fairs,  etc.,  with  some  aid  from  city  and  state, 


48  LOUISIANA 

furnish  the  fuiuls  necessary  for  the  establishment  and  support  of  these 
institutions.  Of  beloved  memory  in  New  Orleans  will  always  be  the 
well-known  benefactors  of  the  orphan  child,  Julien  Poydras,  Alexan- 
der Milne,  Sister  Regis,  Margaret  Haughery  and  John  McDonogli. 
The  managers  of  the  orphan  asylums  make  a  consistent  effort  to  render 
the  institutions  self-supporting,  but  in  some  eases  this  is  impossible. 
When  children  who  have  one  living  parent,  half-orphans  as  they  are 
called,  are  admitted  into  an  asylum,  it  is  customary  for  the  survivor 
to  pay  something  toward  their  support. 

As  early  as  1817,  a  society  for  the  relief  of  destitute  orphan  chil- 
dren was  incorporated,  probal)ly  by  means  of  money  bequeathed  for 
that  jnirpose  by  Julien  Poydras.  In  1820.  the  legislature  granted  the 
sum  of  .$1,000  for  the  maintenance  of  the  Poydras  female  asylum  in 
New  Orleans.  The  fii'st  directory  of  New  Orleans,  published  in  1822, 
when  the  population  of  the  city  was  numbered  at  40.000.  makes  the 
following  statement:  "The  Poydras  female  orphan  asylum,  situated 
at  153  Poydras  St.,  is  a  neat,  new  frame  building  with  a  large  gar- 
den." This  institution  commenced  its  operations  in  1816,  with  14 
orphans,  which  increased  in  1826  to  41.  Any  female  child  in  want, 
though  not  an  orphan,  may  be  admitted  by  consent  of  the  board.  The 
constitution  declares  "that  they  shall  provide  a  hoiise  for  the  reception 
of  indigent  female  orphans  and  widows,  which  shall  be  enlarged  ac- 
cording to  the  income  of  the  society. ' '  This  institution  was  estab- 
lished by  means  of  a  gift  from  Julien  Poydras  of  the  house  and  large 
lot  upon  which  it  stands  and  a  grant  of  $4,000  from  the  legislature. 
It  is  in  existence  to  the  present  day  and  has  two  departments,  male 
and  female,  the  former  governed  by  a  board  of  directors  and  the  latter 
by  a  board  of  directresses. 

The  next  benefactor  of  the  cause  was  Alexander  Milne,  by  the  terms 
of  whose  will  two  asylums  were  assured  to  the  cit.v.  The  Milne  Asyhim 
for  destitute  orphan  girls  was  incorporated  Feb.  27.  1839,  and  the 
board  of  managers  was  composed  of  Mmes.  Claiborne.  Hennen.  F.  "W. 
Morgan.  Pollock,  Clay,  Kerr,  Daunoy,  E.  A.  Canon.  IMarigny.  Audry, 
Merle.  Nott  and  Preston,  and  Misses  Bornel  and  Brunair.  The  Milne 
Asylum  for  destitute  orphan  boys  was  incorporated  at  the  same  time, 
with  the  following  directors:  Bishop  Blanc,  Richard  Relf.  George  W. 
Morgan.  Carlisle  Pollock,  E.  A.  Canon.  Louis  Bringier.  Charles  Cuvel- 
lier.  Wm.  C.  C.  Claiborne,  and  Hartwell  Reed.  According  to  the 
terms  of  Mr.  Milne's  will,  these  two  institutions  were  to  be  established 
at  Milneburg  and  with  the  society  for  the  relief  of  destitute  orphan 
boys  at  Lafayette,  Jefferson  parish,  and  tlie  Poydras  female  orphan 
asylum  in  New  Orleans,  were  to  share  the  estate  in  equal  fourths.  The 
trust,  so  far  as  the  asylum  for  destitute  boys  is  concerned,  is  managed 
by  the  mayor  and  the  assets  comprise  a  large  amount  of  real  estate, 
which  of  late  has  been  of  little  value,  and  some  city  bonds  worth  about 
$3,000. 

The  asylum  for  the  relief  of  destitute  orphan  boys,  incorporated 
Feb.  4,  1825,  received  also  benefactions  from  John  McDonogh,  who 
conferred  upon  the  society  the  buildings  and  grounds  on  St.  Charles 
avenue,  now  occupied  by  the  asylum.    In  the  main  building  a  tablet 


LOUISIANA  49 

has  been  erected  in  his  memory.  In  1840  Joseph  Claude  Mary  be- 
queathed $5,000  to  the  orphans  of  the  1st  Municipality  of  New  Orleans. 
At  last  accounts,  this  beciuest  had  been  turned  over  to  a  private  cor- 
poration maintaining  a  boys'  asylum. 

St.  Vincent's  infant  orphan  asylum,  known  as  the  "Baby  Asylum," 
receives  the  city  foundlings.  It  is  located  on  Magazine  street,  and  is 
governed  by  the  Sisters  of  Charity.  There  is  also  the  St.  Vincent 
home  for  destitute  boys  and  the  St.  Vincent  half-orphan  asylum. 
From  the  baby  asylum,  girls  are  transferred  to  the  Camp  Street  female 
orphan  a.sylum,  founded  in  1850  by  Sister  Regis,  one  of  the  largest 
asylums  under  the  control  of  the  Sisters  of  Charity.  The  baby  asy- 
lum, the  Camp  Street  asylum,  and  St.  Elizabeth  asylum,  also  man- 
aged bj'  the  Sisters  of  Charity,  to  which  girls  are  transferred  from  the 
Camp  Street  asylum,  were  all  recipients  of  the  bounty  of  Margaret 
Haughery.  In  the  last  named  the  girls  are  taught  sewing  and  such 
other  branches  as  will  fit  them  to  be  useful  in  homes  found  for  them 
by  the  sisters. 

In  1855  the  Touro  Almshouse  association  was  incorporated.  The 
latter  was  made  possible  by  the  bequest  of  Judah  Touro  of  $80,000 
"to  prevent  mendicity  in  New  Orleans."  The  almshouse  was  built 
in  1860  upon  the  ground  given  to  the  association  by  R.  D.  Shepherd, 
who  is  said  to  have  saved  Mr.  Touro  from  sudden  death  in  an  acci- 
dent. The  building  burned  to  the  ground  while  U.  S.  troops  were 
stationed  there  in  1864. 

The  Girod  asylum  on  the  Metaire  road  was  the  result  of  a  bequest 
made  by  Mayor  Nicolas  Girod.  The  Fink  home  on  Camp  street  for 
Protestant  widows  and  orphans  was  established  about  the  same  time  as 
the  Touro  almshouse  by  means  of  a  bequest  of  a  considerable  sum  in 
the  will  of  John  B.  Fink.  The  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor  have  an  asy- 
lum for  the  aged  and  infirm  on  North  Johnson  street,  which  is  sup- 
ported entirely  by  charity.  There  are  two  departments,  male  and 
female,  and  the  only  condition  of  admittance  is  extreme  poverty.  St. 
Ann's  asylum,  a  retreat  for  indigent  gentlewomen,  was  founded  and 
endowed  "by  the  generosity  of  Dr.  Mercer,  a  wealthy  and  philanthropic 
citizen  of  New  Orleans.  It  is  situated  on  Prytania  street  in  a  pleasant 
residence  district. 

There  is  a  home  for  homeless  women  at  16  Polymnia  street  and 
other  homes  for  the  aged  in  different  parts  of  the  city. 

A  home  for  orphan  girls  is  maintained  by  a  Protestant  Episcopal 
sisterhood  on  Jackson  street.  St.  Mary's  asylum  for  orphan  boys 
is  located  on  Chartres  street,  and  has  a  farm  below  the  city.  In  the 
home  the  boys  have  instruction  in  manual  training.  The  Jewish 
widows'  and  orphans'  asylum  is  splendidly  managed  and  supported 
entirely  by  the  Jewish  people.  The  building  is  a  commodious  one 
located  on  St.  Charles  avenue,  and  the  children  received  in  this  insti- 
tution are  educated  in  the  Jewish  faith. 

The  House  of  the  Good  Shepherd  on  Bienville  street  is  under  the 
control  of  the  sisters  of  the  Good  Shepherd  and  contains  two  depart- 
ments, one  composed  of  young  people  placed  in  the  institution  by  their 
parents  and  the  other  of  young  persons  committed  to  the  home  by  the 
1—4 


50  LOUISIANA 

courts.  The  building  is  large  and  well-appointed  and  contains  school 
and  work  rooms,  chapel,  dormitories,  offices,  etc.  It  is  designed  to 
accommodate  young  people  whose  tendency  is  to  become  incorrigibles, 
with  the  hope  of  converting  them  into  good  and  useful  citizens. 

In  addition  to  the  asylums  mentioned,  the  following  have  accom- 
plished useful  work:  "La  Maison  Hospitaliere. "  the  Beauregard 
asylum,  the  Boys'  house  of  refuge,  the  female  asylum  of  the  Immac- 
ulate Conception,  the  Faith  Home  for  the  aged  and  destitute,  the 
German  Protestant  asylum,  the  House  of  the  Sisters  of  Christian 
Charity,  the  House  of  Kefuge  for  destitute  girls,  the  Indigent  Colored 
asylum,  the  industrial  school  and  model  farm  of  Our  Lady  of  the 
Holy  Cross,  the  Louisiana  Ketreat  insane  asylum,  the  New  Orleans 
female  orphan  asylum,  the  Protestant  orphans'  home,  the  Providence 
asylum  for  colored  children,  the  Societe  Francaise  de  Bienfaisanee 
asylum,  the  St.  Alphonsus  orphan  asylum,  the  Shakespeare  almshouse, 
St.  Joseph's  orphan  asylum,  and  the  Father  Turgis  widows'  and  or- 
phans' asylum. 

Athenee  Louisianais. — This  is  a  literary  society  whose  chief  pur- 
pose is  to  preserve  the  French  language  in  Louisiana.  It  was  Dr. 
Alfred  Mercier.  a  distinguished  physician  and  writer,  who  conceived 
the  idea  of  establishing  the  society.  He  spoke  of  his  plan  to  some  of 
his  friends  and  on  Jan.  12, 1876,  the  Athenee  Louisianais  was  founded, 
with  the  following  members:  Dr.  Alfred  Mercier,  Oliver  Carriere, 
Col.  Leon  Queyrouze,  Dr.  Armand  Mercier,  Dr.  J.  G.  Hava.  Auguste 
Jas,  Dr.  Charles  Turpin,  Gen.  G.  T.  Beauregard,  Paul  Pourehy.  Dr. 
Sabin  Martin.  Dr.  Just  Touatre  and  Judge  Arthur  Saucier. 

The  fii'st  officers  of  the  society  were:  Dr.  Armand  Mercier.  presi- 
dent; Gen.  G.  T.  Beauregard,  vice-president;  Dr.  Alfi-ed  Mercier, 
secretary-treasurer.  The  title  of  secretary-treasurer  was  changed  to 
that  of  perpetual  secretary,  and  Dr.  Alfred  Mercier  filled  that  office 
until  his  death  in  1894.    He  had  as  a  worthy  successor  Bussiere  Rouen, 

Dr.  Armand  Mercier  resigned  as  president  iu  1880  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Gen.  Beauregard.  The  latter 's  successor  was  Prof.  Alcee 
Fortier,  who  was  elected  in  1892  and  was  reelected  president  every 
year  until  his  death  in  1914. 

The  present  officers  are :  Bussiere  Rouen,  pres. ;  Edgar  Grima, 
1st  vice-pres. ;  Chas.  F.  Claiborne,  2nd  vice-pres. ;  Lionel  C.  Diirel, 
life  secretary;  Andre  Lafargue,  asst.  secretary. 

The  Athenee  Louisianais  offers  annually  a  gold  medal  and  $50  in 
■gold  to  the  winner  in  a  literary  contest — an  essay  written  in  French 
on  a  given  subject.  It  has  published  since  1876  a  magazine  which 
contains  a  great  part  of  the  modern  French  literature  of  Louisiana. 
It  is  affiliated  with  the  Alliance  Frangais  of  Paris  and  of  the  United 
States. 

Athens  is  a  money  order  post-village  in  the  southern  part  of  Clai- 
borne parish,  on  the  Louisiana  &  Northwestern  R.  R.,  10  miles  south 
of  Homer,  the  parish  seat.  This  town  was  settled  during  the  third 
decade  of  the  19th  century.  In  1846  a  large  area  of  land  was  given 
the  town  for  school  purposes,  and  the  same  year  it  became  the  seat 
of  parochial  government.    On  Nov.  7,  1849,  the  school  buildings  ia 


LOUISIANA  51 

which  the  ofBees  of  the  parish  were  located  were  burned,  with  all 
the  valuable  records  of  the  parish,  and  the  same  year  the  seat  of 
justice  was  moved  to  Homer.  Athens  is  one  of  the  most  important 
stations  on  the  railroad.  It  has  express  and  telegraph  offices,  a 
population  of  514,  and  is  the  trading  center  of  a  fine  agricultural 
district. 

Atherton  (R.  R.  name  Spitlers),  a  small  post-village  in  the  east- 
ern part  of  East  Carroll  parish,  is  a  station  on  the  St.  Louis.  Iron 
Mountain  &  Southern  R.  R.,  about  6  miles  south  of  Lake  Provi- 
dence, the  parish  seat. 

Atkins,  a  village  in  the  southeastern  part  of  Bossier  parish,  on 
the  line  of  the  Louisiana  Railway  &  Navigation  company,  about  20 
miles  southeast  of  Shreveport.  It  has  a  money  order  postoffiee, 
is  a  trading  center  for  a  rich  cotton  district,  and  has  a  population 
of  200. 

Atlanta,  a  village  in  the  southwestern  part  of  Winn  parish,  is 
a  station  on  the  line  of  the  Louisiana  Railway  &  Navigation  com- 
pany, about  10  miles  southwest  of  Winnfield,  the  parish  seat.  It 
has  a  money  order  postoffice  and  a  population  of  311. 

Attakapac. — (See  Indians.) 

Aubert,  Gen.  Dubayet,  a  distinguished  French  soldier  and  diplo- 
matist, was  born  in  Louisiana  on  Aug.  17,  1759.  His  father,  who 
held  the  rank  of  ad.jutant-major,  was  one  of  the  officers  sent  by  Gov. 
Aubry,  at  the  request  of  Gen.  O'Reilly,  in  1769,  to  arrest  Foucault, 
the  French  commissary.  The  son  entered  the  French  army  at  an 
early  age,  and  during  the  Revolutionary  war  served  in  America. 
Returning  to  France,  he  soon  began  to  take  an  active  interest  in 
public  affairs,  and  in  1789  published  a  pamphlet  opposing  the  ad- 
mission of  Jews  to  citizenship.  In  1791  he  was  chosen  a  member  of 
the  legislative  assembly  and  took  a  prominent  part  in  its  delibera- 
tions. Two  years  later  he  was  made  governor  of  Mayence,  which 
he  was  compelled  to  surrender  to  the  king  of  Prussia,  but  not  until 
he  had  made  the  best  possible  defense  with  the  means  at  his  dis- 
posal. He  was  then  appointed  general-in-chief  in  La  Vendee,  but 
after  his  defeat  at  Clisson  he  was  severely  denounced  by  some  of 
his  countrymen  for  his  failure.  He  successfully  defended  himself 
against  his  accusers  and  was  again  employed  at  Cherbourg  until 
called  to  the  post  of  minister  of  war.  After  holding  this  position 
for  three  months;  he  was  appointed  minister  of  the  French  republic 
at  Constantinople,  w'here  he  died  on  Dee.  17,  1797. 

Aubrey,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  soiitheastern  part  of  Vernon  parish, 
is  about  3  miles  east  of  Pitkin,  which  is  the  nearest  railroad  station. 

Aubry,  Capt.  Charles,  the  last  Frenchman  to  serve  as  governor 
of  Louisiana  before  the  actual  commencement  of  the  Spanish  dom- 
ination, had  distinguished  himself  with  the  French  army  in  Italy 
before  coming  to  America.  In  the  summer  of  1758  he  was  ordered 
by  the  commandant  at  Fort  Chartres  to  go  to  the  relief  of  Fort 
Duquesne  (where  Pittsbiirg,  Pa.,  now  stands),  then  menaced  by  a 
British  force  under  Ma,j.  Grant.  Aubry  ascended  the  Ohio  and  on 
Sept.  14,  defeated  the  British,  but  the  latter  received  reinforce- 


52  LOUISIANA 

ments,  when  Aubry  burned  the  fort  and  returned  to  Fort  Chartres. 
The  following  year  he  was  captured  on  the  Niagara  and  upon  being 
released  returned  to  France,  where  he  received  the  Cross  of  St. 
Louis.  Again  he  came  to  Louisiana  and  when  d'Abbadie  died  in 
Feb.,  1765.  he  became  acting  governor  of  the  province  until  the 
arrival  of  Gov.  Ulloa.  Jean  de  Champigny  says:  "M.  Aubry  was 
a  little,  dry,  lean,  ugly  man,  without  nobility,  dignity  or  carriage. 
His  face  would  seem  to  announce  a  hypocrite,  but  in  him  this  vice 
sprang  from  excessive  goodness,  which  granted  all  rather  than  dis- 
please; always  trembling  for  the  consequences  of  the  most  indif- 
ferent actions,  a  natural  effect  of  a  mind  without  resource  or  light ; 
always  allowing  itself  to  be  guided,  and  thus  swerving  from  recti- 
tude in  conduct ;  religious  througli  weakness  rather  than  from  prin- 
ciple; incapable  of  wishing  evil,  but  doing  it  through  a  charitable 
human  weakness;  destitute  of  magnanimity  or  reflection;  a  good 
soldier  but  a  bad  leader ;  ambitious  of  honors  and  dignity,  but  pos- 
sessing neither  firmness  nor  capacity  to  bear  the  weight." 

After  Ulloa 's  arrival  Aubry  became  the  mouthpiece  of  the  Span- 
ish governor,  proclaiming  the  law  regulating  the  commerce  of  the 
colony — a  law,  that  still  further  increased  the  indignation  of  the 
people.  (See  Revolution  of  1768.)  French  soldiers,- commanded  by 
Aubry  and  under  the  French  colors,  remained  in  service  in  the  pay 
of  Spain,  another  fact  that  tended  to  render  Aubry  more  unpop- 
ular than  ever.  When  Ulloa  left  New  Orleans  in  the  fall  of  1768, 
Aubry  again  administered  the  affairs  of  the  province  until  Gov. 
O'Reilly  arrived  at  New  Orleans  and  assumed  the  reins  of  govern- 
ment. Shortly  after  that  Aubry  started  for  France,  but  the  vessel 
on  which  he  took  passage  was  wrecked  at  the  mouth  of  the  river 
Garonne  and  he  was  lost.  It  has  been  stated  that  he  took  with  him 
a  large  sum  of  money  and  the  public  records  of  the  colony  of  Lou- 
isiana, but  Dr.  Gustavus  Devron,  in  a  paper  read  before  the  Louisi- 
ana historical  society  on  -May  19,  1897,  questions  the  correctness  of 
this  statement  so  far  as  the  papers  are  concerned.  On  that  occasion 
Dr.  Devron  exhibited  tlie  certificate  of  the  man  who  took  Aubry 
in  a  canoe  21/0  miles  below  the  city,  where  he  went  on  board  his 
ship.  According  to  this  old  certificate,  Aubiy  had  with  him  two 
chests,  each  containing  at  least  10.000  livres,  a  large  sack  of  money 
and  from  15,000  to  16,000  livres  in  his  purse.  Devron  thinks  that 
this  money  was  the  reward  paid  him  for  assisting  in  establishing 
Spanish  authority  and  in  suppressing  the  revolution.  In  his  paper 
he  says:  "Aubry,  through  his  servile  obedience  to  the  orders  of 
his  master,  Louis  XV,  became  the  lacquey  of  Ulloa-,  and  his  detective, 
and  later  became  the  cowardly  informer  upon  his  countrymen  on 
the  arrival  of  the  Spanish  O'Reilly.  *  *  *  Aubry  is  tlierefore 
responsible  for  the  executions  of  Lafreniere,  Noyan.  Caresse.  IMilhet 
and  Marquis,  and  also  for  tlie  arrest  and  death  of  Villere." 

Auburn,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  northwestern  corner  of  Vernon  par- 
ish, is  about  4  miles  east  of  Bayou  Toro  and  8  miles  southwest  of 
Tlornbeck.  the  nearest  railroad  station. 

Audubon,  John  James. — Unique  in  the  best  sense  of  the  word  was 


LOUISIANA  53 

the  wonderful  genius  of  John  James  Audubon,  the  greatest  orni- 
thologist the  world  has  ever  known,  of  whose  picturesque  and 
romantic  life  Louisiana  is  proud  to  claim  the  earliest  and  some  of 
the  later  years.  While  the  life  of  every  frontiersman  of  his  time 
was  fraught  with  stirring  adventure,  yet  to  the  travels  and  experi- 
ences of  this  devoted  student  of  the  feathered  tribe,  there  attaches 
a  peculiar  interest  because  each  incident  in  itself  was  subordinate 
to  the  discoveries  it  helped  him  to  make.  Each  step  of  his  journeys, 
each  hunting  expedition,  was  made  memorable  by  some  drawing  or 
mental  note  which  was  given  to  the  world  in  his  publications  in 
later  years.  The  "Wanderlust"  was  in  his  blood  and  the  call  of 
nature  ever  sounded  in  his  ears,  luring  him  from  his  wife  and  fam- 
ily to  whom  he  was  devoted,  and  making  it  impossible  for  him  to 
follow  any  ordinary  occupation. 

The  name  of  Audubon  was  not  a  common  one  in  France  when 
borne  by  John  Audubon,  grandfather  of  tiie  naturalist,  a  fisherman 
of  the  little  village  of  Sable  d'Olouue,  45  miles  south  of  Nantes, 
but  he  did  his  part  to  popularize  it  by  conferring  it  upon  21  chil- 
dren, of  whom  the  father  of  John  James  was  the  20th.  The  latter 
was  sent  into  the  world  to  seek  his  fortime  with  no  Capital  but  his 
health  and  strength  and  for  many  years  followed  the  sea.  He  be- 
came a  commodore  in  the  French  navy  and  made  a  number  of  voy- 
ages to  America,  acquiring  at  different  .times  several  valualdo 
estates  there.  One  of  these,  most  delightfully  situated  near  Mande- 
ville.  La.,  and  facing  Lake  Pontchartraiu,  became  the  home  of  the 
French  commodore  and  his  young  and  beautiful  bride,  nee  Anne 
Moynette,  a  daughter  of  a  prominent  Spanish  family  of  New  Or- 
leans.   Here  4  children  were  born  to  them,  1  daughter  and  3  sons. 

The  youngest  son,  John  James,  was  born  May  4,  1780,  and  dwelt 
with  his  parents  in  Louisiana  during  his  infancy,  until  the  death  of 
his  motlier  in  San  Domingo.  Thither  she  accompanied  her  husband 
on  a  visit  to  one  of  their  estates  and  was  killed  during  a  battle  with 
negroes,  who  attempted  to  drive  out  the  white  residents.  The  be- 
reaved father  returned  to  France  with  his  children,  where  they  were 
soon  placed  under  the  care  of  a  stepmother. 

The  boyhood  of  Audubon  in  the  city  of  Nantes,  was  a  time  to 
which  he  looked  back  with  most  pleasant  recollections.  His  fond- 
ness for  drawing  and  the  study  of  natural  history  was  encouraged 
by  his  stepmother,  who  was  devoted  to  the  boy,  and  arrangements 
were  made  for  him  to  study  drawing  with  the  master  David.  Al- 
though his  father  insisted  upon  the  boy's  having  a  more  practical 
education,  Audubon's  only  very  rapid  progress  was  made  in  those 
branches  to  which  liis  natural  instincts  inclined  him.  At  the  age 
of  18  years,  John  James  was  sent  by  his  father  to  superintend  his 
estate  in  Pennsylvania,  which  was  situated  on  the  Perkiomen  creek 
in  the  eastern  part  of  the  state,  and  bore  the  name  of  Mill  Grove. 
Referring  to  his  life  at  Mill  Grove,  he  writes,  "Hunting,  fishing,  and 

drawing  occxipied  my  every  moment Cares  I  knew  not,  and 

cared  nothing  for  them. ' '  The  ad.joining  estate  was  known  as  Fat- 
land  Ford  and  owned  and  occupied  by  an    Englishman,    William 


rA  LOUISIANA 

BakeM-ell,  to  ■whose  daughter  Lucy,  Audubou  became  very  much 
attached  and  whom  he  subsequently  married.  It  was  during  the 
life  at  Mill  Grove,  where  Audubon  indulged  freely  in  all  outdoor 
sports  and  studies,  that  the  idea  of  an  American  Ornithology  took 
form,  for  which  he  collected  specimens  and  studies  for  more  than 
15  years.  Entries  in  his  journal,  made  at  Mill  Grove,  characterize 
Audubon  as  free  from  vices,  thoughtless,  pensive,  loving  and  hav- 
ing a  passion  for  raising  all  sorts  of  fowls,  fond  of  dress,  dancing 
and  skating.  He  was  very  abstemious  in  his  habits  in  the  matter 
of  eating  and  drinking,  which  stood  him  in  good  stead  in  his  sub- 
sequent wanderings,  and  to  which  he  attributed  his  good  health, 
strength  and  endurance. 

After  a  year  spent  in  France  and  a  short  time  in  New  York  city, 
where  he  endeavored  to  apply  himself  to  commercial  pursuits,  Au- 
dubon married  Miss  Bakewell,  sold  the  Mill  Grove  farm,  and  with 
his  bride  located  in  Louisville.  Ky.,  where  he  engaged  in  trading 
with  a  friend,  Mr.  Rosier,  the  father  of  the  noted  New  Orleans  law- 
yer, Hon.  J.  Ad.  Rosier.  The  lirm  engaged  in  business  in  Louis- 
ville and  after  a  few  years  moved  to  Hendersonville,  Ky.,  at  which 
time  ^Irs.  Audubon  with  her  baby  son  Victor,  retiu-ned  to  her  fa- 
ther's home  for  a  visit.  The  business  at  Hendersonville  was  not 
very  prosperous  and  St.  Genevieve  on  the  Mississippi  became  the 
trading  post  of  the  partners.  Here  ]Mr.  Rosier  married,  and  to  him 
Audubon  sold  his  share  in  the  business,  returning  to  Henderson- 
ville to  meet  his  ^vife.  Various  business  ventiiras  in  this  locality 
proved  unprofitable  and  Audubon  supported  his  family  by  drawing 
crayon  portraits,  which  were  in  great  demand.  He  was  invited  to 
become  a  curator  of  the  Cincinnati  museum  which  position  he  ac- 
cepted, and  also  opened  a  drawing  school  in  that  city.  When  his 
work  of  preparing  birds  for  the  museum  was  finished,  and  many 
of  his  drawing  pupils  had  become  teachers,  he  was  obliged  to  seek 
a  new  occupation.  He  returned  to  Kentucky,  where  his  family  ac- 
companied him  in  his  wanderings.  At  this  time  he  devoted  his 
entire  attention  to  bird  stud.v  and  in  pursuit  of  this  occupation  ha 
journeyed  south  as  far  as  New  Orleans,  leaving  his  family  in  Ken- 
tucky. In  New  Orleans  he  obtained  a  few  commissions  for  por- 
traits and  was  later  employed  by  Mrs.  Perrie  of  Bayou  Sara  to  give 
lessons  in  drawing  to  her  daughter. 

In  the  autumn  of  1821,  IMrs.  Audubon  joined  her  husband  in  New 
Orleans  and  found  employment  in  giving  private  lessons.  Audu- 
l)on  was  engaged  to  teach  drawing  at  Washington,  a  short  dis- 
tance from  Natchez,  Miss.  It  was  Mrs.  Audubon's  dearest  wish 
that  he  should  pursue  his  ornithological  stiidies,  and  to  that  end 
she  accepted  a  situation  as  teacher  in  the  family  of  Mrs.  Percy,  of 
Bayou  Sara.  Meanwhile  her  husband  lost  no  opportunity  to  study 
and  paint  birds  and  this  vocation  led  to  extensive  wanderings  on 
his  part  through  the  northern  and  eastern  sections  of  the  country. 

In  1826,  the  great  naturalist  journeyed  to  England  to  arrange  for 
the  publication  of  his  American  Ornithology,  which  he  named  the 
Birds  of  America,  and  which  Cuvier  called  the  greatest  work  of 


LOUISIANA  55 

its  kind  in  existence.  He  succeeded  after  protracted  efforts  in  both 
England  and  France  in  obtaining  a  considerable  number  of  sub- 
scribers at  $1,000  a  copy.  The  work  was  profusely  illustrated  and 
comprised  5  volumes  of  letter  press  and  5  of  engravings.  Upon 
his  return  to  America  in  1829  he  began  collecting  material  for  "An 
Account  of  the  Habits  of  Birds  of  the  United  States,"  which  fur- 
nished the  object  of  many  a  long  journey  through  the  wilderness. 
In  1831  he  returned  to  England,  accompanied  by  his  wife,  and  ar- 
ranged for  the  publication  of  his  second  great  work,  which  was 
completed  and  published  in  Edinburg  in  1839.  Audubon  with  his 
family  returned  to  New  York,  where  the  author  devoted  himself 
to  the  reprint  of  the  Birds  of  America,  and  its  reduction  to  7  octavo 
volumes. 

With  his  son  Victor,  he  traveled  in  1843  to  the  Yellowstone 
river,  gathering  material  for  "The  Quadrupeds  of  America,"  which 
was  published  in  3  volumes,  in  1846,  1851  and  1854  respectively. 
The  western  journey  was  the  last  the  celebrated  naturalist  was  to 
undei-take,  for  within  a  few  years,  both  mind  and  sight  were  seri- 
ously impaired  by  old  age,  and  in  his  delightful  'home  on  the  Hud- 
son, with  his  wife  and  2  sons  near  him,  Audubon's  remaining  days 
were  spent.  On  Jan.  27,  1851,  the  world's  greatest  ornithologist 
passed  peacefully  away,  and  four  days  later  his  remains  were  ten- 
derly laid  away  in  Trinity  church  cemetery,  the  resting  place  he 
had  himself  designated. 

During  Audubon's  frequent  and  extensive  journeys  in  search  of 
data,  he  explored  wilderness  and  forests  from  far  northern  Labra- 
dor to  southern  Florida.  He  was  frequently  accompanied  on  these 
trips  by  one  or  both  of  his  sons,  both  of  whom  possessed  marked 
artistic  talent.  They  were  of  the  greatest  assistance  to  him  in  the 
preparation  of  his  plates  and  continued  the  work  of  their  more 
famous  parent. 

Augustin,  J.  Numa,  soldier,  was  born  in  Louisiana  in  1874  and 
was  a  member  of  one  of  the  distinguished  families  of  the  state,  his 
father,  J.  Numa  Augustin,  Sr.,  having  served  with  distinction  in 
the  state  senate,  and  his  grandfather  was  an  officer  on  the  staff  of 
Gen.  Beauregard  during  the  Civil  war.  He  was  educated  at  "West 
Point,  where  he  graduated  as  a  lieutenant  of  infantry  and  was  as- 
signed to  duty  with  the  24th  U.  S.  regulars.  When  the  Spanish- 
American  war  began,  Lieut.  Aiigustin  accompanied  his  regiment 
to  Cuba,  and  in  the  charge  at  San  Juan  hill  on  July  1,  1898,  he  re- 
ceived a  mortal  wound,  from  which  he  died  the  following  day.  His 
remains  were  brought  to  New  Orleans  later  in  the  year,  and  after 
lying  in  state  at  the  city  hall  were  buried  with  military  honors  on 
Nov.  20,  1898,  a  large  concourse  of  people  following  the  funeral 
cortege  to  the  cemetery.  Lieut.  Augustin  was  the  only  Louisianian 
that  was  killed  in  that  war. 

Aurora,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  western  part  of  Washington  parish, 
is  about  3  miles  from  the  Tchefuncte  river,  and  8  miles  southwest 
of  Franklinton,  the  parish  seat  and  nearest  railroad  town. 

Austin,  a  little  post-hamlet  in  the  central  part    of     Washington 


56  LOUISIANA 

parisli,  is  about  6  miles  southeast  of  Franklinton,  the  parish  seat, 
which  is  the  most  convenieut  railroad  station. 

Avaxd  (K.  K.  name  Chatliamville),  a  little  village  in  the  eastern 
part  of  Jaeksou  parish,  is  a  station  on  the  Tremont  &  Gulf  R.  R., 
and  is  about  10  miles  southeast  of  Vernon,  the  parish  seat.  It  has 
a  money  order  postoSiee,  an  express  ofSee,  and  is  the  trading  point 
for  a  considerable  section  in  that  part  of  the  parish. 

Avery  Island,  a  village  in  the  southern  part  of  Iberia  parish, 
is  the  teriuiinis  of  a  branch  line  of  the  Southern  Pacific  R.  R.  It  is 
about  10  miles  southwest  of  New  Iberia,  the  parish  seat,  has  a 
money  order  postotfice,  an  express  office,  and  a  population  of  200. 
The  principal  industry  is  salt  mining,  one  of  the  finest  salt  mines 
in  the  country  being  located  on  the  island.     (See  Salt.) 

Avoca  (R.  R.  name  Little  Texas),  a  village  in  the  eastern  part 
of  Assumption  parish,  is  a  station  on  a  branch  line  of  the  Southern 
Pacific  R.  R.,  about  -4  miles  south  of  Napoleonville,  the  parish  seat. 
It  has  a  money  order  postoffice  and  some  retail  trade. 

Avoyelles  Parisli  was  estalilished  in  1807  as  one  of  the  19  parishes 
created  out  of  Orleans  territory  by  the  first  territorial  legislature. 
It  has  an  area  of  850  square  miles  and  was  named  after  the  Avo- 
yelles Indians,  who  lived  on  the  prairie  when  the  French  first 
visited  it.  It  is  situated  in  the  central  part  of  the  state  and  is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Rapides  and  Catahoula  parishes;  by  Con- 
cordia and  Pointe  Coupee  parishes  on  the  east ;  on  the  south  by 
St.  Landry  parish,  and  on  the  west  by  Rapides  parish.  The  first 
settlements  were  made  by  the  French  and  Spanish,  who  began  to 
pass  up  the  Red  river  early  in  the  IStli  century.  They  were  fol- 
lowed by  the  Acadians,  and  other  settlers  who  flocked  into  Avo- 
yelles in  such  great  numbers  that  the  commandant  of  Avoyelles 
post,  Jacques  Gagriord,  had  to  protect  the  Indians.  All  during  the 
French  and  Spanish  rule  of  Louisiana,  the  commandants  of  this 
post  protected  the  Indians  on  their  lands  against  the  encroachment 
of  the  white  settlers.  They  held  about  285  acres  of  laud  near  ]\Iarks- 
ville,  until  forced  out  by  the  whites  after  Louisiana  was  ceded  to 
the  United  States  in  1803.  The  oldest  record  of  the  parish  is  one 
of  the  police  jury,  dated  June  24,  1821.  In  1825  Judge  William 
Murray  opened  the  first  district  court  of  the  parish  at  ^Marksville, 
the  parish  seat.  Avoyelles  academy  was  established  at  an  early 
date,  and  Daniel  Webster  presided  over  it  in  1842.  The  ^Marksville 
high  school  was  started  in  1856,  and  the  Convent  of  the  Presenta- 
tion in  186!).  Public  scliools  are  maintained  thronghoiit  the  parish 
for  white  and  black.  The  principal  water  courses  are  the  Red, 
Saline  and  Atchafalaya  rivers  and  Bayous  Long,  Natchitoches, 
Avoyelles,  De  Glaize  and  Rouge.  Good  water  is  plentiful  in  all 
parts  of  the  parish.  The  formation  is  varied,  consisting  of  alluvial 
land,  wooded  swamp,  prairie  and  bluff  land.  The  alluvial  soil  of 
the  river  bottoms  is  very  productive.  Like  all  the  river  pai'ishes 
the  chief  products  are  cotton  and  cane,  though  corn,  potatoes,  rice 
and  sorghum  are  also  grown.  Cattle  thrive  on  the  uplands  and 
the  live  stock  industry  is  one  of  great  importance.     Avoyelles  was 


LOUISIANA  57 

heavily  timbered  in  the  early  days  with  pine,  oak,  ash,  cypress, 
gum,  elm,  poplar,  locust,  beech  and  maple.  Large  tracts  of  yellow 
pine  still  exist,  and  though  millions  of  feet  of  lumber  have  been  cut, 
enough  remains  to  be  the  source  of  great  wealth  in  the  years  to 
come.  Transportation  and  shipping  facilities  are  good.  The  Texas 
Pacific  R.  R.  traverses  the  southwestern  corner,  and  a  branch  line 
runs  east  from  Bunkie  through  the  southern  portions  of  Legonier 
on  the  eastern  boundary,  and  then  south  on  the  west  side  of  the 
Atchafalaya  river  to  Woodside.  The  Louisiana  Railway  &  Naviga- 
tion company  has  a  line  running  east  and  west  throvigh  the  center 
of  the  parish  from  Naples  on  the  eastern  boundary  to  Echo  on  the 
western  boundary.  Cheap  transportation  is  furnished  on  the  Red 
river  by  steamboats.  Avoyelles  is  one  of  the  most  populous  par- 
ishes in  the  state,  Marksville,  the  parish  seat,  is  one  of  the  most 
important  towns,  others  are,  Bordelonville,  Bunkie,  Cottonport, 
Eola,  Evergreen,  ]Mansura,  Millburn,  Moreaviville,  Plaucheville, 
Red  Fish,  and  Simmesport.  The  following  statistics  for  the  parish 
are  taken  from  the  U.  S.  census  for  1910:  Number  of  farms,  4,604; 
acreage  in  farms,  207,983 ;  acreage  under  cultivation,  126,440 ;  value 
of  land  and  improvements  exclusive  of  buildings,  $5,165,167 ;  value 
of  farm  buildings,  $1,286,716;  value  of  live  stock,  $1,308,759;  total 
value  of  all  crops,  $1,989,668.  The  populatiou  for  1910  was  34,102. 
Ayers  (R.  R.  name  Ayers  Spur),  a  post-hamlet  and  station  in  the 
southern  part  of  Sabine  parish,  is  on  tlie  Kansas  City  Southern  R. 
R.,  about  10  miles  south  of  Many,  the  parish  seat  and  nearest  bank- 
ing town. 

B 

Babington,   a  post-hamlet  in  the  northern  part  of  Wasliington 
parish,  is  situated  on  Lawrence  creek,  about  6  miles  nortlieast  of 
Frauklintou,  tlie  parish  seat  and  nearest  railroad  town. 
■  Baby  Bonds. —  (See  Finances,  State.) 

Bagley,  a  post-hainlet  of  Caddo  parish,  about  8  miles  south  of 
Slireveport,  and  1  mile  west  of  Cut  Off,  the  nearest  railroad  town. 

Bailes,  a  post-hamlet  of  Natchitoches  parish,  is  situated  on  the 
east  shore  of  Spanish  lake,  aljout  10  miles  west  of  Natchitoches,  the 
parish  seat  and  nearest  railroad  town. 

Bailey,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  northeastern  part  of  Tangipahoa 
parish,  is  situated  al)out  a  mile  we.st  of  the  Tchefuncte  river  and 
4  miles  east  of  Bolivar,  the  nearest  railroad  station. 

Baird,  Absalom,  soldier,  was  born  at  Washington,  Pa.,  Aug.  20, 
1824,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1849,  and  served  during  the  next 
2  years  as  second  lieutenant  in  the  Seminole  war.  In  1853  he  was 
promoted  to  first  lieutenant  and  from  that  time  until  1859  was 
assistant  professor  of  mathematics  at  the  military  academy.  Tlie 
next  2  years  were  spent  on  garrison  and  frontier  duty  and  in  March, 
1861,  he  was  assigned  to  the  command  of  a  light  battery  at  Wash- 
ington, D.  C.    From  May  to  Sept.,  1862,  he  commanded  a  brigade 


58  LOUISIANA 

in  the  Army  of  the  Ohio,  then  until  June,  1863,  was  in  command  of 
the  3d  division  of  the  Army  of  Kentucky,  and  in  1864  took  part  in 
the  Atlanta  campaign.  After  the  war  he  was  assigned  to  duty  in 
Loiusiana,  and  in  the  absence  of  Gen.  Sheridan,  he  commanded  the 
troops  at  New  Orleans  at  the  time  of  the  Riot  of  1866  (q.  v.).  In 
anticipation  of  trouble,  Gen.  Baird  telegraphed  to  Edwin  M.  Stan- 
ton, the  secretary  of  war,  for  instructions,  but  received  no  reply. 
In  his  testimony  before  a  Congressional  committee  he  testitied  that 
neither  the  mayor  of  New  Orleans  nor  the  lieutenant-governor  of 
the  state  had  asked  him  for  troops  to  prevent  disorder,  though 
both  these  oflBcials  stated  that  such  a  request  had  been  made.  Soon 
after  the  riot  Gen.  Baird  proclaimed  martial  law,  but  the  mischief 
had  already  been  done.  Fortier  says:  "He  testified  that  it  was 
his  intention  to  judge  of  the  legality  of  the  decision  of  the  court,  if 
an  arrest  had  been  made.  If  lie  could  assume  such  power  as  this, 
he  could  certainly  have  assumed  power  either  to  disperse  the  con- 
vention or  to  protect  it.''  Not  long  after  this  he  was  relieved  from 
his  command  in  Louisiana  and  subsequently  served  as  inspector- 
general  in  various  departments  with  the  rank  of  brevet  major- 
general. 

Baird,  Samuel  T.,  lawyer  and  member  of  Congress,  was  born  at 
Oak  Ridge,  La.,  ilay  5.  1861.  He  was  educated  at  his  home  and 
at  Vinccnnes,  Ind. ;  began  to  study  law  in  1879 :  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1882 :  elected  attorney  of  the  sixth  judicial  district  in 
1884.  and  served  4  years  in  that  position :  elected  district  judge  of 
the  same  district  in  1888,  but  after  serving  upon  the  bench  4  years 
he  resumed  the  practice  of  law.  In  1896  he  was  elected  to  the  state 
senate,  where  he  served  as  chairman  of  the  committee  on  railroads 
and  as  a  member  of  the  judiciary,  lands  and  levees  and  elections 
committees;  was  chairman  of  the  joint  Democratic  caucus  during 
the  session  of  the  general  assembly;  temporary  chairman  of  the 
Democratic  state  convention  in  June,  1896 :  delegate  to  the  Dem- 
ocro.tic  national  convention  at  Chicago,  1896 :  was  elected  to  the 
55th  Congress  as  a  Democrat,  and  reelected  to  the  56th  Congress, 
but  died  April  22,  1899,  before  that  Congress  convened. 

Baker,  a  village  in  the  northwestern  part  of  East  Baton  Rouge 
parish,  is  on  a  branch  of  the  Amite  river  about  10  miles  north  of 
Baton  Rouge,  and  is  a  station  on  the  main  line  of  the  Yazoo  & 
Mississippi  Valley  R.  R.  It  has  a  money  order  postofBce  and  one 
free  rural  delivery  route.    Population  is  150. 

Baker,  Joshua,  who  was  appointed  military  governor  of  Louisi- 
ana by  Gen.  Hancock  in  Jan.,  1868,  was  born  in  the  State  of  Ken- 
tucky, March  23,  1799.  "When  he  was  about  4  years  of  age  his  pa- 
rents ri'moved  to  Mississippi,  and  in  1811  located  in  St.  Mary's 
parish.  La.  In  1819  he  was  graduated  at  the  U.  S.  military  acad- 
emy at  West  Point,  N.  Y.,  where  he  had  served  as  assistant  pro- 
fessor of  engineering,  and  after  graduating  was  appointed  a  mem- 
ber of  the  board  of  examiners,  which  position  he  held  for  years. 
The  old  court-house  at  Franklin,  and  a  number  of  bridges  in  Lou- 
isiana were  built  under  his  supervision.     He  finally  gave  up  engi- 


LOUISIANA  59 

neering  as  a  profession,  studied  law  at  Litchfield,  Conn.,  was  admit- 
ted to  the  bar  in  Kentucky,  but  returned  to  St.  Mary's  parish  to 
practice.  In  1829  he  was  elected  judge  of  that  parish.  He  was 
also  interested  in  the  lumber  trade  and  steamboating  on  the  Mis- 
sissippi. Politically  he  was  a  conservative  Democrat  and  did  all 
he  could  to  prevent  the  State  of  Louisiana  from  seceding  in  1861. 
His  term  as  governor  of  Louisiana  was  short,  as  he  was  succeeded 
by  Gov.  Warmoth  on  July  13,  1868.  Mr.  Baker  died  at  the  resi- 
dence of  his  daughter  in  Lyme,  Conn.,  in  1886. 

Baker's  Administration. — The  administration  of  Gov.  Baker  be- 
gan with  his  appointment  in  Jan.,  1868.  though  the  state  remained 
under  the  military  authority  of  the  United  States,  which  was  exer- 
cised with  forbearance  and  discrimination  by  Gen.  W.  S.  Hancock. 
In  an  official  communication  the  governor  notified  Hancock  that 
the  claims  against  the  state  at  the  close  of  the  year  1867  amounted 
to  $1,313,000  in  excess  of  the  receipts ;  that  the  state  treasury  was 
practically  bankrupt ;  that  the  legislature  had  failed  to  provide 
adequate  means  to  meet  current  expenses;  and  that,  "unless  some 
remedy  was  applied,  the  machinery  of  civil  government  in  the  state 
must  stop."  "To  meet  the  emergency  Gen.  Hancock  on  Feb.  22 
issued  an  order  directing  all  license  fees,  revenues,  dues  and  taxes 
of  the  state  to  be  payable  and  collected  in  U.  S.  legal  tender  notes , 
requiring  tax  collectors  throughout  the  state  to  report  immedi- 
atety  and  under  oath  to  the  state  treasurer  the  kinds  and  amounts 
of  funds  collected  by  them  up  to  that  time ;  instructing  the  auditor 
and  treasurer  to  apply  all  moneys  received  after  the  promulgation 
of  the  order  to  the  payment  of  salaries  of  the  civil  officers  of  the 
state,  the  appropriations  made  in  favor  of  the  charitable  and  educa- 
tional institutions,  the  rent  of  the  Mechanics'  Institute,  and  for  the 
support  of  the  state  convicts.  A  few  days  later  another  order 
directed  the  destruction  of  all  state  notes  then  in  the  state  treasury, 
or  that  might  be  thereafter  received,  and  instructed  the  treasurer 
to  apply  any  surplus  that  might  accumulate,  after  the  payments 
above  described,  to  the  liquidation  of  outstanding  claims. 

On  ilarch  10  and  11  he  issued  orders  giving  full  directions  for 
the  registration  of  voters,  and  for  holding  an  election  on  April  17 
and  18,  to  vote  on  the  question  of  ratifying  the  constitution  and  to 
establish  civil  government.  On  the  18th  of  the  same  month  Han- 
cock was  relieved  of  the  command  of  the  district,  and  on  the  25th 
his  successor.  Gen.  Robert  C.  Buchanan,  issued  an  order  authoriz- 
ing the  election  to  include  members  of  Congress  "and  for  such 
state,  judicial,  parish  and  municipal  officers,  and  members  of  the 
general  assembly  as  are  provided  for  in  the  constitution  to  be  sub- 
mitted for  ratification."  At  the  election  Henry  C.  Warmoth,  a 
Republican,  was  elected  governor,  receiving  64,941  votes  to  38,046 
cast  for  Taliaferro,  his  opponent,  also  a  Republican,  and  Oscar  J. 
Dunn,  a  negro,  was  elected  lieutenant  governor.  The  new  officers 
were  inaugurated  on  July  13,  1868,  though  they  had  been  exercis- 
ing the  duties  of  their  respective  offices  since  June  27,  when  they 


60  LOUISIANA 

were  appointed  by  order  of  Gen.  Grant,  Gov.   Baker   being   at    that 
time  ri>nioved. 

Baldwin,  a  village  in  the  western  part  of  St.  Mary  parish,  is  at 
the  junction  of  the  main  and  a  branch  line  of  the  Southern  Pacific 
R.  R.,  about  6  miles  northwest  of  Franklin,  the  parish  seat  and 
nearest  banking  town.  It  has  a  money  order  postoffice  and  varied 
industries  such  as  sugar  mauufaetories,  shingle  mills,  etc.  Its  pop- 
ulation is  1.000. 

Ball,  a  village  on  the  northern  boundary  of  Rapides  parish,  is  a 
station  on  the  St.  Louis  &  Iron  ^louutain  R.  R.,  about  9  miles  north- 
east of  Alexandria,  the  parish  seat.  It  has  a  money  order  post- 
office  and  is  a  shipping  point  of  some  importance. 

Ballina,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  northwestern  part  of  Concordia 
parish,  is  situated  on  a  branch  of  the  Black  river,  about  5  miles 
north  of  Frogmore.  which  is  the  most  convenient  railroad  station. 

Balltown,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  extreme  northeastern  corner  of 
Washington  parish,  is  near  the  Pearl  river,  about  -1  miles  northeast 
of  Angle,  the  nearest  railroad  station. 

Bancker,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  eastern  part  of  Vermilion  parish, 
is  situated  on  the  Bayou  Vermilion  about  2i/^  miles  southeast  of 
Rosehill,  the  nearest  railroad  station,  and  7  miles  south  of  Abbe- 
ville, the  parish  seat  and  nearest  banking  town. 

Bancroft,  a  post-hamlet  in  Beauregard  parish,  is  about  -i  miles 
east  of  the  Sabine  river  and  5  miles  north  of  Baylor,  the  nearest 
railroad  station.     Population  200. 

Bankers'  Association. — The  Louisiana  Bankers'  association  was 
organized  ou  ^lay  1,  I'JOO.  Foremost  among  those  in  effecting  tho 
organization  may  be  mentioned  W.  J.  Knox  of  Baton  Rouge :  J.  W. 
Castles,  C.  H.  Culbertson  and  J.  T.  Hayden  of  New  Orleans :  G.  W. 
Bolton  of  Alexandria ;  A.  D.  Foster  of  Jeanerette ;  J.  W.  Cockerham 
of  Natchitoches ;  H.  H.  Youree  of  Shreveport ;  Aug.  Thibault  of  Don- 
aldsonville,  and  L.  0.  Broussard  of  Abbeville.  Thirty-one  banks  were 
represented  in  the  association  at  tlie  comiuencemeut,  and  the  first  offi- 
cers were:  George  W.  Bolton,  Rapides  bank.  Alexandria,  president; 
R.  E.  Craig,  New  Orleans  National  bank,  vice-president;  L.  0. 
Broussard,  Bank  of  Abbeville,  secretary;  J.  P.  Suberbielle,  State 
National  bank.  New  Iberia,  treasurer.  The  objects  of  the  association 
are  stated  to  be  "The  promotion  of  business  and  social  relations  among 
banks  and  bank  officers,  and  the  discussion  of  matters  of  interest  to 
the  banking  fraternity."  Meetings  are  held  annually,  at  which  offi- 
cers are  elected  and  delegates  chosen  to  represent  the  state  organiza- 
tion in  the  meetings  of  the  American  Bankers'  as,sociation.  At  the 
close  of  the  year  1908  there  were  198  Louisiana  banks  that  were  mem- 
bers of  the  state  association.  As  the  association  grew  in  strength  and 
iinportance  it  was  decided  to  have  a  vice-president  for  each  of  the 
Congressional  districts  in  the  state.  The  officers  for  1908  were  as 
follows :  Peter  Youree.  Shreveport,  president ;  R.  N.  Sims,  Donaldson- 
ville.  vice-president;  L.  0.  Broussard.  Abbeville,  secretary;  L.  M. 
Pool,  New  Orleans,  treasurer.  The  disti-ict  vice-presidents  were:  1st, 
A.  Breton,  New  Orleans;  2ud,  G.  Ad.  Blaft'er,  New  Orleans;  3d,  Dr. 


LOUISIANA  61 

L.  H.  Jastremski,  Houma ;  4th,  Andrew  Querbes,  Shreveport ;  5th, 
W.  S.  Kilpatrick,  Monroe;  6th,  J.  McWilliaras.  Plaquemiue;  7th,  W.  A. 
Guillemet,  Lake  Charles.  The  association,  through  its  social  gather- 
ings and  the  interchange  of  ideas,  has  done  a  great  deal  in  the  way  of 
improving  the  banking  conditions  of  the  state,  and  it  presents  to  view 
a  striking  instance  of  the  truth  of  the  old  adage,  "In  union  there  is 
strength. ' ' 

Banking. — At  the  time  Louisiana  was  ceded  to  the  United  States 
in  1803  the  money  of  the  colony  consisted  chiefly  of  Spanish  coins 
that  came  from  Mexico  and  the  notes  known  as  "liberanzas. "  The 
purchase  of  the  province  by  the  United  States  arrested  the  importa- 
tion of  silver  from  Mexico,  and  though  the  liberanzas  were  not  re- 
deemed at  once,  it  was  generally  understood  that  their  discontinuance 
was  only  a  matter  of  time.  LTnder  these  circumstances,  when  the 
Territory  of  Orleans  was  created  in  1804,  money  was  scarce  and  trade 
languished  for  lack  of  a  ready  medium  of  exchange.  To  meet  the 
emergency  Gov.  Claiborne  established  the  Bank  of  Louisiana,  but  the 
people,  who  were  already  greatly  dissatisfied  over  the  division  of  the 
province,  looked  upon  the  new  bank  as  an  institution  specially  de- 
signed to  rob  them.  Consequently  the  territorial  bank  was  not  the 
success  that  its  founders  anticipated.  The  last  territorial  legislature, 
which  assembled  in  Jan.,  1811,  granted  charters  to  the  Planters'  bank 
and  the  Bank  of  Orleans,  though  the  former  had  been  organized  some 
time  before.  The  charter  of  each  was  for  15  years;  the  authorized 
capital  of  the  Planters'  bank  was  $600,000,  payable  in  specie;  that  of 
the  Bank  of  Orleans  was  .$500,000,  "payable  in  lawful  money  or  notes 
payable  to  the  directors."  These  banks  met  with  only  slightly  better 
success  than  their  pi-edecessor,  but  with  the  admission  of  Louisiana 
into  the  Union  the  people  became  better  satisfied  with  their  relation- 
ship to  the  United  States  and  began  to  look  wnith  more  favor  on  banks 
of  is.sue.  On  March  26,  1823,  the  charter  of  the  Bank  of  Orleans  was 
extended  to  1847. 

The  Louisiana  State  bank  was  chartered  by  the  act  of  March  14, 
1818,  with  an  authorized  capital  of  $2,000,000,  one-fifth  of  which  was 
to  be  paid  at  once  "in  cash  or  notes  paj-able  to  the  directors,"  who 
might  also  accept  mortgages.  One-fourth  of  the  stock  was  reserved  to 
the  state,  which  was  to  subscribe  $100,000  at  once  and  appoint  6  direc- 
tors out  of  the  18.  The  bank  was  required  to  establish  within  six 
months  five  branches,  to  be  located  at  Donaldsonville,  St.  Prancisville, 
St.  Martinsville,  Alexandria  and  Baton  Rouge,  each  with  a  capital  of 
$200,000  available  for  loans.  The  original  charter  was  to  last  until 
1870,  but  by  the  act  of  March  3,  1819,  the  bank  was  ordered  to  liqui- 
date by  March  12,  1822. 

On  April  7,  1824,  the  Bank  of  the  State  of  Louisiana  was  granted 
a  charter,  but  by  a  supplementary  act  of  Nov.  30,  the  same  year,  the 
name  was  changed  to  the  Bank  of  Louisiana.  Its  capital  was  fixed  at 
$4,000,000,  one-half  of  which  was  to  be  owned  by  the  state,  to  be  paid 
for  by  an  issue  of  5  per  cent,  bonds  at  the  ratio  of  $100  in  bonds  for 
$83.33  1^3  in  stock  of  the  bank,  and  the  governor  was  to  appoint  6  of 
the  13  directors.     The  bonds  were  sold  to  Thomas  Wilson  &  Co.  of 


62  LOUISIANA 

London  on  Oct.  23,  1824.  at  a  profit,  the  state's  share  of  which  was 
nearly  !)<301.000.  By  the  act  of  ]\Iarch  24.  1827.  the  bank  was  ordered 
to  buy  bonds  with  the  profits  and  place  them  in  a  sinking  fund  for  the 
redemption  of  the  original  issue,  and  by  the  same  act  the  state  was 
given  7  directors  out  of  the  13.  The  order  to  buy  bonds  for  the  sink- 
ing fund  was  evidently  not  complied  with,  for  on  March  7,  1834.  the 
attorney-general  of  the  state  was  directed  by  act  of  the  general  assem- 
bly to  "'institute  suit  without  delay"  against  the  Bank  of  Louisiana 
to  compel  said  bank  to  place  to  the  credit  of  the  state  as  available 
means  on  July  1  next  the  amount  the  state  was  entitled  to  in  gains  or 
profits  made  by  the  bank  on  the  sale  of  state  bonds;  such  portion  a.s 
the  state  might  be  entitled  to  in  the  balance  of  the  profit  and  loss 
account;  and  auy  other  claini  and  amount  which  the  attorney-general 
might  think  was  due  the  state. 

Probably  uo  banking  institution  ever  chartered  by  Louisiana  was 
the  cau.se  of  so  much  trouble  and  litigation  as  the  Consolidated  Asso- 
ciation of  Planters,  which  was  incorporated  by  the  act  of  March  16, 
1827,  with  a  capital  of  $2,000,000.  The  stock  was  to  be  raised  by  loan, 
the  company  selling  bonds  and  taking  mortgages  from  the  stockholders 
for  loans  made  to  them.  Under  this  plan  the  scheme  failed,  as  there 
was  not  sufScient  capital  in  the  state  seeking  such  an  investment,  and 
the  company  had  no  credit  abroad.  By  the  act  of  Feb.  19,  1828,  the 
state  agreed  to  lend  its  bonds  to  the  association  to  the  amount  of 
$2,500,000  as  a  pledge  for  the  pajTuent  of  capital  borrowed  from 
abroad,  and  iu  return  for  this  favor  received  10.000  shares  of  the  stock 
as  a  bonus.  By  the  act  of  April  5.  1843,  to  liquidate  certain  property 
banks,  the  assets  of  the  association  were  to  be  held  by  the  state  until 
the  bonds  of  1828  could  be  paid,  and  the  governor  was  authorized  to 
appoint  managere  for  the  bank.  In  1847  an  annual  assessment  of  $6 
a  share,  to  run  for  17  yeai's,  was  levied  upon  the  stock  of  the  association 
for  the  payment  of  the  bonds.  The  act  of  Dec.  20, 1848,  made  the  stock 
of  the  association  payable  in  specie  or  state  bonds,  and  the  following 
year  a  plan  for  the  final  winding  up  of  the  association's  affairs  was 
arranged.  Bonds  to  the  amount  of  $1,376,000  were  issued,  the  last 
of  which  fell  due  in  1866.  the  assessment  of  $6  a  share  to  provide  for 
their  payment  as  they  fell  due.  In  1850  a  case  was  instituted  to  test 
the  liability  of  the  state  as  a  stockholder.  The  bank's  attorneys  argued 
that  as  the  state  had  made  a  million  dollars  out  of  its  banking  opera- 
tions, it  ought  to  pay  one-sixth  of  the  losses  in  the  case  of  the  only 
banking  institution  that  had  been  unfortunate,  but  the  court  held  that 
the  10,000  shares  held  by  the  state,  having  been  given  to  it  as  a  bonus, 
were  not  liable  to  assessment."  (5th  La.  p.  44.)  By  means  of  the  fund 
established  by  the  assessment  of  1847.  the  bonds  falling  due  in  1861 
were  paid,  leaving  a  balance  of  $550,400.  Then  came  the  great  Civil 
war,  which  paralyzed  the  business  of  the  South,  the  last  of  the  bonds 
in  1866  were  not  paid,  and  the  affairs  of  the  consolidated  were  still 
unsettled  iu  1878,  when  an  act  was  passed  levying  an  assessment  of 
$40  a  .share  on  the  stock.  This  law  was  declared  null  by  the  courts  in 
1883,  on  the  ground  that  the  assessment  of  1847  was  a  contract  on 
the  part  of  the  state  that  the  stockholders,  by  the  payment  of  the 


LOUISIANA  63 

assessment  of  $6  a  share,  should  be  relieved  of  further  liability  for 
the  state  stock  issued  for  the  bank.  The  business  of  the  bank  was  then 
settled  by  eompromise,  the  expenses  of  liquidation  being  heavy,  as  the 
salaries  and  fees  from  1876  to  1883  amounted  to  nearly  $60,000. 

The  New  Orleans  Gas  Light  Company  was  chartered  by  the  act  of 
Feb.  7,  1829.  Four  years  later  the  charter  was  transferred  to  a  larger 
company  and  on  April  1,  1835,  it  was  granted  banking  privileges. 
The  capital  stock  was  fixed  at  $6,000,000,  of  which  the  state  was 
authorized  to  subscribe  for  any  number  of  shares  not  to  exceed  $100,- 
000,  and  the  city  of  New  Orleans  for  a  like  amount,  said  stock  to  be 
paid  for  by  bond  issues,  and  both  state  and  city  to  be  represented  on 
the  board  of  directors.  The  company  was  given  the  exclusive  privi- 
lege of  lighting  New  Orleans,  its  faubourgs,  and  the  city  of  Lafayette 
with  gas,  and  was  to  spend  at  least  $50,000  annually  for  four  years 
for  the  perfection  of  its  gas  works.  The  capital  stock  was  to  be  ex- 
empt from  taxation  for  15  years,  and  the  city  was  given  the  right  to 
purchase  the  works  at  the  expiration  of  40  years,  the  price  to  be  fixed 
by  arbitrators.  In  case  the  city  decided  to  exercise  this  right  the  bank- 
ing privileges  of  the  company  were  to  expire  10  years  after  the  sale 
of  the  gas  works.  Branch  banks  were  to  be  established  within  one 
year,  with  capital  as  follows:  Alexandria,  $800,000;  Port  Hudson, 
Franklin,  Springfield,  Napoleonville  and  Harrisonburg,  $300,000  each ; 
and  St.  Bernard,  $100,000.  The  president  of  the  bank  was  required 
to  make  annual  reports  to  the  general  assembly,  which  was  given  the 
power  to  appoint  a  joint  committee  to  examine  into  the  bank's  afi'airs. 
On  March  14,  1838,  the  legislative  committee  reported  that  "twelve 
directors  of  the  Gas  Light  and  Banking  company  owed  to  it  on  Dec. 
23,  1837,  $1,400,000  as  borrowers  and  $400,000  as  endorsers."  The 
report  further  stated  that  a  large  part  of  this  indebtedness  was  for 
"kites  or  race-horses,"  and  that  "exchange  operations  to  a  large 
amount  had  been  agreed  to  by  the  president,  in  which  he  was  himself 
interested,  when  no  one  but  the  cashier  and  himself  were  present,  and 
that  the  bank  owed  the  Bank  of  the  United  States  $2,000,000,  payable 
in  one  and  two  years. "  (Raguet's  Register,  p.  332.)  Upon  the  request 
of  the  stockholders  the  charter  of  the  company  was  amended  in  March, 
1845,  when  the  banking  privileges  were  surrendered. 

The  City  bank  of  New  Orleans  was  incorporated  by  the  act  of  March 
3, 1831,  the  charter  to  extend  to  1850.  The  capital  was  fixed  at  $2,000,- 
000,  divided  into  shares  of  $100  each ;  the  state  was  to  have  a  credit  of 
$100,000  with  the  bank;  branches  were  to  be  established  at  Baton 
Rouge  and  Natchitoches ;  the  bank  was  to  be  subject  to  legislative  ex- 
amination ;  was  not  to  issue  any  note  of  a  less  denomination  than  $5 ; 
and  was  never  to  suspend  redemption  in  current  money  of  the  United 
States  under  a  penalty  of  12  per  cent.  Two  days  after  this  bank  was 
incorporated  a  charter  was  granted  to  the  New  Orleans  Canal  and 
Banking  company,  with  a  capital  of  $4,000,000.  It  was  authorized  to 
cut  a  canal  through  the  city  from  Lake  Pontchartrain ;  was  required 
to  loan  the  state  not  over  $600,000  on  bonds  payable  in  from  10  to 
25  years ;  was  to  establish  three  branches  at  certain  designated  points, 


64  LOUISIANA 

and  two-thirds  of  the  capital  at  each  l)ranch  was  to  be  loaned  ou  real 
estate. 

Ou  April  2,  1852.  the  Union  Bank  of  Louisiana  was  incorporated 
with  an  authorized  capital  of  $7,000,000.  The  plan  on  which  this 
bank  was  to  be  operated  was  an  extension  and  perfection  of  the  con- 
solidated association.  The  capital  stock,  which  was  to  be  exempt  from 
all  taxation,  was  to  be  subscribed  by  citizens  of  Louisiana  who  were 
land  owners;  the  state  issued  bonds  equal  in  amount  to  the  stock,  and 
these  bonds  were  secured  by  mortgages ;  the  governor  and  state  senate 
were  to  appoint  half  of  the  12  directors;  the  charter  was  to  expire  in 
25  years,  during  the  last  three  of  which  the  bank  was  to  wind  up  its 
atfairs;  it  was  not  to  issue  any  notes  for  less  than  $5;  and  a  penalty 
of  10  per  cent,  was  provided  for  in  ease  of  suspension.  This  plan  was 
afterwards  adopted  in  Florida.  Arkansas  and  Mississippi.  The  Union 
was  the  only  one  of  the  property  banks  that  escaped  li(iuidation  \inder 
the  act  of  1843.  As  most  of  its  assets  were  loaned  on  real  estate  it 
was  able  to  pay  the  interest  on  the  bonds,  and  to  take  up  each  series  as 
they  fell  due.  Its  charter  expired  in  1857,  when  it  became  a  free 
bank  and  later  a  national  hank. 

Three  banks  were  incorporated  by  acts  of  the  legislature  on  April  1, 
1833,  viz.:  The  Commercial  bank  of  New  Orleans,  the  Citizens'  bank 
of  Louisiana,  and  the  Mechanics"  and  Traders"  bank  of  New  Orleans. 
The  first  was  capitalized  at  >f;3. 000.000.  which  was  to  be  exempt  from 
taxation,  and  the  chief  object  of  the  company  was  to  supply  the  city 
with  water.  The  city  was  given  the  right  to  purchase  the  waterworks 
after  35  years,  the  price  to  be  fixed  by  arbitration,  and  if  this  right 
was  exercised  the  banking  privileges  of  the  company  were  to  expire 
5  years  later.  If  the  city  did  not  buy  the  waterworks  at  the  given  time 
all  banking  privileges  were  to  expire  within  50  years  from  the  date 
of  the  act  of  incorporation.  Operations  were  to  be  commenced  within 
twelve  months  from  the  passage  of  the  act.  and  the  company  was  to 
expend  $100,000  anuually  until  the  works  were  completed.  The  city 
of  New  Orleans  was  authorized  to  subscribe  for  $500,000  of  the  stock, 
payable  in  40-year  bonds,  upon  which  the  bank  was  to  pay  5  per  cent, 
interest.  The  Citizens'  bank  was  capitalized  at  $12,000,000  in  the 
form  of  a  loan  as  prescribed  by  the  act ;  all  subscribers  to  stock  to  be 
secured  by  mortgages  executed  in  the  parishes  where  the  lands  were 
located,  and  upon  which  the  directoi-s  might  issue  bonds  payable  in 
14.  23.  32,  41  and  50  years.  The  state  was  entitled  to  a  credit 
of  $500,000,  and  the  company  was  to  enjoy  all  the  rights  and  privileges 
usually  accorded  to  banks,  in  addition  to  which  it  was  authorized  to 
dig  canals,  Iniild  railroads,  etc..  all  property  of  this  class  to  become 
the  property  of  the  state  upon  the  expiration  of  the  charter.  The  bank 
was  not  able  to  raise  the  capital  according  to  the  original  plan  and  on 
Jan.  30,  1836,  the  state  was  authorized  by  act  of  the  legislature  to 
take  the  stock  mortgages  and  issue  bonds  for  four-fifths  of  the  amount 
of  the  mortgages  thus  taken,  in  return  for  which  the  state  was  to  have 
one-sixth  of  the  profits  of  the  bank,  and  the  corporation  was  to  pay 
$5,000  annually  during  the  life  of  the  charter  to  each  of  three  colleges. 
The  stock  of  the  Mechanics'  and  Traders'  bank  was  fixed  at  $2,000,000 


LOUISIANA  65 

in  shares  of  $50  each,  and  it  was  authorized  to  go  into  operation  when 
5,000  shares  had  been  subscribed.  Of  the  13  directors  5  were  to  be 
mechanics  or  traders;  mechanics  were  given  the  privilege  of  subscrib- 
ing for  .$200,000  of  the  stock,  and  the  bank  was  directed  to  establish 
two  branches — one  at  Opelousas  with  a  cajiital  of  $150,000  and  one 
at  Vidalia  with  .$200,000. 

The  legislatures  of  1836  and  1837  chartered  corporations  whose  ag- 
gregate capital  amounted  to  nearly  $40,000,000.  Thompson,  in  his 
Story  of  Louisiana,  says:  "The  system  of  chartering  public  gambling 
concerns  under  the  title  of  banking  companies  was  for  a  long  time 
a  source  of  popular  corruption."  But  this  system  received  a  check 
by  the  panic  of  1837  (See  Panics),  when  several  of  the  banks  were 
forced  to  suspend.  During  this  period  of  depression  the  United  States 
bank  bought  the  Merchants'  bank  of  New  Orleans,  which  had  been  in- 
corporated on  Feb.  25,  1836,  for  an  agency,  paying  for  it  $1,076,500. 
In  April,  1841,  the  assets  of  the  bank  were  reported  to  be  worth 
$906,000,  and  it  was  finally  sold  by  the  liquidators  to  Edward  Yorke 
for  $575,000.  Among  the  assets  was  specie  to  the  amount  of  $334,427, 
but  it  could  not  be  used  because  the  charter  required  one-third  of  the 
capital  to  be  kept  always  in  the  vaults. 

In  his  message  to  the  legislature  in  Jan.,  1842,  Gov.  Roman  boldly 
declared  the  notion  false  that  the  banks  of  one  city  must  suspend 
simply  because  those  of  another  did  so.  He  showed  that  from  Nov.  2, 
1839,  to  Oct.  2,  1841,  the  New  Orleans  banks  reduced  their  assets 
$300,000  and  increased  their  liabilities  $780,000,  and  insisted  they 
would  continue  this  course  as  long  as  suspension  lasted.  On  Jan.  24 
he  approved  an  act  providing  that  "no  bank  note  shall  be  issued  which 
is  not  payable  in  specie."  On  Feb.  4,  1842,  the  legislature  passed  an 
act  to  regulate  banks.  Concerning  this  act,  the  History  of  Banking 
of  All  Nations  says  it  was  "the  most  remarkable  pi'oduced  in  this 
period  in  any  state.  It  is  drawn  in  remarkably  clear  and  direct  lan- 
guage, entirely  free  from  legal  verbiage.  It  leaves  the  impression  of 
a  schoolmaster  who,  having  got  tired  of  confusion,  insubordination  and 
misbehavior,  takes  in  hand  the  duty  of  restoring  order,  and  distributes 
punishments,  corrections  and  new  orders  in  the  most  peremptory 
manner. ' ' 

By  this  act  all  charters  were  revived  provided  the  banks  would  pre- 
pare at  once  to  resume  and  would  obey  the  rules  laid  down  by  the 
new  law.  Loans  on  capital  were  to  be  designated  as  "dead  weight" 
and  loans  on  deposits  as  "movement  of  banks."  No  bank  was  to 
increase  the  former  while  the  whole  cash  liability  was  not  covered  by 
one-third  specie  and  two-thirds  90-day  paper.  If  any  one  applied  for 
an  extension  his  account  was  to  be  closed  and  other  banks  were  to  be 
notified ;  the  same  was  true  of  any  one  whose  paper  lay  protested  for 
10  days,  when  he  was  to  be  discredited  and  to  have  no  bank  credit 
until  he  paid  in  full.  The  governor  was  authorized  to  appoint  a  board 
of  currency,  to  consist  of  three  members,  each  to  receive  a  salary  of 
$4,000  a  year,  to  supervise  banks  and  get  weekly  statements  of  their 
business.  Each  member  of  the  board  was  to  give  bond  of  $5,000  for 
the  faithful  performance  of  duty,  and  the  board  was  required  to  report 
1—5 


66  LOUISIANA 

ainiually  to  tlio  general  assembly.  Banks  might  issue  post  notes,  pay- 
able on  Sept.  30,  1842,  or  twice  the  amount  of  specie  possessed,  the 
other  half  to  be  secured  by  state  bonds  or  mortgages,  and  all  such 
notes  were  to  be  stamped  and  registered  by  the  board  of  eurrenc.v. 
Solvent  banks  were  to  be  secured  in  taking  the  eurrenc.v  of  banks  in 
process  of  liquidation  bv  the  assets  of  the  liquidating  banks.  Any 
bank  refusing  to  accept  the  law  within  25  da.vs.  and  any  revived  bank 
failing  to  comply  with  its  provisions  were  to  be  put  in  liquidation  by 
the  board  of  currency.  In  short,  the  entire  operations  of  the  banks 
were  to  be  regulated  and  controlled  by  the  board. 

New  Orleans  banks  resumed  sjiecie  payments  on  ilay  IS.  1842. 
There  was  immediately  a  run  upon  them  that  amounted  almost  to  a 
riot,  and  by  June  2  all  but  three  suspended.  The  treasurv  report  at 
this  time  sa.vs:  '"The  monetary  condition  of  the  city  is  deplorable 
beyond  description."  Another  report  in  September  says:  "There 
was  a  bank  revulsion  at  New  Orleans,  the  most  severe  probably  that 
was  ever  felt.  The  effects  extended  throughout  the  Union."  (This 
revulsion  was  probably  due  to  the  retirement  of  the  post  notes  author- 
ized by  the  act  of  the  preceding  Febi-uary.)  By  the  act  of  April  5, 
1843,  all  property  banks  were  placed  in  liquidation  except  such  as 
could  show  a  clear  state  of  solvenc.v.  Under  this  act  any  stockholder 
could  clear  his  liability  b.v  paying  in  bonds  of  the  state  issued  to  the 
bank.  As  previously  stated,  the  Union  bank  was  the  only  one  that 
escaped  liquidation  under  this  act.  The  board  of  currency  was  also 
reorganized  by  the  legislature  of  1843.  doing  away  with  the  three  mem- 
bers and  appointing  the  secretary  of  state  and  the  treasurer  as  the 
board,  each  member  to  receive  a  salary  of  $1,200. 

The  constitution  of  1845  prohibited  the  state  from  pledging  its  credit 
to  any  person  or  corporation,  or  from  creating  any  corporation  with 
banking  and  discounting  privileges.  In  the  early  50 's  complaint  was 
made  that  the  banking  facilities  of  the  state  were  not  sufficient  to  meet 
the  reijuirements  of  commerce.  In  response  to  this  complaint  the  legis- 
lature in  1852  passed  a  law  reviving  the  Citizens'  bank  as  a  bank  of 
discount  and  deposit.  The  act  was  vetoed  by  the  governor  on  the 
ground  that  it  was  unconstitutional,  but  it  was  passed  over  his  veto. 
Doubtless  the  banking  situation  had  much  to  do  with  the  making  of 
a  new  constitution  in  1852,  by  which  "Corporations  with  banking 
and  discounting  privileges  may  be  either  created  by  special  acts  or 
formed  under  a  general  law;  but  the  legislature  shall,  in  lioth  cases, 
provide  for  the  registry  of  all  bills  or  notes  issued  and  put  in  circula- 
tion as  money,  and  shall  require  ample  security  for  the  redemption  of 
the  same  in  .specie,"  Under  this  provision  of  the  constitution  the 
legislature  by  the  act  of  April  30,  1853.  established  a  general  s.vstem 
of  free  banking  in  the  state.  The  principal  features  of  the  law  were 
as  follows :  Five  or  more  persons  could  form  a  corporation  -n-ith  the 
usual  privileges,  the  capital  stock  to  be  not  less  than  $100,000.  which 
must  be  paid  up  within  12  months  after  the  company  began  opera- 
tions; act  of  corporation  to  be  made  a  matter  of  record;  each  stock- 
holder to  be  liable  for  the  full  amount  of  his  stock;  bills  to  be  en- 
graved by  the  auditor  of  public  accounts  of  Louisiana  and  counter- 


LOUISIANA  67 

signed  b.y  him ;  banks  to  deposit  with  the  auditor  bonds  of  the  United 
States,  the  State  of  Louisiana  or  the  city  of  New  Orleans  to  secure  their 
circulation ;  the  securities  thus  deposited  to  be  open  to  investigation 
by  a  committee  of  the  general  assembly ;  every  bank  to  keep  on  hand 
specie  equal  to  one-third  of  its  cash  liabilities;  for  violation  of  this 
provision  every  director  or  manager  became  individually  liable  for  all 
debts  and  obligations  of  the  corporation;  all  banks  outside  of  New 
Orleans  to  have  an  agency  in  that  city  for  the  redemption  of  its  notes; 
a  new  currency  board  was  created  to  supervise  the  execution  of  the 
law ;  and  lists  of  stockholders  were  to  be  furnished  monthly  to  the  state 
officials.  This  law  remained  in  force  until  1861,  when  the  state  con- 
vention provided  that  outstanding  notes  should  not  equal  more  than 
three-fourths  of  the  capital  stock,  and  that  notes  need  not  be  registered 
and  countersigned  by  the  auditor. 

In  1860  the  Bank  of  the  State  of  Louisiana  had  the  largest  specie 
reserve  of  any  bank  in  the  United  States  (.$4,133,000)  and  the 
Citizens'  bank  stood  second  with  $3,232,000.  According  to  th*^ 
Bankers'  JMagazine,  the  banks  of  the  state  as  a  whole  had  a  ratio 
of  $54.46  iu  specie  to  each  $100  of  notes  in  circulation,  the  ratio 
of  Illinois  being  .$4.25 ;  of  New  York,  $20.39 ;  and  of  ilassaehusetts. 
$21.63.  Notwithstanding  this  splendid  showing  the  New  Orleans 
banks  suspended  in  Sept.,  1861.  In  May,  1862,  Gen.  Butler  issued 
his  order  No.  3,  forbidding  banks  "to  pay  any  more  Confederate 
notes  to  their  depositors  or  creditors,  but  that  all  deposits  lie  paid 
in  bills  of  the  liauk,  U.  S.  treasury  notes,  gold  or  silver,  authorizin.g 
them  at  the  same  time  to  receive  the  Confederate  notes  for  any 
of  their  bills  until  May  27,  1862."  Consequently,  at  the  latter  date 
all  the  banks  were  carrying  a  large  amount  of  Confederate  notes 
which  they  could  not  dispose  of  in  the  ordinary  course  of  business, 
and  many  of  the  notes  still  remained  in  their  vaults  in  1864,  others 
having  been  invested  in  Confederate  bonds  or  in  cotton,  of  which 
commodity  the  Louisiana  State  bank  had  purchased  15,000  bales. 
Against  the  Confederate  notes  thus  held  the  banks  were  required 
to  issue  their  own  notes,  with  the  results  that  when  Gen.  Banks 
on  Marcli  18,  1864,  issued  his  Special  Order  No.  69,  requiring 
reports  from  the  various  banks  and  departments,  nine  banks  of 
New  Orleans  showed  a  forced  circulation  of  this  character  amount- 
ing to  $6,715,077.  Butler's  order  was  doubtless  intended  to  work  a 
hardship  on  the  banks,  and  it  certainly  accomplished  its  purpose. 
In  1864  the  Bank  of  Louisiana  reported  immediate  lial)ilities 
amounting  to  $3,022,327,  and  immediate  assets  of  $1,069,162,  though 
it  had  to  its  credit  within  the  Confederate  lines  in  Georgia  gold  to 
the  value  of  $2,461,395.  The  tirst  national  l)ank  in  Louisiana  was 
organized  early  in  1864. 

Since  the  reconstruction  the  banking  laws  of  Louisiana  have  been 
abreast  of  those  passed  by  the  most  progressive  states  of  the 
Union.  The  act  of  July  12,  1888,  provided  that  five  or  more  per- 
sons might  form  themselves  into  an  association  or  corporation  for 
conducting  a  banking  business,  and  when  so  incorporated  should 
have  all  the  powers  and  authority  usually  conferred  by  law  upon 


68  LOUISIANA 

institutions  of  that  class.  The  act  further  pro^-ided  for  tlie  organ- 
ization of  sa^'iugs  banks  with  a  capital  stock  of  $100,000  or  more, 
and  trust  companies  with  power  to  accept  and  execute  trusts,  act 
as  receivers,  traders,  assignees,  executors,  administrators  and  depos- 
itaries, the  capital  stock  to  be  a  security  for  the  safe  conduct  of 
their  affairs  along  these  lines.  It  was  also  provided  that  deposits 
made  by  married  women  and  minors  in  savings  banks  might  be 
drawn  out  upon  their  order.  By  the  act  of  July  14.  1898,  every 
bank,  banker,  or  association  or  corporation  doing  a  banking  bus- 
iness in  the  state  was  required  to  have  on  hand  at  all  times  United 
States  currency  equal  to  one-fourth  of  all  cash  liabilities,  the  other 
three-fourths  to  be  in  lawful  money  of  the  United  States,  bills  of 
exchange,  or  discount  paper  maturing  within  six  months.  The  act 
of  July  6.  1900,  required  every  bank  to  create  a  sui'plus  fund,  and 
in  1902  the  general  assemblj'  more  clearly  detined  the  duties  and 
privileges  of  the  state  bank  examiner.  The  gOA^ernor  Avas  author- 
ized to  order  an  examination  of  any  bank,  the  officials  of  which 
were  required  to  give  the  state  bank  examiner  free  access  to  all 
books,  documents,  etc.,  imder  a  penalty  of  from  $100  to  $500  fine 
for  refusal,  and  also  the  removal  from  office  of  any  bank  oflicial 
who  might  so  refuse. 

Banks,  Nathaniel  Prentiss,  soldier  and  statesman,  was  born  at 
Waltham,  !Mass.,  Jan.  30,  1816.  His  parents  being  poor,  he  worked 
in  the  mill,  devoting  his  leisure  time  to  study,  thus  obtaining  a  fair 
education,  and  finally  became  editor  of  a  local  paper.  In  1851-52 
he  was  speaker  of  the  ^Massachusetts  house  of  representatives;  was 
president  of  the  state  constitutional  convention  in  1853 ;  was  elected 
to  Congress  that  year  by  a  combination  of  Democrats  and  Know 
Nothings;  was  twice  reelected  as  a  Republican,  serving  until  Dec. 
4,  1857,  when  he  resigned  to  become  governor  of  IMassachusetts. 
In  1860  he  was  made  president  of  tlie  Illinois  Central  railroad  com- 
pany, which  position  he  resigned  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  war 
to  accept  a  commission  as  major-general  of  volunteers,  having  had 
previous  experience  as  an  officer  of  the  state  militia.  His  first 
service  was  in  Virginia,  but  on  Dec.  16,  1862,  he  succeeded  Gen. 
Butler  in  command  at  New  Orleans.  His  tirst  act  Avas  to  issue  a 
proclamation,  in  which  he  said:  "It  is  my  desire  to  secure  to  the 
people  of  every  class  all  the  privileges  of  possession  and  enjoy- 
ment consistent  Avith  public  safety,  or  Avhicli  it  is  possible  for  a 
beneficent  and  just  government  to  confer.  *  *  *  ]\iy  instruc- 
tions require  me  to  treat  as  enemies  those  who  are  enemies,  but  I 
shall  gladly  treat  as  friends  those  Avho  are  friends.  No  restrictions 
Avill  be  placed  iipon  the  freedom  of  individiuils  Avhich  is  not  imper- 
atiA'cl.A'  demanded  by  considerations  of  public  safety.  *  *  •  Rg. 
spectful  consideration  and  prompt  reparation  will  be  accorded  to 
all  persons  Avho  are  Avrouged  in  body  or  estate  by  those  under  my 
command."  The  beginning  of  his  administration  Avas  marked  by 
a  leniency  in  harmony  Avith  the  spirit  of  his  proclamation — a  de- 
cided contrast  to  the  scA-erity  Gen.  Butler  had  deemed  it  necessary 
to  exercise.     Banks  releasecl  a  number  of  political  prisoners  that 


LOUISIANA  69 

had  been  arrested  and  sentenced  by  Butler,  and  otherwise  indicated 
that  his  policy  was  to  be  conciliatory.  His  clemency  was  abused 
by  some  thoughtless  persons,  and  on  Dee.  21  he  issiied  a  proclama- 
tion of  warning.  Even  this  did  not  check  the  demonstrations,  and 
more  decisive  measures  were  adopted,  though  they  were  not  as 
austere  as  the  methods  of  Gen.  Butler.  In  ilay,  1863,  Banks  con- 
centrated a  force  of  some  25,000  men  at  Baton  Rouge  and  invested 
Port  Hudson,  which  place  held  out  until  after  the  surrender  of 
Vicksburg,  when  it  capitulated,  and  Banks  showed  his  magnanim- 
ity by  permitting  Geu.  Gardner,  the  Confederate  commander,  to 
retain  liis  sword.  Early  in  1864  an  effoi-t  was  made  to  reestablish 
the  civil  government  of  the  state,  a  movement  to  which  Banks  lent 
his  aid  by  issuing  a  proclamation  on  Jan.  11,  ordering  an  election 
for  state  ofScers  on  Feb.  22.  The  government  inaugurated  by  this 
election  was  not  satisfactory  to  the  people  (See  Hahn's  Adminis- 
tration), though  there  is  no  doubt  that  Gen.  Banks  was  sincere  in 
his  desire  to  see  the  restoration  of  civil  government.  On  Feb.  3, 
1864,  he  issued  a  general  order  which  materially  assisted  the  plant- 
ers in  making  tei-ms  with  the  negroes  by  prescribing  regulations 
under  which  the  latter  should  be  employed,  and  the  wages  they 
should  receive.  He  established  a  board  of  education  for  the  freed- 
men  and  conferred  on  it  the  power  "to  assess  and  levy  a  school 
tax  upon  real  and  personal  property,  etc."  (See  Freedmen's  Bu- 
reau and  Emancipation  Proclamation.)  In  May,  1864,  Gen.  S.  A. 
Hurlbut  was  assigned  to  the  command  of  the  Department  of  the 
Gulf  and  Gen.  E.  R.  S.  Canby  was  placed  in  command  of  the  newly 
created  military  division  of  West  Mississippi,  which  included  Lou- 
isiana. Gen.  Banks  resigned  his  commission  in  the  army,  returned 
to  Massachusetts  and  was  elected  to  Congress  that  fall.  By  re- 
peated reelections  he  remained  in  Congress  until  1877,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  one  term,  being  defeated  in  1872,  along  with  the  entire 
Greeley  ticket,  which  he  supported.  He  was  then  for  some  time 
the  U.  S.  marshal  for  Massachusetts  and  in  1888  was  again  elected 
to  Congress,  but  before  the  expiration  of  his  term  he  became 
afHieted  with  a  mental  disorder  and  was  forced  to  retire  from 
public  life.  In  1891  Congress  voted  him  an  annual  pension  of 
$1,200,  but  he  did  not  live  long  to  en.joy  it,  as  his  death  occurred 
at  Waltham,  Mass.,  Sept.  1,  1894. 

Baptist  Church. —  (See  Protestant  Churches.) 

Bar  Association,  State. — On  May  13,  1847,  a  number  of  New  Or- 
leans lawyers  assembled  in  the  supreme  court  chamber  pursuant 
to  a  previous  call  for  the  purpose  of  organizing  a  bar  association. 
Judge  Watts  called  the  meeting  to  order,  after  which  Alfred  Hen- 
nen  was  elected  chairman  and  Thomas  A.  Clarke  secretary.  A 
constitution  was  adopted,  the  organization  taking  the  name  of 
"The  Law  Association  of  New  Orleans,"  and  the  following  officers 
were  elected :  John  R.  Grymes,  president ;  Alfred  Hennen,  vice- 
president  ;  Thomas  A.  Clarke,  secretary  and  treasurer.  A  commit- 
tee on  membership  was  appointed  and  was  composed  of  Pierre 
Soule,   Charles  Watts,    Christian    Roselius,    Richard     H.     Wilde, 


70  LOUISIANA 

Echvard  Rawlo.  Jolm  Winthrop  and  "William  H.  King.  The  first 
annual  meeting  %yas  to  be  held  on  Nov.  15,  184^7  (the  third  Monday), 
as  provided  by  the  constitution,  bnt  at  that  time  there  ivas  no 
(luoruni  present  and  the  meeting  was  adjourned  to  the  20th.  when 
the  secretary  reported  a  membership  of  49.  This  was  the  beginning 
of  the  Louisiana  Bar  association,  the  principal  objects  of  -which 
were  to  promote  good  feeling  among  the  members  of  the  profession 
and  provide  a  library  for  the  use  of  those  belonging  to  the  association. 

A  roster  of  the  association  on  Nov.  17,  1866.  includes  the  names  of 
J.  D.  Augustin.  D.  W.  Adams.  T.  L.  Bayne.  G.  A.  Breaux.  T.  A. 
Clarke.  M.  M.  Cohen.  Cyprien  Dufour,  J.  B.  Eustis,  C.  E.  Fenner, 
John  Finney.  Alfred  Hennen.  R.  II.  ilarr,  Edward  Rawle.  Christian 
Roselius,  A.  G.  and  T.  J.  Semmes.  Paul  E.  Theard,  and  many  others 
more  or  less  prominent  in  the  profession,  all  of  New  Orleans.  It  ap- 
pears that  another  association  \\-as  formed  in  1876.  as  the  minutes  for 
the  meeting  of  May  21.  1881.  show  that  Carleton  Hunt.  B.  R.  Forman 
and  "W.  E.  Murphy  introduced  amendments  to  the  constitution  pro- 
viding for  a  change  of  name  to  "The  New  Orleans  Law  and  Bar  Asso- 
ciation.'' and  that  all  members  of  the  association  established  in  1876, 
not  members  of  the  old  association,  might  become  so  without  payment 
of  fees,  provided  they  signed  the  constitution  of  the  association  and 
passed  a  resolution  ''merging  and  consolidating"  the  new  as.sociation 
into  the  old.  The  president  ruled  that  portion  of  the  amendment 
relating  to  the  consolidation  out  of  order,  and  the  records  do  not  show 
how  the  two  societies  were  merged  into  one. 

On  April  29.  1889,  the  charter  of  the  association  was  amended,  and 
on  Feb.  24,  1898,  a  resolution  was  adopted  changing  the  name  to  the 
"Louisiana  Law  Association."  Lender  this  name  it  continued  until 
Feb.  20,  1899,  when  the  present  name  of  "The  Louisiana  Bar  Asso- 
ciation" was  adopted.  Among  the  distinguished  la\\yers  who  have 
serred  as  president  of  the  association  appear  the  names  of  John  R. 
Grymes,  Christian  Roselius,  E.  A.  Bradford,  J.  A.  Rozier,  and  James 
MeConnell.  A  list  of  the  secretaries  includes  Thomas  A.  Clarke. 
Thomas  L.  Bavne,  who  served  for  many  years,  J.  0.  Nixon.  J.  Ward 
Gurley.  AV.  S.  Benedict  and  AV.  A.  Bell. 

Some  years  ago  the  custom  of  having  an  anniial  bar  dinner  was 
adopted  and  has  been  kept  up  since.  This  occasion  is  one  of  good- 
fellowship  and  has  been  a  potent  means  of  increasing  the  membership. 
Officers  are  elected  at  the  annual  meeting  in  June.  The  feature  of  the 
annual  meeting,  June  6,  1908,  was  the  address  of  Hon.  Carleton  Hunt, 
in  which  he  reviewed  his  experience  of  fifty  years  as  a  member  of  the 
Louisiana  bar.  The  total  membership  at  that  time  was  301,  of  whom 
191  were  residents  of  New  Orleans,  80  were  from  different  towns  in 
the  state,  and  30  were  classed  as  literary  members  only.  The  present 
officers  are  B,  W.  Kernan,  pres. :  Chas.  A.  Duchamp,  sec.-treas. ;  P. 
M.  Milner.  vice-pres.,  1st  dist.;  Geo.  W.  Jack,  vice-pres.,  2nd  dist.: 
Chas.  A.  McCoy,  vice-pres.,  3d  dist. ;  E.  T.  "Weeks,  vice-pres.,  4th 
dist..  Exec.  com..  St.  Clair  Adams,  Johnston  Armstrong,  "Walter 
L.  Gleason,  "Wm.  B.  Grant,  and  "Wynne  G.  Rogers. 

Barataxia,  a  post-hamlet  of  Jefferson  parish,  is  located  about  16 


LOUISIANA  71 

miles  south  of  the  city  of  New  Orleans  and  3  miles  east  of  Lake 
Salvador.  The  nearest  railroad  station  is  Jesuit  Bend  on  the  line  of 
the  New  Orleans,  Port  Jackson  &  Grand  Isle  R.  R. 

Barataria  Bay,  lying  in  the  southern  part  of  the  parishes  of 
Jefferson  and  Plaquemines,  is  ahout  60  miles  soiith  of  New  Orleans 
and  some  40  miles  westward  from  Pilot  Town,  which  stands  at  the 
entrance  of  the  Southwest  pass  of  the  Mississippi  river.  Across  the 
mouth  of  the  bay  stretch  the  long,  narrow  islands  of  Grand  Terre 
and  Grand  Isle,  separating  it  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  On  these 
islands,  as  well  as  on  the  numerous  smaller  ones  which  intersperse  the 
bay,  are  vast  deposits  of  a  kind  of  clam  shell,  placed  there  by  the 
processes  of  nature,  large  quantities  of  which  have  been  shipped  away 
in  recent  years  to  be  used  as  paving  material  in  various  cities.  Be- 
tween Grand  Isle  and  Grand  Terre  is  Grand  pass,  and  at  the  western 
end  of  the  former  there  is  also  a  channel  which  connects  with  Caminada 
bay,  from  which  a  passage  is  found  connecting  with  Bayous  Lafourche 
and  Terre  Bonne.  Barataria  bay  is  also  connected  with  the  interior  , 
through  Bayou  St.  Denis.  Little  lake.  Bayou  Perot  and  Lake  Salvador, 
thence  via  Bayou  des  Allemands  and  the  lake  of  the  same  name  almost 
to  th§  Mississippi  above  New  Orleans.  The  islands  and  marshy  shores 
of  this  bay  were  favorite  haunts  of  the  naturalist  Audubon,  who  here 
sought  and  found  great  multitudes  of  sea-fowl,  among  them  the  alba- 
tross, the  cormorant  and  the  white  pelican.  During  the  early  years 
of  the  nineteenth  century  considerable  history  was  made  in  the  vicin- 
ity of  Barataria  bay,  by  reason  of  a  band  of  smugglers,  commanded 
by  Jean  Lafitte,  who  had  established  their  headquarters  on  the  island 
of  Grand  Terre,  and  who  had  their  stronghold  in  the  midst  of  a 
group  of  the  shell-mounds  above  referred  to  on  one  of  the  islands  . 
of  the  bay.  This  group  of  mounds  was  known  as  the  "Little  Tem- 
ple," such  places  having  been  used  by  the  aborigines  as  sites  for 
their  temples  and  burial  places.     (See  Smugglers  and  Lafitte.) 

Barbreck,  a  post-hamlet  and  station  in  the  northern  part  of  St. 
Landry  parish,  is  on  the  Southern  Pacific  R.  R.,  about  20  miles  north 
of  Opelousas,  the  parish  seat.    It  has  a  population  of  100. 

Barham,  a  village  and  station  on  the  Kansas  City  Southern  R. 
R.,  in  the  northwest  part  of  Vernon  parish,  is  14  miles  northwest 
of  Leesville,  the  parish  seat.  It  has  a  money  order  postoffice,  tel- 
egraph and  express  office,  and  is  the  trading  center  for  a  consid- 
erable district. 

Barrow,  Alexander,  United  States  senator  from  Louisiana,  was 
born  near  Nashville,  Tenn.,  in  1801,  and  was  educated  at  the  U.  S. 
military  academy  at  West  Point.  After  he  left  the  academy  he 
studied  law  and  began  practice  in  Louisville.  He  became  a  planter, 
entered  politics,  served  several  years  in  the  state  legislature,  and 
in  1841  was  chosen  U.  S.  senator  from  Louisiana  as  a  Whig.  He 
served  from  Mav  31,  1841,  until  his  death  at  Baltimore,  Md.,  Dec. 
29,  1846. 

Barton,  a  village  in  the  southwestern  part  of  Ascension  parish, 
is  about  2  miles  west  of  Donaldsonville,  the  parish  seat,  and  a  mile 


72  LOUISIANA 

east    of   Palo   Alto,    the   nearest   railroad    station,     It  has  a  money 
order  postoffiee,  and  a  population  of  125. 

Basile,  a  post-hamlet  in  tlie  southern  part  of  Evangeline  parish, 
is  about  2  miles  soutli  of  Ilawling,  wliieh  is  the  most  convenient 
railroad  station.     Population  200. 

Baskin,  a  village  in  the  northern  part  of  Franklin  parish,  is  a 
station  on  the  New  Orleans  &  Northwestern  R.  R.  about  6  miles 
north  of  "Winnsboro,  the  parish  seat.  It  has  a  money  order  post- 
offiee, an  express  office,  and  is  a  trading  center  for  a  considerable 
district. 

Ba^kinton,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  northwestern  part  of  Franklin 
parish,  is  a  station  on  the  IMangham  &  Northeastern  R.  R.,  about 
12  miles  nortli  of  Winnsboro,  the  parish  seat. 

Bastrop,  the  capital  of  IMorehouse  parish,  is  located  in  the  western 
part  of  the  parish  on  the  line  of  the  New  Orleans  &  Northwestern 
R.  R.  "When  the  parish  Avas  created  in  1844  the  site  was  selected 
for  a  seat  of  justice  and  the  name  Bastrop  was  given  to  the  town 
on  account  of  the  land  in  that  section  having  been  once  included 
in  the  grant  to  Baron  de  Bastrop.  The  first  settler  was  TVilliam 
Gillespie,  and  the  tirst  store  was  established  by  Archibald  Melver. 
Bastrop  was  incorporated  in  1851,  and  on  Oct.  15  of  that  year 
"William  Prather  began  the  publication  of  the  "North  Loiiisianian," 
the  first  newspaper  in  the  town  or  parish.  Bastrop  has  a  money 
order  postoffiee,  express  and  telegraph  service,  one  bank,  several 
good  stores,  and  a  population  of  854. 

Batchelor,  a  village  and  station  in  the  northern  part  of  Pointe 
Coupee  parish,  is  on  the  Texas  &  Pacific  R.  R.,  about  20  miles 
northwest  of  New  Roads,  the  parish  seat.  It  has  a  money  order 
postoffiee,  express  and  telegraph  offices,  and  a  population  of  200. 

Baton  Rouge,  the  capital  of  the  state  and  the  seat  of  justice  of 
East  Baton  Rouge  parish,  is  located  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi river,  120  miles  above  New  Orleans  by  river,  but  only  68 
miles  "as  the  crow  liies. "  It  was  founded  by  the  French  in  1719 
and  occupies  the  first  high  lands  the  voyageurs  found  in  their 
ascent  of  the  great  river.  The  words  baton  rouge  translated  into 
English  mean  "red  stick,"  and  according  to  Du  Pratz  this  name 
was  derived  from  a  large  cypress  tree  which  stood  on  the  site  of  the 
city  when  the  French  first  visited  the  place.  This  tree  had  been 
shorn  of  nearly  all  its  branches  and  most  of  its  bark,  and  as  the 
natural  color  of  the  wood  of  the  cypress  is  red.  the  denuded  trunk 
of  this  tree  presented  the  appearance  of  a  gigantic  red  stick  or 
baton.  Another  account  says  the  name  was  taken  from  a  red  stake 
planted  on  the  river  bank  to  mark  the  boundary  line  betyeen  the 
hunting  grounds  of  the  Houma  and  Bayou  Goula  Indians. 

For  some  years  the  growth  of  the  settlement  at  Baton  Rouge 
was  slow,  but  after  the  "Western  Company  surrendered  its  charter 
in  1732  important  additions  were  made  by  the  arrival  of  immi-, 
grants,  and  when  the  Acadians  were  driven  from  their  homes  in 
Nova  Scotia  about  80  of  the  exiles  settled  at  Baton  Rouge  or  in  the 
immediate  vicinity.    At  the  time  France  ceded  Loiiisiana  to  Spain 


LOUISIANA  73 


in  1762,  certain  territory  east  of  the  Mississippi,  including  Baton 
Rouge,  was  ceded  to  Great  Britain,  but  when,  in  May,  1779,  Spain 
declared  war  against  England,  Gov.  Galvez  of  Louisiana  set  about 
the  recovery  of  this  territory  (See  Spanish  Conquest),  and  on  Sept. 
21,  1779,  the  English  fort  at  Baton  Rouge  capitulated.  With  the 
exception  of  the  few  months  that  it  belonged  to  the  short-lived 
republic  of  West  Florida,  Baton  Rouge  remained  a  Spanish  pos- 
session until  it  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  United  States,  so  that 
the  flags  of  four  nations — France,  England,  Spain  and  the  United 
States — have  in  turn  floated  over  Louisiana's  capital  city.  At  the 
battle  of  New  Orleans,  Jan.  8,  181.5,  Baton  Rouge  and  the  near-by 
plantations  furnished  two  companies  of  volunteers,  numbering  168 
men,  who  performed  their  duties  bravely  and  well. 

The  first  steamboat  that  ever  visited  Baton  Rouge  was  the  "New 
Orleans,"  which  arrived  there  on  Jan.  8,  1812,  having  made  the 
trip  from  Pittsbiirg,  Pa.,  in  241  hours — a  speed  which  at  that  time 
was  considered  little  short  of  marvelous.  Ten  years  later,  or  during 
the  year  1822,  no  less  than  8.3  steamers,  174  barges  and  441  fliatboats 
touched  at  her  Avharves,  which  will  give  some  idea  of  the  growth 
and  importance  of  her  river  commerce  at  that  period. 

On  Jan.  16,  1816,  the  Louisiana  legislature  passed  an  act  pro- 
viding that  "All  free  white  male  persons  above  the  age  of  21  years, 
who  are  freeholders,  householders  or  landowners,  within  the  fol- 
lowing limits,  to-wit:  from  the  mouth  of  the  bayou  at  the  upper 
part  of  the  town  of  Baton  Rouge  (called  Garcia's  Bayou)  and  ex- 
tending on  the  main  branch  of  said  bayou  to  the  distance  of  40 
arpents  from  the  Mississippi,  and  below  commencing  at  the  Mis- 
sissippi on  the  town  line  of  the  tract  of  land  claimed  by  Madam 
Marion,  and  pursuing  the  direction  of  said  line  to  the  distance  of 
40  arpents  from  the  ^Mississippi,  are  hereby  authorized  to  meet  and 
elect  five  selectmen  auually,"  etc.  Under  this  act  an  election  was 
accordingly  held,  and  by  the  legislative  enactment  of  July  6,  1817, 
the  town  received  its  first  charter  of  incorporation.  The  council 
provided  for  in  the  act  met  for  the  first  time  on  April  13,  1818,  and 
organized  by  the  election  of  the  following  officers:  William  Wil- 
liams, president  of  the  council  and  mayor  ex-officio ;  Tliomas  C. 
Stanard,  clerk ;  D.  E.  Pintado,  treasurer  and  collector ;  and  Pierre 
Jautin,  police  officer.  The  first  ordinance  passed  by  the  council 
related  to  taxes  and  licenses ;  the  second  provided  for  certain  street 
improvements ;  the  third  ordered  the  cousti'uction  of  a  combined 
town  hall  and  market  house,  and  the  fourth  provided  for  the  pun- 
ishment of  "all  disorderly  and  drunken  persons."  At  the  third 
meeting  the  council  ordered  "all  bar-rooms,  saloons,  grogshops, 
cabarets,  billiard  rooihs  and  bowling  alleys"  to  be  closed  on  Sun- 
day. This  ordinance  is  said  to  be  the  first  Sunday  law  ever  passed 
in  the  Mississippi  valley. 

Political  and  military  considerations  in  1819  made  it  necessary 
for  the  United  States  government  to  quarter  a  large  body  of  troops 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  mouth  of  the  Jlississippi  river.  After  looking 
over  the  ground  the  war  department  selected  Baton  Rouge  because 


74  LOUISIANA 

of  its  healthful  lot-atiou  ou  the  tirst  bluffs  above  the  mouth  of  the 
river,  and  the  following  year  the  garrison  and  arsenal  buildings 
necessary  for  an  encampment  and  military  post  were  completed 
and  occupied.  Since  1886  these  buildings  have  been  occupied  by 
the  Louisiana  State  University  and  the  Agricultural  and  Mechan- 
ical College,  one  of  the  best  educational  institutions  of  its  kind  in 
the  South. 

By  the  provisions  of  the  coustitutiou  of  1845,  Baton  Rouge 
became  the  capital  of  the  state  in  1849  (See  Capital),  and  conse- 
quently the  city  has  been  since  that  time  more  or  less  of  a  political 
storm  center.  Being  the  capital,  it  probably  suffered  more  heavily 
during  the  Civil  war  and  the  stormy  days  of  reconstruction  that 
followed  than  it  otherwise  woiild.  At  the  close  of  the  reconstruc- 
tion period  the  city,  and  the  parish  in  which  it  is  located,  were 
burdened  with  a  heavy  debt,  which  for  some  years  proved  a  serious 
handicap  to  progress.  The  popiilatJon  in  1870,  the  first  U.  S.  census 
after  the  war,  was  6,496.  With  the  adjustment  of  the  old  debt 
the  development  and  increase  in  population  were  rapid,  and  in 
1910  the  population  was  14.897,  while  the  city  is  practically  on  a 
cash  basis,  the  bonded  indebtedness  being  only  about  $300,000,  a 
good  portion  of  which  was  incurred  by  the  provisions  for  the  pur- 
chase of  the  waterworks  by  the  city  at  the  expiration  of  the  water 
companv's  contract  in  1908.  Bank  deposits  incr(>ascd  from  a  little 
over  $1,000,000  in  1900  to  over  $2,000,000  in  1907:  during  the  same 
period  the  city  tax  roll  increased  from  .$2,236,000.  in  round  num- 
bers, to  over  .$4,000,000,  and  the  postoffiee  receipts  from  $17,021 
to  nearly  .$31,.')00.  The  city  has  a  good  public  school  system;  five 
banking  institutions ;  four  trunk  lines  of  railroad :  a  large  river 
trade :  well  paved  streets  and  good  .sidewalks ;  a  good  sewer  sys- 
tem:  free  mail  delivery,  with  rural  routes  to  all  parts  of  the  parish  ; 
a  fire  department  'with  electric  fire  alarm  system ;  good  street  rail- 
way service:  daily  and  weekly  newspapers:  gas  and  electric  light- 
ing systems ;  hotels  and  theaters,  and  churches  of  all  the  leading 
denominations.  The  principal  public  buildings  and  institutions 
are  the  state  eapitol,  the  Federal  eourtliouse  and  postoffiee,  parish 
courthouse,  city  hall,  state  university,  school  for  deaf  mutes,  school 
for  the  blind,  and  the  agricultural  experiment  .station.  The  prin- 
cipal manufactures  are  sugar,  cotton  and  lumber.  Baton  Rouge 
was  the  home  of  Gen.  Zachary  Taylor,  12th  president  of  the  United 
States,  and  of  his  son.  Gen.  Richard  Taylor,  who  was  one  of  the 
most  (lashing  commanders  in  fhe  Confederate  army  during  the 
Civil  war. 

For  a  time,  during  the  French  domination.  Baton  Rouge  was 
called  Dironbourg.  from  Diron  d'Artaguette  (q.  v.).  The  British 
called  it  New  Richmond,  but  the  name  Baton  Ronge,  given  by  the 
French,  prevailed  after  the  conquest  by  Galvez  and  has  been  re- 
tained to  this  day. 

Baton  Rouge  Revolution.— This  is  but  anothei-  name  for  the  West 
Florida  Revolution,  under  which  title  a  complete  account  of  the 
event  will  he  found. 


LOUISIANA  .  75 

Battle,  a  post-hamlet  and  station  in  the  central  part  of  East 
Feliciana  parish,  is  on  a  branch  line  of  the  Yazoo  &  Mississippi 
Valley  R.  K.,  5  miles  southwest  of  Clinton,  the  parish  seat. 

Battles. — In  the  early  days  several  engagements  with  hostile 
Indian  tribes  were  fought  within  the  limits  of  the  present  State 
of  Louisiana.  In  Sept.,  1779,  the  British  posts  at  Fort  Bute  on  the 
Manchac,  and  at  Baton  Rouge,  were  captured  by  Gov.  Galvez 
after  some  lighting  at  each  place.  The  battle  of  Lake  Borgne,  Dee. 
14,  1814,  marked  the  beginning  of  the  British  attempt  to  capture 
New  Orleans.  This  was  followed  by  the  engagements  of  Dec.  23 
and  28.  1814,  Jan.  1  and  8,  1815,  and  the  bombardment  of  Fort  St. 
Philip,  which  was  continued  imtil  Jan.  17.  (See  War  of  1812.) 
During  the  War  of  1861-65  a  large  number  of  actions  occurred  iu 
Louisiana.  Many  of  them  were  mere  skirmishes,  of  which  no  cir- 
cumstantial report  was  made  by  the  commanding  officers  on  cither 
side.  Following  is  an  alphabetical  list  of  tliese  battles  and  skir- 
mishes, with  the  date  when  each  occurred : 

Alexander's  Creek  (near  St.  Francisville),  Oct.  5,  '64;  Amite 
River,  July  24,  '62,  April  12  and  17,  '63,  July  25  and  Dec.  12,  '64, 
and  March  18,  '65 ;  Ashton,  May  1,  '64 ;  Ashwood  Landing,  May 
1-4,  '64;  Atchafalaya,  June  4,  Sept.  8,  9,  and  20,  '63,  July  21,  Aug. 
25,  Sept.  17,  and  Oct.  5,  '64;  Avoyelles,  May  15,  '64;  Barre's  Land- 
ing, May  22  and  Oct.  21,  '63 ;  Baton  Rouge,  Aug.  5,  20  and  21,  '62, 
Sept.  19,  '63,  March  3  and  8,  April  15,  May  3  and  Aug.  29,  '64; 
Bayou  Alabama,  Sept.  20,  '64 ;  Bayou  Boeuf,  April  22,  '63,  and  May 
7,  '64;  Baj^ovi  Boeuf  Crossing,  June  24,  '63;  Bayou  Bonfouca,  Nov. 
21,  '62,  and  Jan.  31,  '65;  BayOu  Bourbeau,  Nov.  3,  '63;  Bayou  de 
Glaize,  May  18,  '64 ;  Bayou  de  Large,  May  27,  '65 ;  Bayou  de  Paul, 
April  8,  '64;  Bayou  des  Allemands,  June  20  and  22,  and  Sept.  4, 
'62,  and  July  18,  '63 ;  Bayou  Fordoche,  May  29,  '64 ;  Bayou  Goula, 
Jan.  24  and  May  9,  '65 ;  Bayou  Grand  Caillou,  Nov.  23,  '64 ;  Bayou 
Grossetete,  April  2  and  June  19,  '64 ;  Bayou  Lamourie,  May  6,  7  and 
12,  '64;  Bayou  Liddell,  Oct.  15,  '64;  Bayou  Macon,  May  10  and 
Aug.  24,  '63 ;  Bayou  Maringouin,  Sept.  13  and  16,  '64 ;  Bayou  Pierre, 
May  2-3,  '64;  Bayou  Portage,  Nov.  23,  '63;  Bayou  Rapides,  March 
20  and  April  26,  '64;  Bayou  Robert,  May  8,  '64;  Bayou  Saline, 
April  14,  '64;  Bayou  Sara,  Aug.  10  and  23,  '62,  Nov.  9,  '63,  Oct.  3, 
4,  6,  9  and  10,  '64;  Bayou  Teche,  Jan.  14,  April  12  and  13,  and  Oct. 
3,  '63,  and  March  21 ,  '65 ;  Bayou  Tensas,  May  9  ,and  Aug.  10,  '63, 
July  30  and  Aug.  26,  '64;  Bavou  Tunica,  Nov.  8,  '63;  Berwick, 
June  1,  '63,  and  April  26  and  :\iay  1,  '64;  Berwick  Bay,  Nov.  1  and 
6,  '62,  and  June  23.  '63 ;  Black  Bayou,  March  19,  '64,  and  May  4, 
'65;  Black  River,  May  5,  '63;  Blair's  Landing,  April  12-13,  '64; 
Bonnet  Carre,  Oct.  19,  '62;  Boutte  Station,  Sept.  5,  '62;  Boyce's 
Bridge,  l\Iay  14,  '63  ;  Boyce  's  Plantation,  May  6,  '64 ;  Brashear  City, 
June  21  and  23,  '63;  Brown's  Plantation,  May  11,  '65;  Bullitt's 
Bayou,  Sept.  14,  '64;  Caledonia,  May  10.  '63;  Camp  Pratt,  Nov.  20 
and  25,  '63 ;  Campti,  March  26  and  April  4,  '64 ;  Cane  River,  April 
26-27,  '64;  Cane  River  Crossing,  April  23,  '64;  Carrion  Crow  Bayou, 
Oct.  14,  15  and  18,  and  Nov.  3,  11  and  18,  '63;  Carroll's  Mill  (near 


76  LOUISIANA 

Pleasant  Hill),  April  8,  '64;  Ceuterville,  April  12  and  13,  aud  May 
25,  '63;  Chacahonla,  June  24,  '63,  and  May  3,  '65;  ChoL-taw  Bayou, 
April  28,  '63 ;  Clint ou,  :Mav  1  and  Nov.  15,  '6-4 ;  Cloutierville,  March 
29  and  30,  and  xVpril  22  aud  24,  '64 ;  Columbia,  Feb.  4,  '64 ;  Coraite 
River,  ilay  2,  '63,  aud  Aug.  25,  '64 ;  Corao  Lauding,  June  15-16, 
'64;  Concordia,  July  22,  '64;  Concordia  Bayou,  Aug.  5,  '64;  Cotile 
Landing,  .Vpril  25,  '64;  Covington,  July  27,  '62;  Cross  Bayou,  July 
4,  "64;  Crump's  Hill,  April  2,  '64;  Cox's  Plantation  (near  Donald- 
sonville),  July  12-13,  "63;  Cvpress  Creek,  March  8,  "64;  David's 
Ferrv,  May  4-5,  '64;  Davis'  Bend,  June  29,  '64;  Deloach's  Bluff, 
April  26,  '64 ;  Doualdsonville,  Aug.  9  and  Sept.  21  aud  25,  '62,  June 
28  and  Sept.  23,  '63,  and  Feb.  8,  '64;  Doyal's  Plantation,  Aug.  5  and 
Nov.  29,  '64;  Dunbar's  Plantation,  April  7  and  15,  '63;  Dunn's  Bay- 
ou, :\Iay  5,  '64;  Fair  Play  (Steamer),  Aug.  18,  '62;  Floyd,  Aug.  24, 
'63  ;  Fort  Barrancas,  Jan.  1,  '62 ;  Fort  Beauregard,  JMay  10  and  Sept. 
4,  '63;  Fort  Bisland,  April  12-13,  '62,  and  April  12,  '64;  Fort  de 
Russv,  :\Iav  4,  63,  aud  :Mareli  14,  '64;  Fort  Jackson,  April  16  to  i\Iay 
1,  '62 ;  Fort  Livingston,  April  27,  '62;  Fort  St.  Philip,  April  16  to 
May  1,  '62;  Geutilly's  Plantation,  Sept.  1,  '64;  Goodrich's  Landing, 
June  30,  '63,  aud  March  24,  '64;  Graham's  Plantation,  ilay  5,  '64; 
Grand  Bayou,  April  4,  '65 ;  Grand  Coteau,  Oct.  16  aud  19,  '63 ; 
Grand  Ecore,  April  3,  16  aud  29,  '64;  Grand  Lake,  Nov.  23,  '63; 
Grand  River,  Aug.  15  and  21,  '64;  Greensburg,  ^lay  1,  '63;  Green- 
well  Springs,  Oct.  5,  '63;  Grossetete,  Feb.  19,  '64;  Hard  Times 
Lauding,  April  25  and  29,  '63 ;  Ilarrisoulnirg,  Sept.  4,  '63,  and 
March  1  and  4,  '64;  Henderson's  Hill,  :\Iarch  21,  '64;  Hodge's  Plan- 
tation, Sept.  11,  '64;  Independence  Station,  JMay  15,  '63;  Indian 
Bayou,  Nov.  9,  '63 ;  Indian  Bend,  April  13,  '63 ;  Indian  Village,  Jan. 
28,  '63,  and  Aug.  6,  '64 ;  Ii'ish  Bend,  April  14,  '63 ;  Jackson,  Aug. 
3,  '63,  JIarch  3  aud  Oct.  5,  '64;  James'  Plantation,  April  6  and  8, 
'63 ;  Jeanerette,  April  14,  '63 ;  Labadieville,  Sept.  8,  '64 ;  Lafourche 
Crossing,  June  20-21,  '63 ;  Lake  Borgne,  Nov.  22,  '63 ;  Lake  Bruin, 
April  28,  '63;  Lake  Fausee  Pointe,  Nov.  18,  '64;  Lake  Providence, 
May  24  and  27,  June  9,  24  aud  28,  '63 ;  Lake  St.  Josepli,  June  4,  '63  ; 
Lake  Verret,  Jan.  30,  '65;  ]Madisouville,  July  27,  '62,  aud  Feb.  11, 
'64;  ]\Iagnolia  Landing,  June  15,  '64;  ilansiu'a.  May  16,  '64;  Mans- 
field, April  8,  '64;  ilarksville  Prairie,  March  15,  '64;  jMartin's  Lane, 
Feb.  15,  '65;  ilillikeu's  Bend,  Aug.  18,  '62,  and  June  7  aud  25.  '63; 
Jlonett's  Ferry,  :\Iarch  29-30  and  April  23,  '64;  Moore's  Plantation, 
Mav  1  and  4,  '64;  iloreauville,  ilav  17,  '64;  ^Morgan's  Ferrv,  Sept. 
7  and  20,  '63,  Julv  28  and  Aug.  25,"  '64;  :\loi'gau/;a,  :\Iav  24  "aud  30, 
July  28,  Oct.  16,  Nov.  23  aud  Dec.  4,  '64,  and  Jan.  12  and  15.  '65; 
Morganza  Bend,  IMarcli  12,  '65 ;  Mound  Plantation,  June  24  and  29, 
'63;  Mount  Pleasant  Landing,  May  15,  '64;  Napoleonville,  July  29, 
'64,  and  Feb.  10,  '65 ;  Natchitoches,  March  31,  April  5  aud  20,"  and 
May  5,  '64;  Nelson's  Bridge  (near  New  Iberia),  Oct.  4,  '63;  New 
Carthage,  April  5,  '63;  Newport  Cross-Roads,  June  17,  '64;  New 
River,  Feb.  9,  '64;  New  Texas  Road,  Dec.  4,  '64;  Newtown,  x\pril 
16,  "64;  Old  River,  Feb.  10,  '63;  Olive  Branch,  Aug.  5  and  25.  '64; 
Opelousas,  Oct.  30,  '63;  Orange  Grove,  July  31,  '64;  Pass  Manehac, 


LOUISIANA  77 

June  17  and  Sept.  13  and  15,  '62;  Pattersonville,  April  11,  '63; 
Petite  Anse  Island,  Nov.  21-22,  '62;  Phelps'  Bayou,  April  26,  '63; 
Pineville,  April  24,  '64 ;  Pin  Hook,  May  10,  '63 ;  Plains  Store  Road, 
May  21  and  23,  '63;  Plaquemiue,  April  18  and  June  18,  '63,  and 
Aug.  6,  '64;  Pleasant  Hill,  April  7,  9,  12  and  13,  '64;  Point  Pleasant, 
June  25,  '64;  Ponehatoula,  Sept.  13-15,  '62,  March  21  and  30  and 
May  13,  '63;  Porter's  Plantation,  April  13,  '63;  Port  Hudson,  Aug. 
29,  '62,  March  14-15,  May  21  to  July  8,  and  Nov.  30,  '63,  April  7, 
May  28  (Pest  House),  and  Aug.  29,  '64;  Raccourei,  Nov.  25,  '64; 
Ratlitf's  Landing,  June  15,  '64;  Red  Chief  (Confederate  Steamer), 
May  25,  '63 ;  Red  River,  Oct.  14,  '63 ;  Richland  Plantation,  Jan.  30, 
'64;  Richmond,  Jan.  29,  March  31,  April  4,  and  June  15,  '63;  Rob- 
erts' Ford,  May  2,  '63;  Rosedale,  Sept.  15,  '64;  St.  Charles  Court 
House,  Aug.  29,  Sept.  7-8,  '62,  and  Oct.  5,  '64 ;  St.  Martinville,  Dec. 
3.  '63;  St.  Mary's  (Steamer),  July  8,  '63;  Simsport,  June  3,  '63,  and 
June  8,  '64 ;  Southwest  Pass,  Oct.  12,  '61 ;  Springfield,  May  23,  '63 ; 
Springfield  Landing,  July  2,  '63;  Starlight  (Confederate  Steamer), 
May  25,  '63;  Stirling's  Plantation,  Sept.  12  and  29,  '63;  Tallulah, 
Aug.  19,  '62;  The  Park,  Feb.  4,  '65;  Thibodaus,  June  20,  '63; 
Thompson's  Creek,  May  25,  '63;  Thompson's  Plantation,  Jan.  23, 
'65 ;  Tiekfaw  Bridge,  May  16,  '63 ;  Trinity,  Sept.  2,  '63,  and  March 
1  and  4,  '64 ;  Tunica  Bend,  Nov.  8,  '63,  and  April  21,  '64 ;  Vermilion 
Bayou,  April  17,  Oct.  9-10,  and  Nov.  11,  25,  and  30,  '63 ;  Vermili'ou- 
vilie,  Nov.  5  and  8,  '63 ;  Vidalia,  Sept.  14,  '63,  Feb.  7  and  July  22, 
'64;  Wall's  Bridge,  (Tiekfaw  river).  May  1,  '63;  Washington,  April 
22,  May  1,  Oct.  24  and  31,  '63 ;  Waterloo,  June  16,  '63,  and  Oct.  20, 
'64;  Waterproof,  April  20,  '64;  Wells'  Plantation,  May  2  and  6, 
'64;  Williams'  Bridge,  May  1,  '63;  Williamsport,  Sept.  16  and  Nov. 
25,  '64;  Wilson's  Landing,  May  2  and  14,  '64;  Wilson's  Plantation, 
April  7,  '64;  Yellow  Bayou,  May  18,  '64;  Young's  Point,  June  7, 
'63. 

Batture  Affair. — When  the  Jesuits  were  dispossessed  in  1763  and 
their  property  was  sold  for  the  benefit  of  the  French  crown,  Ber- 
trand  Gravier  purchased  a  portion  of  their  jjlantations  for  a  farm. 
Subsequently  he  laid  out  a  part  of  his  farm  in  lots  and  established 
the  faubourg  Ste.  Marie.  In  front  of  the  farm  and  the  faubourg 
was  formed  an  alluvial  deposit,  or  batture,  from  which  the  citizens 
of  New  Orleans  were  permitted  to  take  sand  and  gravel  at  their 
pleasure.  This  privilege  was  continued  until  1804,  when  John 
Gravier,  then  the  owner  of  the  property,  set  up  an  opposition  to 
the  city's  claim  that  the  people  had  that  right,  a  contention  in 
which  he  was  sustained  by  the  superior  court  of  the  territory.  In 
1807  Edward  Livingston,  acting  under  the  decision  of  the  court, 
purchased  a  portion  of  the  batture  and  attempted  to  make  improve- 
ments thereon,  but  the  people  got  together  and  drove  away  his 
workmen.  On  Sept.  1  Livingston  appealed  to  Gov.  Claiborne  for 
protection,  and  the  city  council  urged  the  governor  to  prosecute 
the  claim  of  the  United  States  to  the  ground  under  dispute.  On 
the  15tli  Livingston  again  started  his  men  to  work,  but  in  a  little 
Avhile  a  drum  was  heard  summoning  the  people  to  the  batture. 


78  LOUISIANA 

They  rallied  by  thousauds  and  were  quieted  oul.y  by  the  appeal  of 
the  governor,  who  addressed  them  on  the  spot.  Col.  JlcCarty  and 
others  replied  to  the  governor,  in  favor  of  "the  rights  of  the  peo- 
ple" and  the  case  was  finally  recommitted  to  the  United  States 
courts.  On  Jan.  24.  1808,  Livingston  received  notice  that  the  pres- 
ident had  ordered  the  U.  S.  mar.shal  to  take  possession.  Notwith- 
standing this  order,  he  went  on  with  his  improvements,  until  the 
militia  was  called  oait  to  aid  the  marshal  in  enforcing  the  jires- 
ident's  order.  Livingston  then  went  to  Washington  to  secure  relief, 
but  Congress  refused  to  act  in  the  matter.  After  Jetferson  retired 
from  the  presidency  Livingston  broiight  suit  against  him,  and  pro- 
longed litigation  followed,  which  did  not  come  to  an  end  until  after 
the  death  of  both  Jetfersou  and  Livingston,  tliough  the  latter 's 
heirs  ultimately  received  some  benefit  from  his  claim. 

Baylor,  a  post-hamlet  in  Beauregard  parish,  is  aboiit  5  miles  east 
of  the  Sabine  river  and  is  the  terminus  of  the  Sanders-Trotti  Tram 
Company  R.  R.,  which  connects  with  the  Kansas  City  Southern. 

Bayou  Barbary,  a  village  in  the  southern  part  of  Livingston 
parish,  situated  on  a  stream  of  the  same  name,  which  is  an  aflfluent 
of  the  Amite  river,  about  2  miles  from  a  steamboat  landing,  and 
4  miles  south  of  Springville.  the  parish  seat.  It  has  a  money  order 
postoffice  and  a  population  of  150. 

Bayou  Chene,  a  post-liamlet  in  tlie  southeastern  part  of  St.  ^lar- 
tin  parish,  is  situated  on  an  arm  of  Lake  Chicot,  about  l.i  miles 
east  of  St.  ilartinville,  the  parish  scat  and  nearest  railroad  station. 

Bayou  Chicot,  a  village  in  the  northern  part  of  Evangeline  parish, 
is  about  2o  miles  northwest  of  Opelousas,  and  about  5  miles  south- 
east of  Turkey  Creek,  the  nearest  railroad  station.  It  has  a  money 
order  postoffice  and  a  jiopulation  of  150. 

Bayou  Cuirent,  a  ])ost-hamlet  and  station  in  the  northeastern 
part  of  St.  Landry  parish,  situated  on  the  Atchafalya  river,  and  a 
branch  line  of  the  Texas  Pacific  E.  R.,  about  9  miles  north  of  Mel- 
ville. 

Bayou  Goula,  a  village  in  the  eastern  part  of  Iberville  parish,  is 
situated  on  the  Mississippi  river  and  the  Texas  &  Pacific  R.  R., 
about  8  miles  south  of  Plaquemines,  the  parish  seat.  It  has  a  money 
order  postoffice,  and  varied  industries  such  as  shingle,  rice,  and 
sugar  mills,  and  is  the  trading  center  for  a  rich  farming  district. 
Its  population  is  900. 

Bayou  Lachute  (R.  R.  name  Lachute),  a  post-village  in  the 
southeast  corner  of  Caddo  parish,  is  a  station  on  the  Texas  & 
Pacific  R.  R. 

Bayou  Lacomb,  a  village  in  the  southern  part  of  St.  Tammany 
parish,  on  a  sti-eam  of  the  same  name,  is  a  station  on  a  division  of 
the  New  Orleans  Great  Northern  R.  R,,  about  10  miles  west  of 
Slidell  and  '^  miles  north  of  Lake  Pontchartrain.  It  has  a  money 
order  post  office,  and  is  the  center  of  a  considerable  lumber  district. 

Bayou  Pierre,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  northwestern  part  of  Natchi- 
toches parish,  is  about  5  miles  west  of  Timon,  the  nearest  railroad 
station,  and  17  miles  northwest  of  Natchitoches,  the  parish  seat. 


LOUISIANA  79 

Bayou  Sara,  one  of  the  principal  towns  of  the  parish  of  West 
Feliciana,  is  located  in  the  southern  part  of  the  parish  on  the  Mis- 
sissippi river,  the  line  of  the  Louisiana  Railway  &  Navigation  com- 
pany running  from  Baton  Rouge  to  Angola,  and  the  Woodville 
division  of  the  Yazoo  &  Mississippi  Valley  R.  R.  It  is  an  old  town, 
having  been  iirst  incorporated  in  1842.  This  act  of  incorporation 
was  repealed  in  May,  1847,  but  the  town  was  again  incorporated 
in  1850.  The  population  is  630.  It  has  a  money  order  postoffiee, 
express  and  telegraph  offices,  and  is  an  important  shipping  point. 
Bayou  Sara  is  practically  a  part  of  St.  F'rancisville,  the  parish 
seat,  though  it  maintains  a  separate  corporate  existence.  Before 
the  war  it  was  a  more  important  town  than  St.  Francisville,  but 
with  the  advent  of  the  railroads  the  greater  portion  of  the  trade 
was  diverted  to  the  latter  place. 

Bayou  Scie,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  western  part  of  Sabine  parish, 
is  a  station  on  the  Zwolle  &  Eastern  R.  R.,  about  9  miles  northwest 
of  Many,  the  parish  seat. 

Baywood,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  northeastern  part  of  East  Baton 
Rouge  parish,  is  situated  on  the  Amite  river,  about  5  miles  east 
of  Pride,  the  nearest  railroad  town. 

Bear,  a  money  order  and  post-hamlet  in  Beauregard  parish, 
is  a  station  on  the  Louisiana  &  Pacific  R.  R.,  about  20  miles  north 
of  Lake  Charles,  the  pafish  seat. 

Bearcreek,  a  post-hamlet  of  Bienville  parish,  is  on  a  creek  of  the 
same  name  and  on  the  main  line  of  the  Louisiana  &  Northwestern 
R.  R.,  about  10  miles  south  of  Arcadia,  the  parish  seat. 

Beauregard,  Pierre  Gustave  Toutant,  one  of  the  most  noted  gen- 
erals of  the  Confederate  army,  was  born  in  St.  Bernard  parish.  La., 
May  28,  1818,  his  ancestors  on  both  sides  having  been  members  of 
distinguished  French  families.  On  -July  1,  1834,  he  entered  the 
IT.  S.  military  academy  at  West  Point  and  graduated  in  1838, 
standing  second  in  a  class  of  45.  He  entered  the  army  as  second 
lieutenant  in  the  1st  artillery,  but  was  soon  attached  with  the  same 
rank  to  the  corps  of  engineers.  He  assisted  in  the  construction  of 
Fort  Adams,  Newport  harbor,  R.  1.,  and  the  defenses  of  Pensacola, 
Fla.,  and  in  June,  1839,  was  promoted  to  first  lieutenant.  In  this 
capacity  he  was  engaged  in  the  sm-vey  of  Barataria  bay;  the  repair 
of  Fort  Jackson ;  was  superintending  engineer  in  the  construction 
of  Tower  Dupre,  the  repair  of  the  defenses  on  the  eastern  passes  to 
New  Orleans,  and  the  repairs  of  Fort  McHenry,  Md.  In  the  Mex- 
ican war  he  won  considerable  fame  as  a  strategist  and  engineer, 
by  his  construction  of  the  defenses  of  Tampieo  and  in  the  .siege 
of  Vera  Cruz,  and  on  Aug.  20,  1847,  was  brevetted  captain  "for 
gallant  and  meritorious  conduct  in  the  battles  of  Contreras  and 
Churubusco."  At  the  battle  of  Chapultepec  and  the  capture  of  the 
City  of  Mexico  he  distinguished  himself,  being  wounded  in  the 
storming  of  the  "Causeway  battery"  and  again  at  the  Belen  gate. 
From  that  time  until  1861  he  was  engaged  as  captain,  corps  of 
engineers,  in  the  construction  and  repair  of  various  forts  and 
defenses.    On  Feb.  20,  1861,  he  resigned  his  commission  in  the  U.  S. 


80  LOUISIANA 

service,  having  just  been  appointed  superintendent  of  the  military 
academy  at  "West  Point  on  Jan.  23.  He  was  placed  in  command  of 
the  Confederate  works  and  forces  at  Charleston.  S.  C,  and  it  was 
by  his  order  that  the  first  shot  of  the  great  Civil  war  was  fired,  at 
4:30  a.  m.  ou  April  12.  1861.  At  the  first  battle  of  Manassas,  July 
21,  1861,  he  was  practically  in  command  of  the  Confederate  troops, 
though  he  was  superseded  by  Gen.  J.  E.  Johnston  during  the  prog- 
ress of  the  engagement.  At  Shiloh.  April  6,  1862,  after  the  death 
of  Gen.  Albert  Sidney  Johnston,  Beauregard  assumed  command 
and  forced  the  Federal  troops  back  at  all  points,  being  master  of 
the  field  at  dark.  The  arrival  of  Gen.  Buell's  army  of  the  Ohio 
during  the  night  turned  the  tide  of  battle  the  next  day,  when  the 
Confederates  fell  back  in  good  order  to  Corinth,  iliss.  This  place 
he  successfully  defended  until  ilay  28,  when  he  destroyed  all  liis 
.stores  and  again  withdrew  in  good  order  from  the  presence  of  an 
overwhelming  enemy.  Ill  health  then  forced  him  to  retire  from 
active  service  for  a  time,  but  he  was  again  placed  in  command  of 
Charleston,  which  place  he  held  against  all  attempts  of  Du  Font's 
fleet  and  Hunter's  army  for  nearly  two  years.  In  April,  1864,  he 
was  ordered  to  Richmond,  where  he  organized  a  little  army,  de- 
feated Gen.  Butler  and  held  the  works  at  Peter.sburg.  In  Oct., 
1864,  he  was  assigned  to  the  command  of  the  division  of  the  West, 
and  in  December  his  department  was  enlarged  to  include  South 
Carolina  and  the  coast  of  Georgia.  In  Feb.,  1865,  he  was  relieved 
by  Gen.  J.  E.  Johnston,  whom  he  assisted  during  the  closing  days 
of  the  struggle  and  surrendered  with  him  in  April,  1865.  In  1866 
he  was  tendered  the  chief  command  of  the  armies  of  Roumania, 
but  declined  and  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life  in  civil  pursuits, 
his  only  military  service  being  that  of  ad,iutant-general  of  Louisi- 
ana. He  served  as  president  of  two  important  railroad  companies, 
and  died  on  Feb.  20,  1893,  the  last  survivor  of  the  full  generals  of 
the  Confederate  army.  Gen.  Beauregard  was  regarded  as  having 
no  superior  as  a  military  engineer,  and  his  defense  of  Charleston 
was  one  of  the  most  noteworthy  events  in  the  history  of  wars.  He 
was  the  author  of  "Maxims  of  the  Art  of  "War,"  published  at 
Charleston  in  1863,  and  a  "Report  of  the  Defense  of  Charleston," 
published  at  Richmond  in  1864. 

Beauregaxd  Parish. — This  is  one  of  the  new  parishes  formed  in 
the  southwestern  part  of  the  state  from  Calcasieu.  It  is  bounded 
on  the  north  by  Vernon,  on  the  east  by  Allen,  and  on  the  south  by 
Calcasieu  parishes,  and  ou  the  west  by  Texas.  The  parish  seat  is 
De  Ridder,  in  the  northern  part,  a  town  of  considerable  local  im- 
portance and  a  railroad  center.  The  parish  contains  about  1,000 
square  miles,  much  of  which  is  covered  by  a  splendid  growth  of 
timber.  Agriculture  is  making  excellent  progress  and  the  material 
wealth  is  rapidly  increasing. 

Beauvais,  Armand,  acting-governor  of  the  State  of  Louisiana, 
1829-1830.  was  a  native  of  the  state  and  a  member  of  an  old  and 
honorable  Creole  family.  His  political  career  began  with  an  elec- 
tion to  the  office  of  justice  of  the  peace  in  the  parish  of  Ponte 


LOUISIANA  81 

Coupee  in  1810.  In  1814  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  lower 
house  of  the  state  legislature  and  was  twice  reelected.  From  1822 
to  1830  he  was  a  .member  of  tlie  state  senate,  of  which  body  he  was 
president  at  the  time  of  Gov.  Derbigny's  death  in  Oct.  1829,  when 
he  succeeded  to  the  executive  chair,  and  served  until  Jan.  14,  1830, 
at  which  time  he  was  succeeded  by  Jacques  Dupre.  Mr.  Beauvais 
was  a  candidate  for  governor  in  1830,  but  was  defeated  by  Andre 
B.  Roman.  In  1833  he  was  again  elected  to  the  state  senate,  to  fill 
a  vacancy  caused  by  the  resignation  of  Mr.  Cheneveret,  and  served 
until  the  following  year,  when  he  retired  from  public  life. 

Beaver,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  northwestern  part  of  Evangeline 
parish,  is  aboiit  5  miles  east  of  Oakdale,  the  nearest  railroad  sta- 
tion, and  in  1910  reported  a  population  of  70. 

Beech,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  southeastern  part  of  "Winn  parish, 
is  near  the  creek  of  the  same  name  and  aboiit  12  miles  east  of  Winn- 
field,  the  parish  seat.  Castor  and  Flat  Creek  are  the  nearest  rail- 
road stations. 

Begg,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  central  part  of  St.  Landry  parish,  is 
a  .station  on  the  Southern  Pacific  K.  K.,  10  miles  north  of  Opelousas, 
the  parish  seat. 

Belair,  a  post-village  in  the  nortliern  part  of  Plaquemines  parish, 
is  located  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Mississippi  river  and  is  the 
southern  terminus  of  the  Louisiana  Southern  R.  R.,  the  construc- 
tion of  which  is  contemplated  to  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  river. 
It  is  a  trading  and  shipping  point  of  considerable  importance,  and 
has  a  population  of  500. 

Belcher,  a  village  in  the  northeastern  part  of  Caddo  parish,  is  a 
station  ou  the  Texas  &  Pacific  R.  R.,  about  20  miles  north  of  Shreve- 
port,  the  parish  seat.  It  has  a  money  order  postoffice,  telegraph 
and  express  offices,  and  is  a  trading  point  of  some  importance. 

Bell  City,  a  village  in  Jeff  Davis  parish,  is  a  station  on  the  South- 
ern Pacific  R.  R.,  about  20  miles  southeast  of  Lake  Charles,  the 
parish  seat.  It  has  a  money  order  postoffice,  and  is  one  of  the 
important  shipping  points  in  that  section  of  the  parish.  Popula- 
tion 200. 

Belle  Alliance,  one  of  the  principal  towns  of  Assumption  parish, 
is  located  on  Bayou  Lafourche  and  the  Texas  &  Pacific  R.  R., 
about  8  miles  north  of  Napoleonville,  the  parish  seat,  and  within 
3  miles  of  the  northern  boundary  of  the  parish.  It  has  a  money 
order  postoffice,  express  and  telegraph  offices,  a  large  retail  trade, 
and  a  population  of  800. 

Belle  Amie,  a  postoffice  of  Lafourche  parish,  is  situated  on  the 
east  bank  of  the  Bayou  Lafourche,  some  16  miles  southeast  of  Lock- 
port,  which  is  the  most  convenient  railroad  station. 

Bellechasse,  J.  D.  de  Goutin,  was  appointed  chief  of  militia  iu 
1803  by  Laussat,  who  reported  as  follows:  "In  the  first  place  I 
secured  a  chief  for  the  militia,  and  I  was  lucky  indeed  in  laying  my 
hands  on  an  officer  who  had  served  for  24  years,  who  was  not  per- 
sonally well  disposed  towards  the  Marquis  de  Casa  Calvo,  on 
account  of  his  having  been  dismissed  from  active  service  on  un- 
1—6 


82  LOUISIANA 

favorable  terms,  aud  who  enjoyed  an  excellent  reputation  and  much 
popularity  in  the  country.  He  is,  besides,  the  owner  of  considerable 
property  in  the  vicinity  of  the  city,  and  his  name  is  Deville  de 
Goutiu  Bellechasse. "  On  Nov.  30,  1803,  Bellechasse  was  placed 
in  command  of  the  militia,  with  the  rank  of  colonel,  and  when  the 
province  was  transferred  to  the  United  States  a  month  later  he 
received  from  Laussat  a  gift  of  45  pounds  of  powder  from  the 
French  stores  for  his  personal  use  in  his  hunting  trips,  a  pastime 
of  which  he  was  quite  fond.  When  the  act  of  Congress,  establish- 
ing the  Territory  of  Orleans,  took  effect  on  Oct.  1,  1804,  Col.  Belle- 
chasse was  appointed  a  member  of  the  legislative  council,  but 
having  been  active  in  calling  public  meetings  to  protest  against  the 
division  of  the  province,  he  declined  the  seat.  On  July  30,  1805, 
he  was  appointed  recorder  by  Gov.  Claiborne.  The  following  No- 
vember his  name  was  included  in  a  list  of  citizens  recommended  to 
the  president  from  which  to  make  appointments  to  fill  the  vacancies 
in  the  council,  and  President  Jeffei'sou  appointed  him  to  fill  one  of 
the  places.  He  was  active  in  securing  the  passage  of  the  resolution 
of  May  26,  1806,  dissolving  the  legislature,  because  of  the  veto  of 
certain  acts  by  Gov.  Claiborne,  and  was  one  of  those  who  two  days 
later  signed  the  explanation  in  which  they  said:  "The  executive 
power  has  doubtless  an  absolute  veto  with  respect  to  the  particular 
constitution  to  be  applied  to  this  territory;  but  if  by  means  of 
his  veto  his  will,  aud  only  his  will,  is  to  be  our  supreme  law.  let 
him  reign  alone  and  without,  disguise."  On  Sept.  15,  1807,  Col. 
Bellechasse  addressed  the  crowd  assembled  on  the  batture,  assert- 
ing in  his  si^eeeh  the  right  of  the  people  to  use  the  batture  as  com- 
mon property,  and  it  was  chiefly  through  his  iufluence  that  the 
settlement  of  the  question. was  referred  to  the  national  government. 
He  was  a  delegate  to  the  first  constitutional  convention,  which  met 
on  Nov.  i,  1811,  and  framed  the  constitution  under  which  the  State 
of  Louisiana  was  admitted  into  the  Union. 

Belle  Helene,  a  village  of  Ascension  parish,  is  a  station  on  the 
Yazoo  &  ^Mississippi  Valley  R.  R.,  about  6  miles  north  of  Donald- 
sonville,  the  parish  seat.  It  has  a  money  order  postofiice  and  a 
population  of  150. 

Bellerose.  a  village  of  Assumption  parish,  is  situated  on  Bayou 
Lafourche,  7  miles  north  of  Napoleouville,  the  parish  seat,  aud 
about  halfway  between  Belle  Alliance  and  Bin-bank,  the  nearest 
railroad  stations.  It  has  a  money  order  postofiSce  and  a  population 
of  500. 

Bellevue,  a  post-village  situated  in  the  eastern  part  of  Bossier 
parish  on  Bayou  Bodcau,  was  selected  as  the  first  seat  of  justice 
of  the  parish  in  Feb.,  1843,  and  named  Fredonia.  In  July  of  the 
same  year  the  name  of  Society  Hill  was  adopted,  but  was  shortly 
afterward  changed  again  to  Bellevue.  The  town  was  incorporated 
soon  after  its  foundation,  but  the  work  of  the  council  was  of  a 
very  desultory  character.  In  1888  an  election  was  held  to  determine 
the  removal  of  the  seat  of  justice  and  some  years  later  it  was  re- 
moved to  Benton.    Within  the  past  few  years  a  railroad  has  been 


LOUISIANA  83 

built  throiigli  to  the  town,  and  it  has  become  a  shipping  point  of 
some  importance. 

Bells  Store,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  southwestern  part  of  East 
Feliciana  parish,  is  about  4  miles  soutliAvest  of  Ethel,  the  nearest 
railroad  town. 

Bellwood,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  southwestern  part  of  Natchi- 
toches parish,  is  situated  on  a  confluent  of  the  Red  river,  about 
6  miles  southeast  of  Ingram,  the  nearest  railroad  station. 

Belmont,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  eastern  part  of  Sabine  parish,  is 
about  5  miles  northwest  of  Beck,  the  nearest  railroad  station,  and 
10  miles  north  of  Many,  the  parish  seat. 

Beluche,  Captain,  a  Creole,  was  a  member  of  Latitte's  band  of 
smugglers,  who  had  their  headcjuarters  at  Barataria  bay.  In  the 
battle  of  New  Orleans  on  Jan.  8,  1815,  in  connection  with  Capt. 
You,  also  one  of  Lafitte's  men,  he  commanded  Battery  No.  3  and 
rendered  valiant  assistance  in  repelling  Col.  Rennie's  assault  on 
the  right  of  the  American  line,  for  which  he  received  honorable 
mention  in  Gen.  Jackson's  report.  After  the  war  Capt.  Beluche, 
with  the  other  "pirates"  who  took  part  in  defending  the  city 
against  the  British,  was  pardoned  by  President  Madison.  He  went 
to  Cartagena  and  subsecjuently  became  a  commodore  in  the  Colom- 
bian, navy. 

Benham,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  northeastern  part  of  East  Carroll 
parish,  is  situated  on  the  Mississippi  river,  about  4  miles  above 
Lake  Providence,  the  parish  seat  and  nearest  railroad  station. 

Benjamin,  Judah  Philip,  lawyer  and  statesman,  was  born  on  the 
island  of  Santa  Cruz  (or  St.  Croix),  one  of  the  virgin  group  of  the 
"West  Indies,  Aug.  11,  1811.  His  parents  were  English  Jews,  who 
sailed  from  England  in  1811  with  the  intention  of  locating  in  New 
Orleans,  but  owing  to  the  hostile  attitude  of  Great  Britain  toward 
the  United  States  were  obliged  to  .land  at  Santa  Cruz,  and  it  was 
during  their  temporai-y  residence  on  that  island  that  Judah  was 
born.  After  the  war  of  1812  the  family  settled  at  "Wilmington, 
N.  C.  At  the  age  of  14  years  the  son  entered  Yale  college,  where 
he  studied  for  3  years,  but  did  not  graduate.  He  then  came  with 
his  parents  to  New  Orleans,  where  he  studied  law  and  in  1832, 
shortly  after  reaching  his  majority,  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar. 
Not  finding  an  abundance  of  clients  at  first,  he  engaged  in  teaching 
school  and  in  a  compilation  of  a  digest  of  the  cases  decided  by 
the  local  courts,  chiefly  for  his  personal  use,  though  he  later  added 
a  digest  of  the  cases  in  the  supreme  court  and  in  1834  published  the 
result  of  his  labors  under  the  title  of  "A  Digest  of  Reported  Deci- 
sions of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  Late  Territory  of  Orleans,  and  of 
the  Supreme  Court  of  Louisiana."  This  work  drew  attention  to 
him  as  an  attorney,  gave  him  a  successful  practice,  and  in  1840  he 
became  a  member  of  the  renowned  law  firm  of  Slidell,  Benjamin  & 
Conrad.  As  a  member  of  the  Louisiana  constitutional  convention 
of  1845  he  made  himself  prominent  by  his  advocacy  of  a  provision 
requiring  the  governors  of  the  state  to  be  citizens  born  in  the 
United  States.     In  1847  Mr.  Benjamin  was  retained  as  counsel  by 


84  LOUISIANA 

the  U.  S.  commission  to  investigate  the  Spanish  titles  under  which 
the  early  settlers  of  California  claimed  their  lands.  At  the  close  of 
this  investigation  he  was  admitted  to  practice  in  the  U.  S.  supreme 
court  and  located  in  Washington,  D.  C,  tliough  he  still  claimed  his 
residence  in  Louisiana.  In  1848  he  was  one  of  the  presidential 
electors  from  that  state;  was  elected  to  the  L^.  S.  senate  in  1852; 
reelected  in  1859,  and  served  until  after  Louisiana  seceded  from  the 
Union,  when  he  resigned.  He  was  originally  elected  to  the  senate 
as  a  "Whig,  but  became  a  Democrat  on  account  of  the  position  of 
the  two  parties  on  the  question  of  .slavery.  "When  the  provisional 
government  of  the  Confederate  States  was  formed  in  Feb.,  1861, 
Mr.  Benjamin  was  appointed  attorney-general,  and  in  the  following 
August  he  was  made  secretary  of  war.  A  committee  of  the  Con- 
federate Congress  investigated  his  department  and  reported  his 
conduct  of  the  office  as  incompetent,  and  he  resigned,  but  was 
immediately  appointed  secretary  of  state,  in  which  capacity  he  won 
the  reputation  of  being  the  "brains  of  the  Confederacy."  After 
the  war  he  went  to  England,  landing  at  Liverpool  in  Sept.,  1865. 
He  decided  to  make  England  his  home  and  at  once  set  to  work 
studying  English  law.  On  Jan.  13,  1866,  he  became  a  student  at 
Lincoln's  inn,  Loudon,  and  a  few  months  later  was  admitted  to 
the  bar,  being  then  55  years  of  age.  Clients  came  slowly  at  first 
and  he  added  to  his  meager  income  b.y  writing  for  the  newspapers 
and  magazines.  In  1867  he  published  "A  Treatise  on  the  Law  of 
Sale  of  Personal  Property,"  which  brought  him  into  prominence, 
the  work  being  accepted  as  an  authority  on  this  subject  through- 
out England.  His  practice  now  increased,  he  gave  up  his  news- 
paper and  magazine  work,  and  in  1872  he  was  made  queen's  counsel. 
His  practice  was  now  confined  to  liriefs  on  appeal,  and  he  appeared 
only  before  the  house  of  lords  and  the  pri\y  council.  On  June  30, 
1883,  he  withdrew  from  practice  on  account  of  failing  health  and 
joined  his  wife  and  daughter  in  Paris,  France,  where  he  died  on 
May  S,  1884.  The  legislatiire  of  Louisiana  on  Oct.  12,  1864,  adopted 
a  resolution  exempting  j\Ir.  Benjamin,  along  with  others,  from 
amnesty,  and  this  action  doubtless  wielded  an  influence  in  driving 
him  into  exile.  His  meraorj'  is  still  revered  in  Louisiana  as  an  hon- 
est, fearless  and  able  man. 

Benson,  a  vllage  in  the  southern  part  of  De  Soto  parish,  is  a 
station  on  the  Kansas  City  &  Southern  R.  R.,  about  10  miles  south 
of  Mansfield,  the  parish  seat.  It  has  a  money  order  postoffice, 
telegraph  and  express  service,  and  is  the  trading  center  for  a  con- 
siderable district.     The  population  is  200. 

Bentley,  a  post-village  in  the  eastern  part  of  Grant  parish,  is 
located  at  the  junction  of  the  Louisiana  &  Arkansas  and  Big  Creek 
railroads,  about  12  miles  east  of  Colfax,  the  parish  seat. 

Benton,  the  capital  of  Bossier  parish,  is  located  in  the  western 
part  of  the  parish  on  the  line  of  the  St.  Louis  Southwestern  R.  R., 
near  the  Red  river,  and  about  12  miles  north  of  Shreveport.  It 
was  selected  as  the  pari.sh  seat  by  an  election  in  Sept.,  1888,  but 
through   some   fault    in   the   law   of   1882   authorizing   the   removal 


LOUISIANA  85 

from  Bellevne,  the  latter  place  continued  to  hold  the  courthouse 
for  some  years  after  the  election.  The  tirst  numljer  of  the  "Bossier 
Times,"  the  first  newspaper,  Avas  issued  on  Sept.  17,  1857,  by- 
Mitchell  &  Lowry.  Benton  was  incorporated  soon  after  it  became 
the  parish  seat  and  in  1910  had  a  population  of  318.  The  discovery 
of  natural  gas  near  the  towu  since  that  census  was  taken  has  added 
to  the  importance  of  Benton  and  the  present  population  is  much 
larger.  The  town  has  a  bank,  a  money  order  postoffice,  telegraph 
and  express  offices,  several  good  mercantile  houses,  good  schools 
and  churches,  and  does  a  considerable  business  in  the  manufacture 
and  shipment  of  lumber,  etc. 

Bermuda,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  eastern  part  of  Natchitoches  par- 
ish, is  situated  on  the  Red  river,  about  3  miles  east  of  Brevelle,  the 
nearest  railroad  station  and  10  miles  southeast  of  Natchitoches,  the 
parish  seat.     It  has  a  population  of  200. 

Bermudez,  Edward  E.,  chief  .justice  of  the  Louisiana  Supreme 
Court  from  1881  to  1892,  was  born  iu  the  city  of  New  Orleans, 
Jan.  19,  1832,  a  son  of  Joacliim  and  Emma  (Troxler)  Bermudez, 
the  former  of  Spanisli  and  the  latter  of  French  and  German  descent. 
He  was  educated  at  Boyer's  academy  and  Spring  Hill  college, 
]Moliile,  Ala.,  wliere  he  graduated  with  honors  in  May,  1851,  after 
which  he  studied  law  iu  the  office  of  Judge  Monroe,  of  Kentucky, 
and  in  the  fall  of  1851  was  admitted  to  the  bar.  He  then  completed 
the  course  in  tlie  law  department  of  the  University  of  Louisiana, 
was  admitted  to  practice  iu  the  Louisiana  supreme  court  in  1853, 
and  shortly  afterward  in  the  supreme  court  of  the  United  States. 
In  1861  he  was  a  delegate  to  the  state  convention  that  passed  the 
ordinance  of  secession,  and  was  one  of  the  first  citizens  of  the  state 
to  offer  his  services  as  a  soldier  to  uphold  the  cause  of  the  Con- 
federacy, entering  the  army  as  a  lieutenant  in  the  1st  Louisiana 
infantry.  He  became  judge  advocate  of  the  brigade;  served  as 
adjutant,  provost-marshal-general,  and  post  commandant  at  Mobile, 
and  after  the  cessation  of  hostilities  held  the  position  of  assistant 
city  attorney  of  New  Orleans  until  removed  by  Gen.  Sheridan.  His 
elevation  to  the  chief  justicesliip  in  1881  gave  universal  satisfaction, 
both  to  the  members  of  tlie  Imr  and  the  general  piiblic.  A  promi- 
nent Louisiana  lawyer  said  of  him:  "He  is  profoimdly  versed  in 
civil  law.  To  say  that  he  is  the  best  civilian  of  Louisiana  would  be 
offensive  to  some ;  to  say  that  he  is  one  of  the  best,  may  not  be 
doing  him  justice.  We  will  therefore  make  no  comparison  and  will 
simply  say  that  he  is  a  great  civilian,  and  would  be  considered  so 
iu  any  country  where  the  civil  law  is  extensively  studied."  In  1889 
Judge  Bermudez  visited  Paris  and  was  honored  with  a  seat,  by  the 
president,  on  the  bench  of  the  court  of  cessation,  and  permitted  to 
assist  at  a  consultation  of  the  judges  after  hearing  the  evidence 
and  arguments  in  a  case.  He  was  also  honored  in  the  same  way  by 
the  court  of  assizes.  In  1892  he  was  succeeded  by  ex-Gov.  Francis 
T.  Nicholls,  as  chief  justice. 

Bernice,  a  village  in  the  southwestern  part  of  Union  parish,  is 
a  station  on  the  Chicago,  Rock  Island  &  Pacific  R.  R.,  about  15  miles 


86  LOUISIANA 

west  of  Farmcrville,  the  parish  seat.  It  has  a  mouey  order  post- 
office,  an  express  office,  telephone  and  telegraph  facilities,  and  a 
population  of  781. 

Berry,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  extreme  southwestern  part  of  Cam- 
eron parish,  is  about  6  miles  from  the  Sabine  river.  4  miles  from 
the  CtuU'  of  Jlexico.    Sabine.  Tex.,  is  the  nearest  railroad  town. 

Bertie,  a  village  in  the  eastern  part  of  Assumption  parish,  is  sit- 
uated on  the  Bayou  Lafourche,  about  4  miles  southeast  of  Napol- 
eonville.  the  parish  seat,  and  a  sliort  distance  west  of  the  Southern 
Pacific  R.  E.  It  has  a  monev  order  postoffice,  and  a  population 
of  175. 

Bertrandville,  a  post-village  of  Plaquemines  parish,  is  a  station 
on  the  Louisiana  Southern  R.  R.,  4  miles  northwest  of  Belair. 

Berwick,  a  town  in  the  eastern  part  of  St.  Jlary  parish,  is  on  the 
Southern  Pacific  R.  R.,  about  2  miles  west  of  Jlorgan  City,  the 
nearest  banking  town.  It  has  a  money  order  postoffice.  telegraph 
station  and  express  office,  and  is  a  trading  center  for  a  rich  farming 
district.     Its  population  is  2,183. 

Bethany,  a  village  near  the  western  boundary  of  Caddo  parish, 
is  about  6  miles  southwest  of  Greenwood,  the  nearest  railroad  sta- 
tion, and  18  miles  southwest  of  Shreveport,  the  parish  seat.  It 
has  a  mouey  order  postoffice  and  a  population  of  150. 

Bethlehem,  a  post-village  in  the  southwestern  part  of  Claiborne 
parish,  is  tlie  eastern  terminus  of  tlie  Blackman  &  Dorcheat,  or  the 
Dorcheat  Valley  R.  R..  and  is  about  8  miles  southwest  of  Homer, 
the  parish  seat. 

Betty,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  'southeastern  part  of  Franklin  parish, 
is  sitiiated  on  Bayou  Macon,  about  6  miles  east  of  Gilbert,  the  near- 
est railroad  towna. 

Bienville,  an  incorporated  town  in  the  central  part  of  Bienville 
parish,  is  a  station  on  the  Louisiana  &  Northwest  R.  R.  It  has  a 
}uoney  order  postoffice  and  a  po])ulation  of  60fi. 

Bienville,  Jean  Baptiste  Le  Moyne,  Sieur  de,  souutimes  called 
"The  Father  of  Louisiana,"  was  born  at  Montreal.  Canada,  Feb. 
24,  1680,  a  son  of  Charles  and  Catherine  (Primot)  Le  Moyne,  and 
one  of  a  family  of  fourteen  children,  viz:  Charles,  Jr..  Sieur  de  Lon- 
gueil;  Jaccfiies,  Sieur  de  Ste.  Helene;  Pierre,  Sieur  d 'Iberville;  Paul, 
Sieur  de  ]\Iaricourt ;  Francois.  Sieur  de  Bienville  I :  Joseph,  Sieur 
de  Seriguy;  Louis,  Sieur  de  Chateauguay  I;  Jean  Baptiste,  Sieur 
de  Bienville  II;  Antoine.  Sieur  de  Chateauguay  II:  Francois  Marie, 
Sieur  de  Sauvolle ;  Catherine  Jeanne,  jMarie  Anne,  Gabriel,  and  a 
child  that  died  on  the  day  of  its  birth.  The  father,  Sieur  de 
Longueil,  Sr.,  was  one  of  the  French  pioneers  in  Canada  and  lived 
for  some  time  among  the  Iluron  Indians.  His  sons  all  grew  under 
the  hardy  influences  of  the  frontier,  and  all  in  later  life  filled  im- 
portant positions  in  the  French  army  or  navy.  Jean  Baptiste 
(Bienville)  entered  the  French  navy  while  still  a  mere  boy,  and 
while  serving  on  the  ship  Pelican  was  severely  wounded  in  an  action 
otf  the  coast  of  New  England.  At  the  close  of  the  war  he  went  to 
France  with  his  brother  Pierre  (d 'Iberville),  and  when  the  latter 


LOUISIANA  87 

was  chosen  to  command  the  expedition  sent  out  by  Lonis  XIV 
to  found  a  colony  in  Louisiana,  Bienville  accompanied  him.  When 
Iberville  returned  to  France  in  May,  1699,  Bienville  was  appointed 
"king's  lieutenant"  and  made  second  in  command  to  Sauvolle,  who 
was  left  in  charge  of  the  colony.  In  this  capacity  Bienville  con- 
ducted excursions  to  various  tribes  of  Indians  and  explored  the 
streams  in  the  vicinity  of  Biloxi,  where  the  colony  had  been  planted. 
It  was  while  returning  from  one  of  these  expeditions  that  he  met 
and  turned  back  a  company  of  Englishmen  who  were  seeking  to 
establish  a  settlement  on  the  Mississippi  river.  (See  English  Turn.) 
In  1700  he  was  in  command  of  the  fort  erected  by  his  brother  on 
the  jMississippi  river,  and  in  Jan.,  1702,  pursuant  to  orders  from  the 
king,  he  founded  a  colony  at  Mobile,  leaving  20  soldiers  under 
Boisbriant  at  Biloxi.  At  Mobile  he  met  his  brothers,  Serigny  and 
Chateauguay  and  Nicolas  de  la  Salle,  who  was  to  serve  as  intendant 
or  eommissaire  of  the  new  colony.  About  the  middle  of  January, 
Bienville  and  Serigny  went  up  the  river  some  18  leagues,  where 
they  began  the  erection  of  a  fort  and  storehouse. 

Bienville  now  had  great  difficulty  in  providing  substinenee  and  in 
keeping  down  dissensions.  La  Salle,  the  intendant,  and  de  la  Vente, 
the  vicar-general,  being  especially  active  in  intrigues  against  Bien- 
ville and  his  two  brothers,  finally  denouncing  them  to  the  French 
ministry.  Early  in  Feb.,  1708,  news  came  that  Bienville  had  been 
removed  and  De  Muys  appointed  to  succeed  him,  but  the  latter  had 
died  at  Havana  while  en  route  to  Mobile.  Diron  d'Artaguette,  who 
had  been  appointed  to  succeed  La  Salle  as  intendant,  arrived 
on  Feb.  10,  with  instructions  to  investigate  the  charges  against 
Bienville,  and  also  bore  a  warrant  for  his  arrest  in  ease  he  was  found 
guilty.  Bienville  wanted  to  go  to  France  and  face  the  charges, 
but  the  captain  of  the  Renommee  would  not  take  him,  as  he  Avas 
still  governor.  After  a  thorough  investigation,  d'Artaguette  sub- 
mitted a  report  completely  exonerating  Bienville.  When  the  grant 
to  Crozat  was  made,  Sept.  14,  1712,  Bienville  was  named  as  "com- 
mander of  the  Mississippi  and  its  tributaries,"  or  lieutenant-gov- 
ernor, and  was  second  in  command  to  Cadillac,  the  governor  of 
Louisiana  appointed  by  Crozat.  Cadillac  soon  grew  jealous  of  Bien- 
ville's popularity  and  sent  him  on  an  expedition  against  the  Natchez 
Indians,  who  had  murdered  some  Frenchmen  near  their  village 
(now  Natchez,  Miss.).  He  built  Fort  Rosalie  (q.  v.),  left  it  in  charge 
of  an  officer  named  Pailloux,  and  returned  to  Mobile  to  iind  that 
Cadillac  had  been  removed  and  L'Epinay  appointed  to  succeed  him. 
The  new  governor  had  not  arrived,  however,  and  by  virtue  of  his 
rank  of  lieutenant-governor  Bienville  assumed  control  of  affairs, 
which  caused  great  rejoicing  among  the  people.  On  March  9,  1717, 
L'Epinay  arrived  with  three  ships  bearing  three  companies  of  in- 
fantry and  50  colonists.  The  new  governor  brought  with  him  the 
Cross  of  St.  Louis,  which  the  king  bestowed  upon  Bienville  as  a 
special  reward  for  his  long  and  efficient  services  in  upholding  the 
French  ascendency  on  the  ilississippi.  L'Epinay  also  brought  to 
Bienville  a  grant  of  title  to  Horn  island,  but  Bienville  had  expected 


88  LOUISIAXA 

more.  While  he  appreciated  the  honoi-  conferred  iipou  him  by  the 
brilliant  Cross  of  St.  Lonis.  he  wanted  to  be  governor  of  the  colony- 
he  had  labored  so  persistently  to  place  upon  firm  foundation.  The 
people,  too,  -were  disappointed,  and  L'Epinay  found  himself  con- 
fronted on  every  hand  by  insubordination.  In  Aug.,  1717,  Crozat 
surrendered  his  charter,  L'Epinay  returned  to  France,  and  again 
Bienville  was  left  in  control.  Crozat  was  succeeded  by  the  Western 
company  and  on  Feb.  9,  1718,  three  ships  sent  out  by  that  company 
arrived  at  ^Mobile  with  troops,  supplies,  and  Bienville's  commission 
as  commandant-general,  or  governor.  About  the  time  that  Crozat 
gave  up  his  grant  a  hurricane  choked  up  the  harbor  at  Mobile 
with  sand,  making  it  a  difficult  matter  for  vessels  to  land,  and  the 
headquarters  of  the  colony  were  taken  back  to  Biloxi.  One  of  the 
first  official  acts  of  Bienville  upon  becoming  governor  was  to  es- 
tablish a  colony  on  the  Mississippi  river,  with  a  view  to  making 
it  the  seat  of  government.  He  selected  the  site  where  the  city  oi 
New  Orleans  now  stands,  set  50  men  to  work  at  clearing  the  ground, 
and  prepared  to  move  thither,  but  the  superior  council  interposed 
an  objection.  Thus  matters  stood  imtil  in  April,  1722,  when  Bien- 
ville called  attention  to  the  disadvantages  of  New  Biloxi,  ships 
being  compelled  to  imload  at  Ship  island,  which  made  it  necessary 
to  reliandle  all  freight,  whereas,  at  New  Orleans,  ships  could  come 
directly  up  the  river  to  the  landing  without  having  to  transfer 
their  cargoes.  The  council  now  consented  to  Bienville's  plan,  and 
in  August  he  took  up  his  official  residence  there.  In  the  meantime, 
his  brother  Serigny  arrived^April  19,  1719 — with  a  French  man- 
of-war,  bringing  the  news  of  the  declaration  of  Avar  between  France 
and  Spain,  and  bearing  an  order  for  Bienville  to  go  at  once  and 
capture  the  Spanish  post  at  Peusacola.  In  May  he  sailed  into 
Pensacola  bay  with  three  war  vessels  and  a  sloop  carrying  230  men, 
and  before  this  force  the  Spanish  surrendered  without  resistance. 
The  place  was  afterward  recaptured  by  the  Spanish,  but  Avas  re- 
taken by  Bienville,  who  also  sent  detachments  to  guard  the  frontier 
of  upper  Louisiana  from  an  invasion  from  Mexico. 

In  Jan.,  1724,  as  the  result  of  a  conspiracy  against  him,  Bienville 
was  ordered  to  France  to  answer  accusations,  and  Boisbriant  Avas 
sent  doAvn  from  Fort  Chartres  to  administer  the  aft'airs  of  the  colony 
iintil  the  arrival  of  Go\-.  Peiuer,  wlio  assumed  the  duties  of  th-3 
office  in  Oct.,  1726.  BienA'ille  did  not  succeed  in  clearing  himself 
of  the  charges  against  him  for  some  time,  but  in  1733  he  Avas  rein- 
stated as  governor  and  commandant-general,  and  returned  to  New 
Orleans.  He  continued  as  governor  for  about  ten  years,  during 
Avhieh  time  he  was  actiA'e  in  prosecuting  Avars  against  the  Indians 
and  in  promoting  the  peace  and  prosperity  of  the  colony.  He  Avas 
unsuccessful  in  an  expedition  against  the  ChickasaAvs,  was  super- 
seded in  1743  liy  the  Marquis  de  Vaiidreuil  and  left  Louisiana,  ncA^er 
to  return.  Ilis  last  public  serA'ice  Avas  in  connection  Avith  the  trans- 
fer of  Louisiana  from  France  to  Spain  under  the  treaty  of  Nov., 
1762,  Avhen  he  appeared  Avith  Jean  ^lilhet  l)efore  the  Duke  of  Choi- 
seul  to  urge  an  arrangement  that  would  not  separate  the  colonists 


LOUISIANA  89 

from  the  government  of  France.  Upon  being  informed  that  it  was 
impossible  to  grant  the  petition,  it  is  said  that  Bienville,  then  nearly 
85  years  old,  Ijurst  into  tears,  fell  npou  his  knees  and  piteously 
begged  the  duke  "for  a  reconsideration  of  the  decree  against  the 
colony,"  but  in  vain.  He  died  in  Paris  on  Marcli  7,  1768,  and  was 
bnried  with  military  honors  in  the  cemetery  of  Montmartre. 

Bienville  Parish  was  created  out  of  the  original  territory  of  Clai- 
borne parish  in  1848,  during  the  administration  of  Gov.  Isaac  John- 
son, and  named  in  honor  of  Bienville,  "The  father  of  Louisiana." 
The  parish  has  an  area  of  832  square  miles,  is  located  in  the  north- 
western part  of  the  state,  and  its  geographical  outline  is  extremely 
irregular.  On  the  north  it  is  bounded  by  Webster,  Claiborne  and 
Lincoln  parislies ;  on  the  east  by  Lincoln  and  Jackson  parishes ;  on 
the  south  by  Winn,  Natchitoches  and  Red  River  parishes,  and  on 
the  west  by  Red  River,  Bossier  and  Webster  parishes.  Bienville 
is  one  of  the  "good  upland"  parishes  because  most  of  its  formation 
is  good  upland,  of  red  sandy  clays  and  some  rich  bottom  lands. 
The  soil  is  fertile  and  productive,  and  is  drained  by  Lake  Bistineau 
on  the  west,  by  Bayous  Blacklake  and  Saline  in  the  central  part,  by 
the  Dugdemona  river  and  its  tributaries  along  the  eastern  boun- 
dary, all  of  Avhicli  tlow  south.  The  water  supply  is  abundant,  as 
there  are  many  springs  and  creeks  with  their  numerous  branches. 
The  real  settlement  of  the  parish  goes  back  to  the  early  '30s,  when 
Irish  immigrant  families  from  the  south  Atlantic  states  began  to 
settle  in  this  part  of  the  country.  Sparta  was  selected  as  the  parish 
seat  in  1849,  but  the  courthouse  was  not  built  until  1854.  In  1892 
the  seat  of  justice  was  changed  to  Arcadia.  The  oldest  parish 
records  that  are  preserved  date  back  to  1850.  Mount  Lebanon  is 
an  old  college  town,  incorporated  in  1854.  The  university  there 
was  established  by  the  Louisiana  Baptist  society.  There  are  a 
number  of  educational  institutions  in  the  parish,  among  which  are 
the  Arcadia  Llale  and  Female  college,  and  the  Gibsland  Collegiate 
institute  of  the  IMethodist  Episcopal  church.  South.  Bienville  lias 
some  deposits  of  iron  ore  and  abounds  in  salt  licks,  in  addition  to 
which  there  are  large  deposits  of  fire-clay,  potter's  clay,  marl  and 
green  sand.  Cotton  is  the  chief  product,  though  corn,  oats,  hay, 
sorghum  and  garden  vegetables  are  all  paying  crops.  Large  areas 
are  devoted  to  diversified  farming,  and  as  the  timber  is  cut  live 
stock  is  becoming  a  more  important  industry.  Post  oak  and  short 
leaf  pine  are  prevailing  timber,  mingled  with  other  varieties  of 
oak  and  hickory,  as  well  as  many  soft  wood  trees.  Up  to  a  few 
years  ago  there  still  remained  150,000  acres  of  virgin  forest.  The 
fruits  and  nuts  of  this  northern  parish  differ  some  from  the  south- 
ern parishes,  those  most  profitably  grown  are  apples,  pears,  peaches, 
plums,  pecans,  quinces,  grapes  and  figs.  Very  good  transportation 
and  shipping  facilities  are  afforded  by  the  Vicksburg,  Shreveport 
&  Pacific  R.  R.,  which  crosses  the  northern  part  of  the  parish,  nearly 
parallel  to  the  northern  boundary;  the  Louisiana  &  Northwest 
R.  R.,  which  runs  south  from  Gibsland  through  the  center  of  the 
parish,  connecting  on  the  north  with  the  Cotton  Belt  line  and  on 


90  LOUISIANA 

the  south  with  the  Texas  &  Pacific  R.  R..  and  the  Louisiana  Railway 
&  Navigation  company.  The  Louisiana  &  Ai-kansas  R.  R.  angles 
from  northwest  to  southeast  across  the  western  part  of  the  parish, 
and  is  nearly  paralleled  farther  west  by  the  Shreveport,  Alexandria 
&  Southwestern  R.  R,,  while  the  Noi-thern  Louisiana  &  Gulf  R.  R. 
taps  the  extreme  southeastern  corner.  An  oiitlet  is  thus  furnished 
in  every  direction  to  the  markets  of  north,  west  and  south.  Arcadia, 
situated  in  the  northeastern  part  of  the  parish  on  the  Vicksbi;rg, 
Shreveport  &  Pacifie  R.  R..  is  the  parish  seat.  Other  towns  of 
importance  are  Alberta,  Bienville,  Gibsland,  !Mount  Lebanon,  Ring- 
gold, Armistead,  Sparta,  Taylor  and  Liberty  Hill.  The  following 
data  concerning  the  farms,  manufactures  and  population  of  the 
parish  are  taken  from  the  U.  S.  census  for  1900:  Number  of  farms, 
2,973 :  acreage,  294,980 ;  acres  under  cultivation,  122,661 ;  value  of 
land  and  improvements  exclusive  of  buildings,  $2,097,324;  value  of 
farm  buildings,  $1,005.589 ;  value  of  live  stock,  $777.387 :  total  value 
of  all  crops,  $1,469,001. 

Bigbend  (R.  R.  name  Cordes),  a  post -village  in  the  eastern  part 
of  Avoyelles  parish,  is  a  station  on  the  line  of  tlie  Louisiana  Rail- 
way &  Navigation  company,  about  15  miles  southeast  of  Marks- 
ville.  the  parish  seat. 

Bigcane,  a  post-village  in  tlie  northeastern  part  of  St.  Landry 
parish,  situated  on  Bayou  Rouge,  a  confluent  of  the  Atchafalaya 
river,  about  5  miles  east  of  ]\Iorrow,  the  nearest  railroad  station. 
It  has  a  money  order  postoffice. 

Bills  of  Exchange. —  (See  Notes.) 

Biloxi. — This  was  the  name  of  the  first  French  establishment  in 
Louisiana,  and  was  so  called  by  Iberville  for  the  small  tribe  of  In- 
dians which  then  inliabited  the  region  bordering  on  the  bay  of  that 
name.  The  word  Biloxi  was  somewhat  loosely  applied  by  the  early 
French  chroniclers,  and  was  made  to  include  both  Old  and  New 
Biloxi,  as  well  as  the  civil  and  military  district  of  that  name,  estab- 
lished in  1723.  (For  an  account  of  Iberville's  first  establishment, 
see  Iberville,  Sauvole,  Bienville,  Fort  Jlaurepas,  etc.)  Sauvole  dates 
his  interesting  "Journal  Historique."  "au  Fort  du  Biloxi."  The 
headquarters  of  -the  infant  colony  only  remained  at  Biloxi  until  the 
close  of  1701,  when  Bienville  removed  to  the  ilobile,  having  a  small 
garrison  and  a  few  settlers  at  the  old  fort,  and  the  principal  estab- 
lishment was  for  many  years  at  Dauphine  island.  During  the 
years  succeeding  the  formation  of  the  Western  company,  hundreds 
of  settlers  for  the  concessions,  as  well  as  a  large  number  of  soldiers 
for  the  various  posts  and  many  mechanics  and  other  workmen,  were 
transported  to  Louisiana.  The  accommodations  on  Dauphine  island 
were  inadequate  to  care  for  the  many  new  ai-rivals,  and  in  Feb., 
1718.  Bienville  chose  a  site  for  his  new  capital  30  leagues  from  the 
mouth  of  the  ]\Iississippi,  where  New  Orleans  now  stands,  which 
could  also  be  reached  by  way  of  Lake  Pontchartrain  and  Bayou  St. 
John.  There  was,  however,  dissension  among  the  members  of  the 
superior  council  or  directorate  of  the  company,  Legac  and  others 
being  opposed  to  any  establishment  away  from  the  sea  coast.     It 


LOUISIANA  91 

should  1)P  kept  in  mind  by  the  reader  that  prior  to  1720-21,  prac- 
tically all  the  eolouists  were  being  housed,  cared  for  and  fed  at  the 
expense  of  the  company,  and  there  was  no  serious  effort  made  to 
work  the  various  concessions  or  grants,  prior  to  1720.  Enormous 
quantities  of  provisions  and  supplies  were  being  constantly  sent 
from  France  to  supply  the  wants  of  the  colonists  and  almost  noth- 
ing was  being  done  in  the  way  of  agriculture.  Indeed,  it  was  gen- 
erally believed  that  the  coast  region  east  and  west  of  Biloxi  was 
barren  and  sterile  and  would  not  repay  tillage.  Such  was  the  gen- 
eral condition  of  affairs  when  steps  were  taken  to  remove  the  head- 
quarters of  tlie  colony  in  1719  to  Old  Biloxi,  so-called  because  of 
Iberville's  old  fort  there,  and  also  to  distinguish  it  from  the  later 
establishment  at  New  Biloxi,  one  league  distant  on  the  west  side  of 
the  bay,  on  the  point  of  land  opposite  Deer  island.  Here,  in  Nov., 
1719,  according  to  Dumont,  cabins  were  built  for  the  soldiers,  dwel- 
lings for  the  commandant  and  officers,  magazines,  and  even  a  cis- 
tern, and  as  soon  as  preparations  were  sufficiently  advanced,  every- 
body, and  everything  was  transported  thither  from  Dauphine  island. 
Headquarters  only  remained  at  Old  Biloxi  for  a  short  period.  Bien- 
ville had  caused  a  new  fort  to  be  built  at  New  Biloxi,  which  was 
named  Fort  Louis,  in  honor  of  the  king.  Moreover,  an  accidental 
fire  destroyed  the  fox't  at  Old  Biloxi,  as  well  as  some  of  the  cabins. 
La  Hai'pe  states  in  his  Journal  that  "on  the  9th  of  September 
(1721)  M.  de  Bienville  left  Old  Biloxi,  to  go  to  Port  Louis  (New 
Biloxi,  where  the  engineers  had  prepared  accommodations  for  him 
in  an  old  warehouse."  Many  of  the  colonists  narrowly  escaped 
death  by  famine  at  this  time,  as  the  same  historian  states  that,  on 
the  14th,  "provisions  having  failed,  the  troops  were  sent  to  the 
Pearl  river  and  to  the  Pascagoulas,  to  live  among  the  Indians." 
This  famine  is  assigned  by  Dumont  as  one  of  the  reasons  for  trans- 
ferring the  colony  from  Old  to  New  Biloxi.  So  great  was  the  pre- 
vailing want  "that  the  commandant  was  obliged  to  send  the  sol- 
diers, workmen,  and  even  officei-s,  to  the  nearest  Indians  of  the 
country,  that  of  the  Biloxis  and  Pascagoulas,  who  received  them 
Avith  great  pleasure,  and  supported  them  quite  well,  not  indeed  with 
bread,  but  with  good  hominy  and  sagamity,  boiled  with  good  store 
of  meat  or  1iear  oil.  As  for  the  concessioners,  each  remained  at  his 
place,  living  not  over  well,  being  brought  down  to  beans  and  peas 
in  no  great  quantity.  To  increase  the  dilemma,  there  arrived  at 
this  juncture  a  vessel  loaded  with  negroes,  who  were  distributed  to 
such  as  could  support  them.  At  last  the  famine  was  so  severe  that 
a  great  number  died,  some  from  eating  herbs  they  did  not  know, 
and  which,  instead  of  prolonging  life,  produced  death;  others  from 
eating  oysters,  which  they  went  and  gathered  on  the  seashore. 
Most  of  those  found  dead  by  the  heaps  of  shells  were  Germans.  At 
last  in  the  height  of  the  scourge  came  the  Venus,  loaded  exclusively 
Avitli  provisions,  and  followed  immediately  by  two  other  vessels. 
Meanwhile,  in  April,  1721,  the  engineer  Pauger  Avas  sent  by  Bien- 
A'ille  to  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  to  sound  the  passes.  He  re- 
ported that  he  had  found  12  feet  of   water   on   the   bar   and  urged 


92  LOUISIANA 

Bienville  to  use  his  influence  Avitli  the  company  to  have  the  fort  at 
Biloxi  abandoned,  and  to  fix  the  headquarters  and  principal  set- 
tlement at  New  Orleans.  This  desirable  end  was  finally  accom- 
plished in  1722,  though  thousands  of  colonists  down  to  1732  made 
their  first  landing  on  the  soil  of  Louisiana  at  Biloxi,  and  the  fine 
harbor  of  Ship  island  was  used  by  French  ships  for  manj^  j'ears 
longer. 

Biloxis. — (See  Indians.) 

Biologic  Station. — (See  Gulf  Biologic  Station.) 

Bird  Day. —  (See  Game  Laws.) 

Blackburn,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  western  part  of  Claiborne  parish, 
is  about  5  miles  west  of  Camp,  the  nearest  nailroad  station,  and  9 
miles  northwest  of  Homer,  the  parish  seat. 

Blackburn,  William  Jasper,  member  of  Congress,  Avas  born  in 
Arkansas,  July  24.  1820:  was  educated  in  the  public  schools:  learned 
the  printing  trade,  and  established  the  Homer  Iliad,  at  Homer,  La. 
He  was  so  strong  in  his  attacks  against  the  slavery  question  that 
his  office  was  twice  mobbed.  In  1818  he  was  sent  as  a  delegate  to 
the  state  constitutional  convention,  and  was  elected  a  representa- 
tive from  Louisiana  to  the  40th  Congress,  as  a  Republican,  serving 
from  July  18,  1868,  to  March  3,  1869. 

Black  Code. — -The  negro  popiilation  became  an  important  element 
iu  tlie  community  cpiite  early  in  tlie  history  of  the  colony.  A  few 
Africans  were  brought  over  during  the  Crozat  regime,  and  when, 
in  1717,  the  "Western  Company  was  chartered  to  manage  the  alfairs 
of  the  colony,  one  of  the  conditions  imposed  upon  it  was  the  im- 
portation of  3,000  slaves  for  service  on  the  various  plantations. 
African  slaves  had  become  numerous  enough  in  1721  to  warrant 
the  enactment  of  special  legislation  for  their  management  and  con- 
trol. By  direction  of  the  company,  in  March,  1724,  Bienville  there- 
fore promulgated  a  Black  Code,  the  essential  provisions  of  which 
remained  in  force  until  1803,  and  many  of  which  were  embodied  in 
the  later  American  Black  Code.  Says  Gayarre:  "Its  first  and  third 
articles  were,  it  must  be  confessed,  strangely  irrelevant  to  the 
matter  in  consideration.  Thus,  the  first  declared  that  the  Jews 
were  forever  expelled  from  the  colony;  and  the  third,  that  the 
Eoman  Catholic  religion  was  the  only  religious  creed  which  would 
be  tolerated  iu  Louisiana.  By  what  concatenation  of  causes  or  of 
ideas,  these  provisions  concerning  the  supremacy  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  religion  and  the  expulsion  of  the  Jews  came  to  be  inserted 
into  the  Black  Code,  it  is  diificult  to  imagine." 

Art.  1.     Decrees  the  expubsiou  of  the  Jews  from  the  colony. 

Art.  2.  IMakes  it  imperative  on  masters  to  impart  religious  in- 
struction to  their  slaves. 

Art.  3.  Permits  the  exercises  of  the  Roman  Catholic  creed  only. 
Every  other  mode  of  worship  is  prohibited. 

Art.  4.  Negroes  placed  \mder  a  direction  or  supervision  of  any 
other  person  than  a  Catholic,  are  liable  to  confiseatiou. 

Art.  5.  Sundays  and  holy  days  are  to  be  strictly  observed.  All 
negroes  found  at  work  on  these  days  are  to  be  confiscated. 


LOUISIANA  93 

Art.  6.  We  forbid  our  white  subjects,  of  both  sexes,  to  marry 
with  the  blacks,  under  the  penalty  of  being  fined  and  subjected  to 
some  other  arbitrary  punishment.  We  forbid  all  curates,  priests, 
or  missionaries  of  oiu-  secular  or  regular  clergy,  and  even  our  chap- 
lains in  our  navy,  to  sanction  such  marriages.  We  also  forbid  all 
our  white  subjects,  and  even  the  manumitted  or  free-born  blacks, 
to  live  in  a  state  of  concubinage  with  slaves.  Should  there  be 
any  issue  from  this  kind  of  intercourse,  it  is  our  will  that  the  per- 
son so  offending,  and  the  master  of  the  slave,  should  pay  each  a 
fine  of  300  livres.  Should  said  issue  be  the  result  of  the  concu- 
binage of  the  master  with  his  slave,  said  master  shall  not  only 
pay  the  fine,  but  be  deprived  of  the  slave,  and  of  the  children,  who 
shall  be  adjudged  to  the  hospital  of  the  locality,  and  said  slaves 
shall  be  forever  incapable  of  being  set  free.  But,  should  this  ilUcit 
intercourse  have  existed  between  a  free  black  and  his  slave,  when 
said  free  black  had  no  legitimate  wife,  and  should  said  black  marry 
said  slave  according  to  the  forms  prescribed  by  the  church,  said 
slave  shall  be  thereby  set  free,  and  the  children  shall  also  become 
free  and  legitimate ;  and  in  such  a  case,  there  shall  be  no  application 
of  the  penalties  mentioned  in  the  present  article. 

Art.  7.  The  ceremonies  and  forms  prescribed  by  the  ordinance 
of  Blois,  and  by  the  edict  of  1639,  for  marriages,  shall  be  observed 
both  with  regard  to  free  persons  and  to  slaves.  But  the  consent  of 
the  father  and  mother  of  the  slave  is  not  necessary;  that  of  the 
master  shall  be  the  only  one  required. 

Art.  8.  We  forbid  all  curates  to  proceed  to  effect  marriages 
between  slaves  without  proof  of  the  consent  of  their  masters;  and 
we  also  forbid  all  masters  to  force  their  slaves  into  any  marriage 
against  their  will. 

Art.  9.  Children,  issued  from  the  marriage  of  slaves,  shall  fol- 
low the  condition  of  their  parents,  and  shall  belong  to  the  master 
of  the  wife  and  not  of  the  husband,  if  the  husband  and  wife  have 
different  masters. 

Art.  10.  If  the  husband  be  a  slave,  and  the  wife  a  free  woman, 
it  is  our  will  that  their  children,  of  whatever  sex  they  may  be,  shall 
share  the  condition  of  their  mother,  and  be  as  free  as  she,  notwith- 
standing the  servitude  of  their  father;  and  if  the  father  be  free  and 
the  mother  a  slave,  the  children  shall  all  be  slaves. 

Art.  11.  Masters  shall  have  their  Christian  slaves  buried  in  con- 
secrated ground. 

Art.  12.  We  forbid  slaves  to  carry  offensive  weapons  or  heavy 
sticks,  under  penalty  of  being  whipped,  and  of  having  said  weap- 
ons confiscated  for  the  benefit  of  the  person  seizing  the  same.  An 
exception  is  made  in  favor  of  those  slaves  who  are  sent  a  hunting 
or  a  shooting  by  their  masters,  and  who  carry  with  them  a  written 
permission  to  that  effect,  or  are  designated  by  some  known  mark 
or  badge. 

Art.  13.  We  forbid  slaves  belonging  to  different  masters  to 
gather  in  crowds  either  by  day  or  by  night,  under  the  pretext  of  a 
wedding,  or  for  any  other  cause,  either  at  the  dwelling  or  on  the 


94  LOUISIANA 

grouuds  of  oue  of  their  masters,  or  elsewhere,  aud  much  less  on  the 
highways  or  in  secluded  places,  under  the  penalty  of  corporal  pun- 
ishment, which  shall  not  be  less  than  the  whip.  In  case  of  frecjuent 
otfenses  of  the  kind,  the  offenders  shall  be  branded  with  the  mark 
of  the  flower  de  luce,  and  should  there  be.  aggravating  circum- 
stances, capital  punishment  may  be  applied,  at  the  discretion  of 
our  judges.  We  command  all  our  .subjects,  be  they  officers  or  not, 
to  seize  all  such  offenders,  to  arrest  and  conduct  them  to  prison, 
although  there  should  be  no  judgment  against  them. 

Art.  14.  ^Masters  who  shall  be  convicted  of  having  permitted  or 
tolerated  such  gatherings  as  aforesaid,  composed  of  other  slaves 
than  their  own,  shall  be  sentenced  individually,  to  indemnify  their 
neighbors  for  the  damage  occasioned  by  said  gatherings,  and  to 
pay,  for  the  first  time,  a  fine  of  30  livres,  and  double  that  sum  on 
the  repetition  of  the  ofi'ense. 

Art.  15.  We  forbid  negroes  to  sell  any  commodities,  provisions, 
or  produce  of  any  kind,  without  the  written  permission  of  their 
masters,  or  without  w^earing  their  known  marks  or  badges,  and 
any  persons  purchasing  anything  from  negroes  in  violation  of  this 
article,  shall  be  sentenced  to  pay  a  fine  of  1,500  livres. 

Art.  16,  17,  18  and  19.  Provide  at  length  for  the  clothing  of 
slaves  and  for  their  subsistence. 

Art.  20.  Slaves  who  shall  not  be  properly  fed,  clad,  and  provided 
for  by  their  masters,  may  give  information  thereof  to  the  attorney- 
general  or  the  superior  council,  or  to  all  the  other  officers  of  jus- 
tice of  an  inferior  jurisdiction,  and  may  put  the  written  exposition 
of  their  wrongs  into  their  hands;  upon  which  information,  and 
even  ex-officio,  should  the  iuformatiou  come  from  auotlier  ciuarter, 
the  attorney-general  shall  prosecute  said  masters  without  charging 
any  costs  to  the  complainants.  It  is  our  will  that  this  regulation  be 
observed  in  all  accusations  for  crimes  or  barbarous  and  inhuman 
treatment   l)rought  by  slaves  against  their  masters. 

Art.  21.  Slaves  who  are  disabled  from  working,  either  by  old 
age,  disease,  or  otherwise,  be  the  disease  incurable  or  not,  shall  be 
fed  and  provided  for  by  their  masters,-  and  in  ease  they  should  have 
been  abandoned  by  said  masters,  said  slaves  shall  be  adjudged  to 
the  nearest  hospital,  to  which  said  masters  shall  be  obliged  to  pay 
eight  cents  a  day  for  the  food  and  maintenance  of  each  one  of  these 
slaves:  and  for  the  payment  of  this  sum,  said  hospital  shall  have  a 
lieu  on  the  plantation  of  the  master. 

Art.  22.  We  declare  tliat  slaves  can  have  no  right  to  any  kind  of 
property,  and  that  all  they  acciuire  either  by  their  own  industry, 
or  by  the  liberality  of  others,  or  by  any  other  means  or  title  what- 
ever, shall  be  the  full  property  of  their  masters ;  and  the  children 
of  said  slaves,  their  fathers  and  mothers,  their  kindred  or  other 
relations,  either  free  or  .slaves,  shall  have  no  pretentions  or  claims 
tliereto,  eitlier  through  testamentary  dispositions  or  donations 
inter  vivos :  which  dispositions  and  donations  we  declare  null  and 
void,  and  also  wliatever  promises  they  maj'  have  made,  or  whatever 
obligations  they  may  have    subscribed    to,    as   having   been    entered 


LOUISIANA  95 

into  by  persons  incapable  of  disposing  of  any  thing,  and  of  par- 
ticipating to  any  contract. 

Art.  23.  Masters  shall  be  responsible  for  what  their  slaves  have 
done  by  their  command,  and  also  for  what  transactions  they  have 
permitted  their  slaves  to  do  in  their  shops,  in  the  particular  line  of 
commerce  with  which  they  are  intrusted ;  and  in  case  said  slaves 
should  have  acted  without  the  order  or  authorization  of  their  mas- 
ters, said  masters  shall  be  responsible  only  for  so  much  as  has 
turned  to  their  profit;  and  if  said  masters  have  not  profited  by  the 
doing  or  transaction  of  their  slaves,  the  peculiura  which  the  masters 
have  permitted  the  slaves  to  own,  shall  be  subjected  to  all  claims 
against  said  slaves,  after  deduction  made  by  the  masters  of  what 
may  be  due  to  them ;  and  if  said  peculium  should  consist,  in  whole 
or  in  part,  of  merchandises  in  which  the  slaves  had  permission  to 
traffic,  the  masters  shall  only  come  in  for  their  share  in  common 
with  the  other  creditors. 

Art.  24.  Slaves  shall  be  incapable  of  all  public  functions,  and  of 
being  constituted  agents  for  any  other  person  than  their  own  mas- 
ters, with  powers  to  manage  or  conduct  any  kind  of  trade ;  nor  can 
they  serve  as  arbitrators  or  experts;  nor  shall  they  be  called  to 
give  their  testimony  either  in  civil  or  in  criminal  cases,  except 
when  it  shall  be  a  matter  of  necessity,  and  only  in  default  of  white 
people ;  but  in  no  ease  shall  they  be  permitted  to  serve  as  witnesses 
either  for  or  against  their  masters. 

Art.  25.  Slaves  shall  never  be  parties  to  civil  suits,  either  as  plain- 
tiffs or  defendants,  nor  shall  they  be  allowed  to  appear  as  com- 
plainants in  criminal  cases,  but  their  masters  shall  have  the  right  to 
act  for  them  in  civil  matters,  and  in  criminal  ones,  t(5  demand  pun- 
ishment and  reparation  for  such  outrages  and  excesses  as  their 
slaves  may  have  suffered  from. 

Art.  26.  Slaves  may  be  prosecuted  criminally,  without  their  mas- 
ters being  made  parties  to  the  trial,  except  they  should  be  indicted 
as  accomplices ;  and  said  slaves  shall  be  tried,  at  first,  by  the  judges 
of  ordinary  jurisdiction,  if  there  be  any,  and  on  appeal,  by  the 
superior  council,  with  the  same  rules,  formalties,  and  proceedings 
observed  for  free  persons,  save  the  exceptions  mentioned  hereafter. 

Art.  27.  The  slave  who,  having  struck  his  master,  his  mistress, 
or  the  husband  of  his  mistress,  or  their  children,  shall  have  pro- 
duced a  bruise,  or  the  shedding  of  blood  in  the  face,  shall  suffer 
capital  punishment. 

Art.  28.  With  regard  to  outrages  or  acts  of  violence  committed 
l)y  slaves  against  free  persons,  it  is  our  will  that  they  be  punished 
with  severity,  and  even  with  death,  should  the  case  require  it. 

Art.  29.  Thefts  of  importance,  and  even  the  stealing  of  horses, 
mares,  mi;les,  oxen  or  cows,  when  executed  by  slaves  or  manumit- 
ted persons,  shall  make  the  offender  liable  to  corporal,  and  even 
capital  punishment,  according  to  the  circumstances  of  the  case. 

Art.  30.  The  stealing  of  sheep,  goats,  hogs,  poultry,  grain,  fod- 
der, peas,  beans,  or  other  vegetables,  produce,  or  provisions,  when 
committed  by  slaves,  shall  be  punished  according  to    the     circum- 


96  LOUISIANA 

stances  of  the  case ;  and  the  judges  may  sentence  them,  if  necessary, 
to  be  wliipped  by  the  public  executioner,  and  branded  with  the 
mark  of  the  flower  de  luce. 

Art.  31.  In  cases  of  thefts  committed  or  damages  done  by  their 
slaves,  ma.sters,  besides  the  corporal  punishment  inflicted  on  their 
slaves,  shall  be  bound  to  make  amends  for  the  injuries  resulting 
from  the  acts  of  said  slaves,  unless  they  prefer  abandoning  them  to 
the  sufferer.  They  shall  be  bound  to  make  this  choice  in  three  days 
from  the  time  of  the  conviction  of  the  negroes;  if  not,  this  privi- 
lege shall  be  forever  forfeited. 

Art.  32.  The  runaway  slave,  who  shall  continue  to  be  so  for  one 
month  from  the  day  of  his  being  denounced  to  the  officers  of  jus- 
tice, shall  have  his  ears  cut  off,  and  shall  be  branded  \dth  the 
flower  de  luce  on  the  shoulder;  and  on  the  second  offense  of  the 
same  nature,  persisted  in  during  one  month  from  the  day  of  his 
being  denounced,  he  shall  be  hamstrung,  and  be  marked  with  the 
flower  de  luce  on  the  other  shoulder.  In  the  third  offense,  he  shall 
suffer  death. 

Art.  33.  Slaves  Avho  shall  have  made  themselves  liable  to  the  pen- 
alty of  the  whip,  the  flower  de  luce  brand,  and  ear  cutting,  shall  be 
tried,  in  the  last  resort,  by  the  ordinary  judges  of  the  inferior  courts, 
and  shall  undergo  the  sentence  passed  upon  them  without  there 
being  an  appeal  to  the  superior  council,  in  confirmation  or  reversal 
of  judgment,  notwithstanding  the  article  26th  of  the  present  code, 
which  shall  be  applicable  only  to  those  judgments  in  which  the  slave 
convicted  is  sentenced  to  be  hamstrung  or  to  suffer  death. 

Art.  34.  Freed  or  free-born  negroes,  who  shall  have  afforded 
refuge  in  their  houses  to  fugitive  slaves,  shall  be  sentenced  to  pay 
to  the  masters  of  said  slaves,  the  sum  of  30  livres  a  day  for  every 
day  during  which  they  shall  have  concealed  said  fugitives ;  and  all 
other  free  persons,  guilty  of  the  same  offense,  shall  pay  a  fine  of 
10  livres  a  day  as  aforesaid:  and  should  the  freed  or  free-born 
negroes  not  be  able  to  pay  the  fine  herein  specified,  they  shall  be 
reduced  to  the  condition  of  slaves,  and  he  sold  as  such.  Should  the 
price  of  the  sale  exceed  the  sum  mentioned  in  the  judgment,  the 
surplus  be  delivered  to  the  hospital. 

Art.  35.  We  permit  our  subjects  in  this  colony,  who  may  have 
slaves  concealed  in  any  place  whatever,  to  have  them  sought  after 
by  such  persons  and  in  such  a  way  as  they  may  deem  proper,  or  to 
proceed  themselves  to  such  researches  as  they  may  think  best. 

Art.  36.  The  slave  who  is  sentenced  to  suffer  death  on  the  de- 
nunciation of  his  master,  shall,  when  that  master  is  not  an  accom- 
plice to  his  crime,  be  appraised  before  his  execution  by  two  of  the 
principal  inhabitants  of  the  locality,  who  shall  l)e  specially  ap- 
pointed by  the  judge,  and  the  amount  of  said  appraisement  shall 
be  paid  to  the  master.  To  raise  this  sum,  a  proportional  tax  shall 
be  laid  on  every  slave,  and  shall  be  collected  by  the  persons  invested 
with  that  authority. 

Art.  37.  We  forbid  all  the  officers  of  the  superior  council,  and 
all  OUT  other  officers  of  justice  in  this  colony,  to  take  any  fees  or 


LOUISIANA  97 

receive  any  perquisites  in  criminal  suits  against  slaves,  under  the 
penalty,  in  so  doing,  of  being  dealt  with  as  guilty  of  extortion. 

Art.  38.  We  also  forbid  all  our  subjects  in  this  colony,  whatever 
their  condition  or  rank  may  be,  to  apply,  on  their  own  private 
authority,  the  rack  to  their  slaves,  under  any  pretense  whatever, 
and  to  mutilate  said  slaves  in  any  one  of  their  limbs,  or  in  any  part 
of  their  bodies,  under  the  penalty  of  the  confiscation  of  said  slaves ; 
and  said  mastei's,  so  offending,  shall  be  liable  to  a  criminal  prose- 
cution. We  only  permit  masters,  when  they  think  that  the  case 
requires  it,  to  put  their  slaves  in  irons,  and  to  have  them  whipped 
with  rods  or  ropes. 

Art.  39.  We  command  our  officers  of  justice  in  this  colony  to 
institute  criminal  process  against  masters  and  overseers  who  shall 
have  killed  or  mutilated  their  slaves,  when  in  their  power  and  under 
their  supervision,  and  to  punish  said  murder  according  to  the  atro- 
city of  the  circumstances;  and  in  case  the  offense  shall  be  a  pardon- 
able one,  we  permit  them  to  pardon  said  master  and  overseers 
without  it  being  necessary  to  obtain  from  us  letters  patent  of  par- 
don. 

Art.  40.  Slaves  shall  be  held  in  laAv  as  movables,  and  as  such, 
they  shall  be  part  of  the  community  of  acquests  between  husband 
and  wife ;  they  shall  not  be  liable  to  be  seized  under  any  mortgage 
whatever ;  and  they  shall  be  equally  divided  among  the  co-heirs 
witliout  admitting  from  any  one  of  said  heirs  any  claims  founded 
on  principut  or  right  of  primogeniture,  or  dowry. 

Arts.  41,  42,  are  entirely  concerned  with  ji;dicial  forms  and  pro- 
ceedings. 

Art.  43.  Husbands  and  wives  shall  not  be  seized  and  sold  sepa- 
rately when  belonging  to  the  same  m^ister;  and  their  children, 
when  under  14  years  of  age,  shall  not  be  separated  from  their  pa- 
rents and  such  seizures  and  sales  shall  be  null  and  void.  The  pres- 
ent articles  shall  apply  to  voluntary  sales,  and  in  case  such  sales 
should  take  place  in  violation  of  the  law,  the  seller  shall  be  deprived 
of  the  slave  he  has  illegally  retained,  and  said  slave  shall  be  ad- 
judged to  the  purchaser  without  any  additional  price  being  re- 
quired. 

Art.  44.  Slaves  14  years  old,  and  from  this  age  up  to  60,  who 
are  settled  on  lands  and  plantations,  and  are  at  present  working 
on  them,  shall  not  be  liable  to  seizure  for  debt,  except  for  what 
may  be  due  out  of  the  purchase  money  agreed  to  be  paid  for  them, 
unless  said  grounds  or  plantations  should  also  be  distressed,  and 
any  seizure  and  judicial  sale  of  a  real  estate,  without  including  the 
slaves  of  the  aforesaid  age  who  ai-e  part  of  said  estate,  shall  be 
deemed  null  and  Void. 

Arts.  45,  46,  47,  48,  49,  Relate  to  certain  formalities  to  be  observed 
in  jiidicial  proceedings. 

Art.  50.     Masters,  when  25  years  old,  shall  have  the  power  to 

manumit  their  slaves,  either  by  testamentary  dispositions,  or  by 

acts  inter  vivos.    But,  as  there  may  be  mercenary  masters  disposed 

to  set  a  price  on  the  liberation  of  their  slaves;  and  whereas  slaves, 

1—7 


98  LOUISIANA 

with  a  view  to  acquire  the  necessary  means  to  purchase  their  free- 
dom, may  be  tempted  to  commit  theft  or  deeds  of  plunder,  no  per- 
son, whatever  may  be  his  rank  and  condition,  shall  be  permitted 
to  set  free  his  slaves,  without  obtaining  from  the  superior  council 
a  decree  of  permission  to  that  effect;  whicli  permission  shall  be 
granted  M'ithout  costs,  wlicn  the  motives  for  the  setting  free  of  said 
slaves,  as  specified  in  the  petition  of  the  master,  shall  appear  legit- 
imate to  the  tribunal.  All  future  acts  for  the  emancipation  of 
slaves,  which  may  be  made  without  this  permission,  shall  be  null; 
and  the  slaves  so  tree  shall  not  be  entitled  to  their  freedom ;  they 
shall,  on  the  contrary,  continue  to  be  held  as  slaves:  but  they  shall 
be  taken  away  from  their  former  masters,  and  confiscated  for  the 
benefit  of  tlie  India  Company. 

Art.  51.  However,  sliould  slaves  be  appointed  by  their  masters 
tutors  to  their  cliildren,  said  slaves  shall  be  lield  and  regarded  as 
being  thereby  set  free  to  all  intents  and  purposes. 

Art.  52.  We  declare  that  the  acts  for  the  enfranchisement  of 
slaves,  passed  according  to  the  forms  above  described,  shall  be 
equivalent  to  an  act  of  naturalization,  when  said  slaves  are  not 
born  in  our  colony  of  Louisiana,  and  they  shall  enjoy  all  the  rights 
and  privileges  inherent  to  our  subjects  born  in  our  kingdom,  or  in 
any  land  or  country  under  our  dominion.  We  declare,  however, 
that  all  manumitted  slaves,  and  all  free-born  negroes,  are  incapable 
of  receiving  donations,  either  by  testamentary  dispositions,  or  by 
acts  inter  vivos  from  the  whites.  Said  donations  shall  be  null  and 
void,  and  the  objects  so  donated  shall  be  applied  to  the  benefits  of 
the  nearest  hospital. 

Art.  53.  We  command  all  manumitted  slaves  to  show  the  pro- 
foundest  respect  to  their  former  masters,  to  their  widows  and  chil- 
dren, and  any  injury  or  insult  offered  by  said  manumitted  slaves 
to  their  former  masters,  their  widows  or  children,  shall  be  pun- 
ished with  more  severity  than  if  it  had  been  ott'ered  to  any  other 
person.  We,  however,  declare  them  exempt  from  the  discharge  of 
all  duties  or  services,  and  from  the  payment  of  taxes  or  fees,  or 
anything  else  which  their  former  masters  might,  in  their  quality  of 
patrons,  claim  either  in  relation  to  their  persons,  or  to  their  per- 
sonal or  real  estate,  cither  during  the  life  or  after  the  death  of  said 
manumitted  slaves. 

Art.  54.  We  grant  to  manumitted  slaves  th(<  same  right,  privi- 
leges, and  innnnnities  which  are  enjoyed  by  free-boi-n  ])ersons.  It 
is  our  pleasure  that  their  merit  in  having  accpiired  their  freedom, 
shall  produce  in  their  favor,  not  only  with  regard  to  their  persons, 
but  also  to  their  property,  the  same  eft'ects  wliich  our  other  sub- 
jects derive  from  the  happy  circumstance  of  their  having  been  born 
free. 

Fazende,  Brusle    Perry,        ^^  „,^,  ^.,„j^,  ^j  ^,,^,  j.j^g 

March,  1(^4.  liienville,  De  la  Chaise. 

In  the  regulation  of  police  published  Feb.  18,  175],  by  Gov. 
Vaudreuil  and  Michel  de  la  Rouvilliere  the  iutendant-coramissary, 


LOUISIANA  99 

Articles  10  to  30  have  special  reference  to  the  treatment  and' control 
of  negroes,  and  are  an  amplification  of  certain  provisions  of  the 
Black  Code,  especially  of  Articles  12  to  15  inclusive.  The  stringent 
legislation  here  embodied  prohibits  under  severe  penalties  tlie  sale 
of  intoxicants  to  negroes,  the  harlioring  of  slaves  for  unlawful  pur- 
poses, trade  dealings  with  slaves  who  are  not  specifically  authorized 
by  their  masters  to  luiy  and  sell,  all  essemblies  of  negroes  owned 
by  different  masters  either  in  town  or  country,  the  carrying  by  any 
negro  of  a  cane,  rod,  or  stick,  etc.  Any  white  person  is  author- 
ized to  stop  a  negro  or  slave,  either  in  New  Orleans,  or  in  the  coun- 
try during  the  day,  and  particularly  during  the  night,  and  com- 
pel the  said  negro  or  slave  to  show  his  written  pass;  the  abuse  of 
horses  and  their  stealing  by  negroes  is  the  subject  of  a  separate 
article ;  another  article  is  intended  to  prevent  masters  from  treating 
their  slaves  with  undue  lenity,  and  still  another  article  aims  to 
enforce  proper  respect  and  submission  on  the  part  of  the  blacks 
toward  the  whites,  branding  and  whipping  being  the  penalties  im- 
posed for  ahy  insolence  shown.  Such  protection  as  was  afforded 
the  blacks  is  embodied  in  Article  30,  wliich  recites,  "A  private  per- 
son, a  soldier,  or  any  other  individual,  has  not  the  right  to  ill-treat 
a  negro  who  is  guilty  of  no  offense  towards  him.  In  certain  cases, 
the  person  offended  may  arrest  him,  and  ask  tliat  he  be  dealt  with 
according  to  the  dictates  of  justice,  because  the  negro  is  subject 
only  to  the  police  regulations  of  tiie  country  and  to  the  tri!)unal 
of  his  own  master,  (,'onsequently,  and  in  compliance  with  the  or- 
ders of  his  Majesty,  we  forbid  that  any  one  should  take  the  liberty 
to  ill-treat  .slaves ;  and  for  any  violence  of  this  prohibition,  the 
person  so  offending  shall  undergo  an  arbitrary  punishment,  accord- 
ing to  the  circinnstauces  of  the  ease." 

When  Gen.  O'Reilly  as.sumed  control  of  the  colony  in  the  name 
of  Spain,  he  issued  a  special  proclamation  reenacting  most  of  tlie 
French  legislation  with  reference  to  the  negroes. 

Blackcreek,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  central  part  of  Grant  parish,  is 
about  6  miles  northwest  of  Bentley,  the  nearest  railroad  station, 
and  the  same  distance  northeast  of  Colfax,  the  parish  seat. 

Blackwell,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  northwestern  part  of  St.  Tam- 
many parish,  is  about  5  miles  north  of  Folsom,  the  nearest  railroad 
station. 

Blairstown,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  southeastern  part  of  East  Felici- 
ana parish,  is  situated  on  a  confluent  of  the  Amite  river,  about  5 
miles  north  of  Pride,  the  nearest  railroad  station,  and  9  miles  south- 
ea.st  of  Clinton,  the  parish  seat. 

Blanc,  Antoine,  1st  Roman  Catholic  archbishop  of  New  Orleans, 
was  born  at  Sury,  France,  Oct.  11,  1792.  He  was  one  of  the  first 
priests  ordained  after  the  Restoration  in  France.  In  order  to 
escape  military  couscrijition  he  received  special  dispensation  and 
was  ordained  in  1817  before  he  had  reached  canonical  age.  He  was 
one  of  the  missionaries  who  volunteered  for  the  Louisiana  mission- 
ary field  and  accompanied  Bishop  Dubourg  (q.  v.)  to  the  United 
States.    With  30  other  priests,  he  was  entertained  by  Charles  Car- 


100  LOUISIANA 

roll  of  Carrollton,  ild.,  for  two  months,  before  they  Avent  to  Balti- 
more to  join  Bishop  Dubourg  for  the  trip  ■west.  At  first  Father 
Blanc  had  charge  of  the  Vincennes  mission,  but  in  1820  was  called 
to  New  Orleans  and  after  that  was  stationed  at  Natchez,  Pointe 
Coupee  and  Baton  Rouge.  He  was  appointed  assistant  vicar-gen- 
eral of  the  diocese  of  New  Orleans,  was  raised  in  1832  to  coadju- 
tor-bishop and  when  Bishop  Neckere  died  in  1833,  was  appointed 
administrator  of  the  diocese.  Two  years  later  he  was  appointed 
bishop  and  consecrated  in  the  cathedral  on  Nov.  22.  1835.  At  that 
time  the  diocese  of  New  Orleans  included  Louisiana  and  Missis- 
sippi, and  in  1838  Texas  was  placed  vuider  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
See  of  New  Orleans.  During  his  administration  Bishop  Blanc  suc- 
ceeded in  having  both  Texas  and  Mississippi  made  into  separate 
and  independent  dioceses.  While  in  office  he  established  a  diocesan 
seminary,  introduced  the  Jesuit  Lazarist  and  Redemptionist  orders, 
the  Christian  Brothers,  Sisters  of  Charity  and  several  other  Cath- 
olic orders.  He  established  2  colleges,  9  free  schools,  13  orphan 
asyhims  and  3  chiirches.  The  number  of  churches  and  priests  in 
the  diocese  more  than  doubled  while  he  was  bishop  and  when  New 
Orleans  was  erected  into  an  arch-diocese  in  1850,  he  was  raised  to 
archbishop.  He  attended  the  1st,  2d,  4th,  5th,  6th,  and  7th  pro- 
Aancial  councils  at  Baltimore  and  the  1st  plenary  council  in  1852. 
The  1st  council  he  attended  as  theologian,  the  others  as  prelate. 
He  called  and  presided  over,  as  metropolitan,  tlie  1st  provincial 
coimcil  of  New  Orleans.  In  1855,  he  went  to  Rome  to  attend  the 
assemblv  of  cardinals,  archbishops  and  bishops  called  together  by 
Pius  IX.     He  died  in  New  Orleans.  June  20,  1860. 

Blanchaxd,  a  village  in  the  central  part  of  Caddo  parish,  is  a  sta- 
tion on  the  Kansas  City  Southern  R.  R.,  about  9  miles  northwest  of 
Shreveport.  It  has  a  money  order  postoffice,  telegraph  and  express 
service,  is  the  trading  center  of  a  considerable  district,  and  in  1910 
had  a  population  of  200. 

Blanchard,  Albert  G.,  soldier,  was  born  iu  Charleston,  Mass.,  in 
1810.  where  he  received  his  early  education.  "When  cpiite  young, 
he  entered  the  U.  S.  military  academy,  where  he  graduated  in  1829. 
While  at  the  academy  he  was  a  classmate  of  Robert  E.  Lee  and 
Joseph  E.  Johnston.  After  graduating  he  was  appointed  brevet 
second  lieutenant  of  the  3d  infantry,  and  served  on  the  frontier 
from  1829  to  1840,  when  he  resigned  from  the  army  to  engage  in 
mercantile  pursuits,  and  also  served  as  director  of  public  schools 
in  Louisiana  from  1843  to  1845.  When  war  broke  out  witli  Mexico 
he  again  entered  the  service  of  the  United  States,  as  captain  of 
Louisiana  volunteers,  iMay  15,  1846,  and  won  distinction  at 
Monterey  and  the  siege  of  Vera  Cruz.  He  was  offered  an  appoint- 
ment in  the  regular  army  but  declined  in  order  to  accept  a  com- 
mission as  major  of  the  12th  Louisiana  infantry,  ]\Iay  27,  1847. 
After  the  war  he  returned  to  New  Orleans  and  taught  in  the  pub- 
lic schools  until  1850.  For  several  years  lie  was  employed  as  a  sur- 
veyor, and  from  1854  to  1861  was  secretary  and  treasurer  of  the 
New  Orleans  &  Carrollton,  and  the  Jefferson  &  Lake  Pontchartrain 


LOUISIANA  101 

railroad  companies.  Gen.  Blanchard  .sympathized  with  the  South 
and  entei'ed  the'  service  of  his  adopted  state  as  colonel  of  the  1st 
Louisiana  infantry.  He  served  with  his  command  in  Virginia;  in 
May,  1861,  was  placed  in  command  of  two  divisions  of  Iluger's 
forces ;  was  promoted  to  brigadier-general  and  placed  in  command 
of  a  brigade  at  Portsmouth,  Va.  In  April,  1862,  he  took  part  in  the 
operations  around  South  Mills.  Later  he  was  in  command  of 
Drewry's  bluff.  After  the  war  he  returned  to  New  Orleans,  and 
was  surveyor  and  civil  engineer  from  1866  to  1870.  He  was  dep- 
uty surveyor  of  the  city  of  New  Orleans  from  1870  to  1878,  and 
assistant  surveyor  from  1878  to  1891.  He  died  in  New  Orleans, 
La.,  June  21,  1891. 

Blanchaxd,  Newton  Grain,  governor  of  Louisiana  from  1904  to 
1908,  was  born  on  Jan.  29,  1849,  in  Rapides  parish.  La.,  where  his 
boyhood  was  passed  on  a  cotton  plantation.  His  early  education 
was  acquired 'in  private  schools  and  the  Louisiana  state  iiniversity, 
and  in  1870  he  graduated  in  the  law  department  of  the  University 
of  Louisiana  (now  Tulane)  at  New  Orleans.  He  began  practice  at 
Shreveport  in  1871,  became  a  successful  attorney,  and  in  1876  was 
elected  chairman  of  the  Democratic  committee  of  Caddo  parish 
Three  years  later  he  was  chosen  a  delegate  to  the  constitutional  con- 
vention, in  which  he  was  made  cliairman  of  the  committee  on  Fed- 
eral relations.  With  the  rank  of  major  he  served  on  the  staff  of 
Gov.  Wiltz  and  Gov.  McEnery,  and  at  the  same  time  was  the  Lou- 
isiana trustee  of  the  University  of  the  South  at  Sewanee,  Tenn. 
In  1880  he  was  elected  to  the  lower  house  of  Congress  and  served 
continuously  in  that  body  until  1893,  when  he  was  elected  to  the 
U.  S.  Senate.  While  in  the  house  he  was  for  some  time  chairman 
of  the  committee  on  rivers  and  harbors,  and  as  such  wielded  great 
influence  in  securing  appropriations  for  the  improvement  of  the 
levees  along  the  ^Mississippi  river,  thus  preventing,  or  at  least  re- 
ducing to  a  minimum,  the  damage  done  by  disastrous  floods.  In 
1897  he  left  the  senate  to  accept  a  place  as  associate  justice  of  the 
Louisiana  supreme  court  and  remained  upon  the  bench  until  1904, 
when  he  was  elected  governor  for  a  term  of  four  years.  Mr. 
Blanchard  is  a  Democrat  who  is  always  ready  to  obey  the  behests 
of  his  party,  whether  as  an  officeholder,  a  delegate  to  conventions, 
or  as  member  of  the  national  committee,  in  which  organization  he 
ably  represented  the  State  of  Louisiana  for  several  years. 

Blanchard's  Administration. — Gov.  Blanchard  and  Lieut.-Gov. 
Sanders  were  inducted  into  office  on  May  16,  1904.  In  his  inaugural 
message  the  new  governor  devoted  considerable  attention  to  the 
subject  of  education,  especially  recommending  legislation  in  the 
interests  of  the  primary  schools.  He  suggested  that  the  state  issue 
40  or  45  year  bonds  to  the  amount  of  $1,000,000  for  the  purpose  of 
improving  her  educational  institutions,  and  concluded  this  part  of 
his  message  by  saying:  "It  was  never  truer  than  now  that  tlie 
education  of  the  poorest  is  the  chief  concern  of  a  state."  He  ex- 
pressed himself  in  favor  of  legislation  that  would  secure  better 
roads  in  the  rural  districts ;  advocated  the  enactment  of  a  primary 


102  LOUISIANA 

elpc'tion  law:  promised  a  rigid  enforcement  of  law  and  order,  and 
that  there  should  be  no  lynching  nor  mob  violence  during  his  ad- 
ministration if  tlie  military  at  his  command  could  prevent  it;  con- 
curred in  Gov.  Heard's  recommendation  in  his  retiring  message 
that  the  state  debt  be  refunded  on  a  3  per  cent  basis;  and  advo- 
cated the  extension  of  the  elective  franchise.  "There  is  no  doiibt," 
said  he,  "that  many  people  in  the  state  hold  to  the  opinion  that 
many  of  the  existing  offices,  now  appointive,  should  be  made 
elective,  and  are  desirous  that  this  should  be  done.  I  recommend 
that  action  on  this  line  be  taken." 

The  general  assembly  to  which  this  message  was  delivered  had 
met  on  ilay  9,  1904,  one  week  liefore  Gov.  Blanchard  was  inaugu- 
rated. Act  No.  113,  passed  at  this  session,  created  a  department  of 
forestry,  to  consist  of  the  register  of  the  laud  office  and  four  citi- 
zens of  the  state  to  be  appointed  by  the  governor  for  a  term  of 
four  years;  the  register  to  be  ex-offieio  commissioner  of  forestry, 
for  which  he  was  to  receive  an  addition  of  $500  to  his  annual  salary, 
the  other  four  members  of  the  department  to  receive  only  actual 
expenses,  not  exceeding  $100  each  per  annum.  The  act  made  it 
the  duty  of  the  department  to  inquire  into  and  report  on  the  forest 
conditions  in  the  state,  with  reference  to  the  preservation  of  the 
forests  already  existing  and  the  reforesting  of  denuded  lands.  The 
register,  in  his  qapacity  of  commissioner,  Avas  to  have  charge  of 
the  preservation  of  the  forests,  and  his  orders  were  to  be  supreme. 
He  was  authorized  to  appoint  a  deputy,'  to  be  known  as  the  cliief 
fire  warden,  with  a  salary  of  $500  a  year,  who  was  charged  with 
the  enforcement  of  the  law.  Police  jurors  were  constituted  fire 
wardens,  who  were  to  assemble  on  the  orders  of  the  eliief  tire  war- 
den in  case  of  forest  fires,  and  were  to  receive  $2  per  day  for  each 
day  actually  employed  in  fighting  fires.  Any  person  AvilfuUy, 
negligently  or  carelessly  setting  fire  to  woods,  or  near  woods,  was 
liable  to  a  fine  not  exceeding  $100,  to  which  might  l)e  added  impris- 
onment for  not  more  than  three  months,  all  fines  to  be  paid  into  the 
parish  treasiiry  where  the  oifense  occurred,  and  to  be  used  in  en- 
forcing the  provisions  of  the  act.  It  was  also  directed  that  parish 
school  boards  provide  for  teaching  forestry  in  the  jinblic  schools, 
and  for  an  arlior  day  (q.  v.),  when  forest  trees  should  be  planted 
on  the  school  grounds,  etc.  In  1906  Gov.  Blanchard  tried  to  have 
the  law  amended  so  as  to  limit  the  cut  of  timber  by  lumber  com- 
panies to  trees  larger  than  10  or  12  inches  in  diameter,  but  the  in- 
fluence of  the  milling  interests  was  strong  enough  to  prevent  the 
passage  of  the  bill. 

On  July  5,  1904,  the  governor  approved  an  act  creating  the  state 
board  of  charities  and  corrections,  to  consist  of  the  governor  and 
five  citizens  to  lie  apjioiuted  by  him — one  for  6  years,  one  for  5 
years,  one  for  4  years,  one  for  3  years  and  one  for  2  years,  after 
which  all  appointments  Avere  to  be  for  6  years,  excejit  in  cases  of 
vacancies,  when  the  appointment  was  not  to  extend  beyond  the 
expiration  of  the  original  term.  The  governor  was  designated  as 
chairman  of  the  board,  Avhose  duties  were  defined  as  merely  visit- 


LOUISIANA  103 

orial.  The  board  was  authorized  and  required  to  visit  all  iustitu- 
tions — state,  parish  or  municipal — of  a  charitable,  eleemosynary, 
correctional  or  reformatory  character,  and  to  report  annually  to  the 
governor  and  to  each  session  of  the  legislature,  making  such  sugges- 
tions regarding  the  management  of  the  institutions  as  the  members 
might  deem  proper,  provided  said  suggestions  were  concurred  in  by 
a  majority  of  the  members  of  the  boards  in  control  of  the  institu- 
tions affected  by  them.  Local  officers  of  the  various  institutions 
coming  within  the  provisions  of  the  act  were  directed  to  furnish 
the  board  of  charities  and  corrections  all  information,  etc. 

On  the  same  date  Gov.  Blanchard  also  approved  an  act  estab- 
lishing a  state  reform  school  for  the  accommodation  of  male  per- 
sons under  the  age  of  18  years,  who  might  be  convicted  of  any 
crime  except  murder,  manslaughter  or  rape,  such  imprisonment  not 
to  entail  the  forfeiture  of  civil  rights.  The  governor  was  author- 
ized to  appoint,  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  senate,  three 
commissioners  to  locate  the  school,  provided,  that  the  location 
selected  should  not  be  within  30  miles  of  tlie  state  penitentiary  or 
any  of  the  convict  farms.  The  commissioners  thus  appointed  were 
required  to  serve  Avithout  compensation  other  than  actual  expenses 
incurred  in  the  discharge  of  their  duties;  to  adopt  for  the  institu- 
tion a  system  of  discipline  that  should  be  humane  and  reformatory 
in  character;  and  to  report  annually  to  the  governor.  They  were 
given  authority  to  release  on  parole  any  inmate  of  the  school  whose 
conduct  in  their  judgment  merited  such  treatment,  the  paroled 
person  to  be  rearrested  if  his  parole  was  broken.  To  carry  out  the 
provisions  of  the  act  an  appropriation  of  $20,000  was  made ;  $5,000 
oi;t  of  the  revenues  of  1906,  $10,000  out  of  the  revenues  of  1907,  and 
$5,000  out  of  the  revenues  of  1908.  The  commissioners  purchased 
about  193  acres  of  land  on  the  Ouachita  river,  a  short  distance  below 
the  eit.y  of  Monroe,  paying  therefor  $9,646,  and  here  the  school  was 
established.  In  liis  nu='ssage  to  the  legislature  on  May  12,  1908, 
Gov.  ]-}lancliard  said:  "On  this  site  a  substantial  building  is  under 
construction  and  nearly  tinished.  This  institution  is  managed  by 
a  board  of  three  commissioners  who  are  displaying  most  commend- 
able zeal  in  the  work,  besides  progressive  ideas  and  good  business 
judgment.  Two  of  them,  with  my  approval,  visited  similar  insti- 
tutions in  the  Eastern  and  Northern  portions  of  our  country  in 
order  to  ol)serve  the  arrangenu^iit  of  the  Iniildings  and  to  l)eeome 
more  fully  informed  in  the  matter  of  the  management  of  such 
schools."  By  the  act  of  July  9,  1908,  the  name  of  the  school  was 
changed  to  that  of  the  "Louisiana  Training  Institute." 

The  law  of  1902,  creating  the  Vieksburg  Military  Commission, 
inadvertently  omitted  the  3d,  17th,  21st,  26th,  27th,  28th  (29th), 
and  31st  Louisiana  regimeiits.  In  1904  it  was  amended  so  as  to  in- 
clude these  organizations  and  give  them  representation  on  the 
commission. 

In  July,  1905,  the  report  of  a  few  eases  of  yellow  fever  in  New 
Orleans  caused  the  Mississippi  authorities  to  establish  a  quarantine 
against  the   State  of  Louisiana.     Toward  the  close   of  the   month 


104  LOUISIANA 

Gov.  Blanchard  received  uotice  tliat  bodies  of  Mississippi  militia, 
iiniformed  and  armed,  were  constantly  crossing  the  Pearl  river; 
that  the  drawbridge  of  the  Louisville  &  Nashville  railroad  over  the 
Rigolets  was  kept  closed  by  order  of  the  Mississippi  quarantine  of- 
ficers and  opened  only  to  such  boats  as  they  directed;  and  that 
Mississippi  patrol  boats  were  committing  acts  of  trespass  and  in- 
timidation in  Louisiana  waters  upon  Louisiana  fishermen  and  tlieir 
boats.  The  governor  immediately  ordered  Brig.-Gen.  Arsene  Peril- 
liat  of  his  staii"  and  Capt.  J.  TV.  Bostick.  commanding  the  state  naval 
brigade,  to  investigate  the  report,  and  at  the  same  time  notified 
the  governor  of  ^Mississippi  of  his  action.  After  a  luirried  investi- 
gation Capt.  Bostick  reported  that  the  drawbridge  was  kept  closed 
by  the  patrol  boat  Grace ;  that  IS  schooners  from  Louisiana  ports 
•had  been  stopped  at  the  Rigolets  and  forcibly  towed  over  to  Ship 
island;  that  militiamen,  uniformed  and  armed,  were  in  the  habit 
of  going  daily  to  Dunbar,  La.,  for  mail  and  supplies,  or  to  take  the 
train ;  and  that  the  patrol  boat  Cartryne  had  issued  orders  to  Louis- 
iana fishermen  who  desired  to  go  out  into  Lake  Borgne  to  remain 
inside  the  pass  at  Chef  Menteur. 

On  Thursday  morning,  A\ig.  3,  Capt.  Bostick  received  telegraphic 
orders  from  the  governor  "to  look  after  Rigolets  and  bridge  imme- 
diately and  hurry  forward  preparation  of  flotilla  strong  enough  to 
protect  state's  rights."  The  governor  also  telegraphed  to  Sheriflf 
Long  of  Orleans  parish  and  Sheriff  Niuiez  of  St.  Bernard  parish 
to  confer  with  Capt.  Bostick,  proceed  to  Rigolets  and  arrest  any 
Mississippi  patrol  boats  found  interfering  with  commerce.  Upon 
receiving  his  orders  Capt.  Bostick  sent  Lieuts.  T.  D.  ]\Iiller  and 
John  Chaffe,  with  l-i  enlisted  men  and  4  civilians,  to  the  Rigolets 
with  instructions  to  prevent  all  interference  with  the  bridge,  fish- 
ermen or  shipping,  and  directed  Lieiit.  Ernest  D.  Ivy  to  take  12 
men  and  proceed  down  the  ^Mississippi  river  on  the  power  launch 
Tom  to  Lake  Borgne  canal,  where  he  was  to  report  to  Sheriff  Nunez. 
Troops  were  also  sent  by  train  to  the  Rigolets. 

Early  on  Friday  morning,  Aug.  4,  Lieut.  Ivy  captured  the  patrol 
launch  Tipsy,  eonmianded  by  Capt.  English,  near  the  Lake  Borgne 
canal,  where  it  was  stationed  to  prevent  the  fishermen  at  Chef 
Menteur  from  going  into  Lake  Borgne.  Capt.  Bostick  arrived  at 
the  Rigolets  early  on  the  morning  of  the  4th  and  was  hailed  by  the 
patrol  boat  Grace,  commanded  by  Walter  Blunt.  Bostick  ordered 
the  Grace  alongside  his  launch,  the  ilarie,  and  lashed  the  boats 
together,  but  found  that  Sheriff'  Long,  who  had  gone  to  the  Rigolets 
on  Thursday  afternoon,  had  returned  to  New  Orleans.  As  he  had 
no  authority  to  make  arrests  he  ordered  the  Grace  to  the  Pearl 
river  and  admonished  Blunt  that  he  must  not  interfere  with  the 
passage  of  boats.  About  2  p.  m.  the  Grace  came  back  and  Blunt 
showed  documents  signed  by  Surgeon  Wasdin  of  the  marine  hos- 
pital service  and  Capt.  Chaytor  of  the  U.  S.  revenue  cutter  Winona, 
stating  that  the  Grace  was  acting  under  instructions  to  warn  all 
vessels  not  to  enter  ^lississippi  waters  unless  they  were  willing  to 
go  to  Ship  island  for  detention.     Bostick  informed  the  captain  of 


LOUISIANA  105 

the  Grace  that  he  would  not  be  permitted  to  seize  vessels  in  Lou- 
isiana waters  nor  interfere  with  fishermen,  but  must  confine  him- 
self to  warning  vessels  not  to  land  in  Mississippi  without  first  go- 
ing to  Ship  island,  and  then  telegraphed  to  the  governor  for  in- 
structions, remaining  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Rigolets  to  see  that  his 
injunctions  were  obeyed.  In  due  time  he  received  from  Gov. 
Blanchard  the  following  message : 

"Inform  captain  of  Grace  that  as  long  as  he  confines  his  opera- 
tions to  strictly  quarantine  patrol  duty,  which  is  to  see  that  no 
vessels  from  Louisiana  land  at  Mississippi  gulf  ports,  unless  going 
first  into  detention,  he  will  not  be  molested,  but  any  interference 
other  than  this  with  Louisiana  vessels,  or  harassing  of  Louisiana 
fishermen  or  hunters,  or  interfering  with  drawbridge  at  Rigolets, 
will  result  in  his  prompt  arrest  and  prosecution  in  the  Louisiana 
courts.  This  applies  to  captain  of  Winona  as  well,  and  all  other 
commanders  of  patrol  boats  doing  quarantine  duty  in  Louisiana 
waters  when  such  commanders  exceed  the  authority  given  them 
by  the  marine  hospital  bureau,  and  violate  state  statutes.  Their 
being  aboard  vessels  in  the  service  of  the  bureau  will  not  exempt 
them  from  arrest.  You  will  send  a  copy  of  this  dispatch  by  mail 
to  U.  S.  Surgean  Wasdin  of  Gulfport,  and  furuisli  copies  to  captain 
of  Winona  and  other  patrol  boats.  I  am  communicating  same  to 
Washington  authorities,  with  whom  I  am  in  touch." 

Capt.  Bostick  sent  the  copies  as  directed  and  prepared  to  enforce 
the  governor's  orders  by  calling  out  111  men,  with  2  automatic 
machine  guns  ai)d  13,000  rounds  of  ball  cartridges.  The  prompt 
and  decisive  action  of  the  governor  and  Capt.  Bostick  resulted  in 
amended  instructions  being  issued  to  the  commanders  of  the  patrol 
boats,  and  the  famous  "shotgun  quarantine"  was  thereafter  con- 
ducted with  more  regard  for  the  rights  of  Louisiana  fishermen  and 
shipping. 

In  his  message  to  the  general  assembly  of  1906  Gov.  Blanchard 
discussed  at  length  the  revenue  system  of  the  state,  recommending 
the  equalization  of  assessments,  the  reduction  of  the  tax  rate,  and 
an  amendment  to  the  constitution  that  woi;ld  permit  the  election 
of  the  members  of  the  state  board  of  appraisers — one  from  each 
Congressional  district — instead  of  the  method  then  in  vogue.  He 
also  recommended  the  elimination  or  repeal  of  article  236  of  the 
state  constitution,  relating  to  the  inheritance  tax,  and  urged  the 
enactment  of  laws  for  the  protection  of  the  mineral  deposits  and  the 
promotion  of  the  mining  industry  of  the  state.  In  response  to  his 
suggestions  the  state  board  of  equalization  was  created,  the  state 
tax  reduced  from  6  to  5  mills,  and  the  maximum  rate  of  municipal 
and  parochial  taxation  reduced  from  10  to  8  mills.  At  this  ses- 
sion a  law  Avas  passed  providing  for  school  libraries.  When  it  went 
into  effect  there  were  in  the  country  schools  of  the  state  about  21,- 
000  volumes  in  their  libraries.  Two  years  later,  by  the  operation 
of  this  law,  the  number  had  been  increased  to  about  100,000.  Parr 
ish  school  boards  were  authorized  to  issue  bonds  for  public  school 
purposes,  to  be  secured  by  special  taxes  voted  therefor,  and  as  a 


106  LOUISIANA 

result  of  this  law  over  200  schoolhoiises  were  erected  during  the 
year  1907. 

Another  act  of  the  legislature  of  1906  was  to  provide  a  state 
teacher's  certificate,  good  for  10  years,  and  the  creation  of  a  state 
board  of  examiners  for  conducting  examinations  for  such  certifi- 
cate. In  his  message  to  tlie  next  session  of  the  general  assembly 
the  governor  said:  "This  certificate  is  stimulating  teachers  to  a 
higlier  grade  of  professional  work." 

By  act  No.  190,  approved  July  11,  1906,  Louisiana  formally  ac- 
cepted the  invitation  of  the  State  of  Virginia  to  participate  in  the 
Jamestown  exposition.  The  act  authorized  a  commission  of  five 
persons  to  represent  the  state.  Three  of  these  commissioners  were 
named  in  the  act  and  the  other  two  Avere  appointed  by  the  governor. 
(See  Expositions.) 

On  Ang.  7.  1907,  Geronimo  Garcia  arrived  in  New  Orleans  from 
Cuba.  An  investigation  developed  the  fact  that  an  agent  of  the 
state  board  of  agriculture  and  immigration  had  paid  Garcia 's  pass- 
age money  and  had  given  him  the  assurance  that  he  would  find 
employment  in  Louisiana.  U.  S.  Atty.-Gen.  Bonaparte  decided  that 
states  have  no  more  right  than  corporations  or  individuals  to  solicit 
immigration  in  this  manner,  and  Garcia  was  excluded. 

On  Nov.  11,  1907,  the  general  assembly  was  convened  in  extraor- 
dinary session  hy  the  proclamation  of  the  governor  "to  consider 
measures  relating  to  banking  corporations  and  kindred  legislation." 
Probably  the  most  important  act  of  the  session  was  one  requiring 
state,  parish  and  municipal  funds  to  be  deposited  with  a -fiscal 
agency  or  agencies — a  bank  or  banks  chartered  by  the  laws  of  the 
State  of  Louisiana  or  the  United  States  and  domiciled  in  the  state 
— oft'eriug  the  highest  rate  of  interest  therefor  and  giving  satisfac- 
tory' security.  Concerning  the  acts  of  the  special  session  increasing 
scliool  revenues.  Gov.  Blanchard  said  in  his  message  of  !May  12, 
1908:  "The  parish  superintendents  were  made  treasurers  of  school 
funds,  and  thus  the  scliool  saved  in  commissions  formerly  paid  the 
treasurers  annually,  !}!30,000.  The  assessors'  commissions  on  special 
school  taxes  were  reduced  to  1  per  cent  and  the  tax  collectors' 
commissions  on  special  school  taxes  were  abolished  altogether, 
thus  saving  to  the  school  fund  on  local  school  taxes,  if!33,000.  The 
amount  of  commissions  formerly  paid  assessors  and  tax  collectors 
from  school  funds  other  than  local  taxes,  but  now  saved  to  tlie 
schools,  $20,600.  The  decision  of  the  supreme  court  concerning 
commissions  on  fines  in  criminal  cases  heretofore  collected  by  dis- 
trict attorneys  adds  to  the  school  funds,  $18,000.  Total  saved  an- 
nually $101,600." 

In  Dec.  1907,  the  .ietties  of  the  Southwest  pass  were  completed. 
They  were  begun  in  1903  and  cost  $2,700,000.  Hostility  on  the  part 
of  negroes  toward  Italian  laborers  employed  at  Chathamville.  a 
little  village  in  the  eastern  part  of  Jackson  jiarish,  culminated  in 
a  riot  on  Dee.  14-,  1907,  when  2  Italians  were  shot,  the  negroes  be- 
ing the  aggressors.  The  next  day  the  rioting  was  renewed,  another 
Italian  was  killed  and  several  were  in.iured.  Complaint  was  made  to 


LOUISIANA  107 

the  Italian  consul  at  New  Orleans,  who  appealed  to  Gov.  Blan- 
chard  to  have  the  perpetrators  arrested  and  punished,  but  as  it 
was  highly  improbalile  that  the  right  persons  could  be  found,  the 
governor  refused  to  take  any  action. 

At  the  state  election  on  April  21,  1908,  Jared  Y.  Sanders,  who 
had  been  lieutenant-governor  during  Blanchard's  administration, 
was  elected  governor,  and  on  May  12  Gov.  Blanchard's  retiring 
message  was  read  before  the  two  liouses  of  the  general  assembly. 
In  it  he  pointed  out  that  during  his  term  of  office  two-thirds  of  the 
patronage  formerly  in  the  hands  of  the  executive  had  been  taken 
away  from  him  and  restored  to  the  people.  The  supreme  court 
justices,  the  register  of  the  state  land  office,  the  65  assessors  in  the 
state,  all  the  members  of  the  parish  school  boards,  and  the  state 
tax  collectors  of  New  Orleans,  all  of  which  were  appointal)le  by  the 
governor  at  the  beginning  of  his  administration,  are  now  elected 
by  the  people,  and  vacancies  in  the  offices  of  district  judge,  district 
attorney,  clerk  of  the  court,  sheriff,  coi'oner  and  police  juror,  are 
now  to  be  filled  by  election,  unless  the  vacancies  oeciu"  within  one 
year  of  the  expiration  of  the  terms  of  such  offices.  On  the  subject 
of  education  he  announced  that  the  amount  of  special  school  taxes 
had  been  increased  from  $84,000  in  1903  to  $1,700,000  in  1907; 
that  the  length  of  the  average  school  term  had  been  increased  diu'- 
iug  the  same  period  oue  month  each  year ;  that  the  number  of  school 
children  enrolled  had  increased  by  65,498 ;  that  the  salaries  of 
teachers  had  been  materially  increased,  thereby  insuring  a  better 
class  of  instructors;  and  that  the  total  amount  expended  for 
school  purposes  had  increased  from  $1,551,2.32  in  1903  to  .$3,481,275 
in  1907.  Said  he:  "The  same  vigorous  prosecution  of  school  woi'k 
during  the  next  four  years  as  was  the  ease  dixring  the  four  years 
just  ending  will  confirm  our  leadership  in  education.  But  we  should 
be  careful  to  keep  the  work  to  the  essentials.  Fads  and  nonessen- 
tials .should  be  kept  out.  The  too  great  tendency  toward  'paternal- 
ism' in  ediTcation  should  be  checked.  *  *  *  If  I  were  asked 
what  levied  the  highest  tax  on  the  state,  I  would  answer  illiteracy 
first;  bad  roads  next." 

In  concluding  his  message  the  governor  said:  "Louisiana  is  a 
prosperous  commonwealth  of  the  American  Union.  She  was  never 
in  a  better  condition  than  now  industriallv.  commercially  and  in  a 
general  biisiness  way.  Her  resources  are  great  and  are  being  de- 
veloped rapidly,  attracting  capital  and  men  of  enterprise.  Her  ad- 
vance along  the  highway  of  civilization  will  be  accelerated  by  wise 
laws  and  their  vigorous  enforcement." 

Blanche,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  extreme  southern  portion  of  Rap- 
ides parish,  is  a  station  on  the  main  line  of  the  St.  Louis,  Watkins 
&  Gulf  R.  R. 

Blankston  (R.  R.  name  Corey),  a  post-hamlet  in  the  northern 
part  of  Caldwell  parish,  is  situated  on  the  Ouachita  river  and  the 
St.  Louis,  Iron  Mountain  &  Southern  R.  R.,  about  12  miles  north 
of  Columbia,  the  parish  seat. 

Blanque,  Jean,  a  native  of  New  Orleans  and  a  member  of  one  of 


108  LOUISIANA 

the  distiuguished  ereole  families,  was  one  of  the  committee  ap- 
pointed by  Laussat  to  meet  the  American  commissioners,  Claiborne 
and  Wilkinson,  in  Dec,  1803,  at  their  camp  2  miles  from  the  city 
and  escort  tlieiu  to  Lanssat's  house.  I\Ir.  Blanque  was  present  at 
the  ceremonies  of  the  transfer  of  Louisiana  to  the  United  States; 
was  active  in  promoting  the  common  weal  during  the  territorial 
days;  was  a  delegate  to  the  constitutional  convention  of  1811,  and 
helped  to  frame  the  organic  law  under  which  Louisiana  was  ad- 
mitted into  the  Union  as  a  state.  It  was  he  who  received  from 
Jean  Lafitte  and  delivered  to  Gov.  Claiborne  the  documents  giving 
the  information  of  the  intention  of  the  British  to  capture  the  city 
of  New  Orleans.  At  that  time  he  was  a  member  of  the  state  leg- 
islati;re  and  a  leader  in  the  house.  On  Sept.  15,  1814,  he  was  an 
active  participant  in  the  meeting  at  Tremoulet's  coffee-house,  was 
one  of  the  nine  members  of  the  committee  of  public  defense  ap- 
pointed at  that  meeting,  and  was  unremitting  in  liis  efforts  to  pro- 
tect the  city  from  the  invading  army.  On  Dec.  15,  1814,  he  intro- 
duced in  the  house  the  address  to  the  people  of  Louisiana,  calling 
upon  them  to  "Rush  to  arms,  enlist  promptly  under  the  banner  of 
Gen.  Jackson — of  that  brave  chief  who  is  to  command  you ;  give 
him  all  your  confidence ;  the  success  he  has  alreadv  obtained  as- 
sure yoti  that  to  march  under  his  standards  is  to  march  to  vic- 
tory." The  address  concludes:  "Your  representatives  have  sup- 
plied the  executive  with  all  the  pecuniary  means  which  he  required 
of  them  for  the  defense  of  the  state,  and  they  will  give  you  the 
example  of  devotion  which  they  expect  of  you.". 

Notwithstanding  these  patriotic  utterances  and  his  energy  in 
promoting  measures  for  the  protection  of  New  Orleans,  Mr.  Blan- 
que was  one  of  those  accused  of  treason  M'hen  the  rumor  became 
current  that  the  legislature  was  ready  to  capitulate  and  surrender 
the  city  to  the  enemy,  but  it  is  not  likely  that  there  was  any  real 
foundation  for  the  charge.  Jean  Lafitte  knew  him,  and  knew  his 
devotion  to  his  country,  when  he  entrusted  him  with  private  doc- 
uments, and  Marigny,  in  his  memoir,  pays  a  high  tribute  to  Mr. 
Blanque 's  integrity,  patriotism  and  courage. 

Blenk,  James  Hubert,  Roman  Catholic  archbishop,  was  born  in 
Neustadt,  Bavaria,  Aug.  6,  1856.  He  is  the  son  of  James  and 
Catherine  (Wiedemann')  Blenk,  and  received  his  education  at  St. 
James  college,  Baltimore,  and  at  Jefferson  college.  Convent,  La. 
After  completing  his- collegiate  studies  he  entered  the  Society  of 
St.  Mary,  in  1874,  and  took  a  course  of  theology  at  the  Alarist 
houses  of  studies  in  France  and  Ireland  and  a  course  at  the  Cath- 
olic university  of  Ireland  at  Dublin.  In  1885,  he  Avas  ordained 
priest,  and  the  same  year  was  appointed  to  a  professorship  at  Jef- 
ferson college,  Convent,  La.  He  served  as  a  professor  until  1S91, 
wnen  he  was  made  president  of  the  college,  holding  this  position 
until  1896.  The  next  year  he  became  rector  of  Holy  Name  of  St. 
Mary  cliureh  at  Algiers,  La.,  but  upon  being  appointed  auditor  to 
the  apostolic  delegation  to  Porto  Rico  and  Cuba,  in  1898,  he  left 
Ijouisiana.     On  July  2,  1899,  he  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Porto 


LOUISIANA  109 

Rico  and  performed  the  duties  of  this  office  until  made  archbishop 
of  New  Orleans,  July  2,  1906.  On  April  24,  1907,  he  received  the 
pallium.  Archbishop  Blenk  has  been  foremost  in  every  movement 
undertaken  for  the  moral  uplifting  of  the  people  of  Louisiana.  On 
April  13,  1909,  on  the  eve  of  his  departiire  for  Rome,  he  was  ten- 
dered a  reception  at  the  St.  Charles  hotel  under  the  auspices  of 
Mrs.  W.  J.  Behan  and  other  ladies  of  New  Orleans.  The  meeting 
was  largely  attended.  Charles  Janvier  presided,  and  addresses 
were  delivered  by  Judge  F.  A.  Monroe  in  the  name  of  the  non- 
Catholics,  and  by  Prof.  Alcee  Fortier  in  the  name  of  the  Catholics. 
Mrs.  Behan  presented  the  archbishop  a  large  Easter  egg  beautifully 
decorated,  containing  nearly  $2,000 — subscribed  by  the  Catholics 
of  the  city  to  defray  his  traveling  expenses. 

Blennerhasset,  Harmon,  who  figures  in  the  history  of  Louisiana 
only  because  of  his  connection  with  the  Burr  conspiracy,  was  born 
in  Ilampshire,  England,  of  Irish  parentage,  about  1767.  He  studied 
law  and  upon  the  death  of  his  father  inherited  about  $100,000.  He 
married  Margaret  Agnew,  daughter  of  the  governor  of  the  Isle  of 
Man,  and  in  1797  came  to  America.  For  a  short  time  he  lived  in 
New"  Yoi'k,  after  which  he  bought  an  island  of  174  acres  in  the 
Ohio  river  near  Parkersburg,  W.  Va.,  and  there  built  a  fine  resi- 
dence. This  island  had  once  been  the  property  of  George  Wash- 
ington, and  it  is  still  known  as  Blennerhasset 's  island.  In  1805  the 
island  home  was  visited  by  Aaron  Burr,  who  persuaded  the  owner 
to  join  in  the  scheme  for  the  liberation  of  Mexico  or  the  establish- 
ment of  an  empire  in  the  southwest.  (See  Burr  Conspiracy.)  Blen- 
nerhasset was  arrested  and  tried  at  Richmond,  Va.,  but  was  acquit- 
ted. He  then  bought  a  plantation  near  Port  Gibson,  Miss.,  and 
lived  there  until  1819.  He  died  at  the  home  of  a  sister  on  the  Isle 
of  Guernsey  in  1831 ;  his  wife  died  at  New  York  in  1842 ;  their 
eldest  son,  Dominie,  disappeared  from  St.  Louis  after  a  drunken 
debauch  and  was  never  heard  from  again;  Harmon,  the  second  son, 
died  in  extreme  poverty  in  New  York  in  1854,  and  the  youngest 
son,  Joseph,  died  in  Missouri  in  1862  while  serving  as  a  soldier  in 
the  Confederate  army. 

Blewett,  a  post-hamlet  and  station  in  the  western  part  of  Beau- 
regard parish,  is  on  a  branch  line  of  the  Kansas  City  Southern  R.  R., 
about  12  miles  northwest  of  De  Quincy,  and  10  miles  east  of  the 
Sabine  river,  in  tlie  lumber  district. 

Blind,  Institute  For. — Like  the  deaf  and  dumb  institute,  this  in- 
stitution is  located  at  Baton  Rouge,  and  was  established  for  the 
purpose  of  giving  to  every  blind  child  in  the  state  an  opportunity 
to  secure  the  benefits  of  an  education. 

The  school  is  required  by  law  to  receive  "all  persons  blind  or  of 
such  defective  vision  as  not  to  be  able  to  acquire  an  ediication  in 
the  ordinary  schools,  between  the  ages  of  seven  and  twenty-two 
and  of  sound  mind."  Board,  lodging,  medical  attendance,  tuition 
and  books  are  all  entirely  free,  and  to  those  who  are  too  poor  to 
provide  clothing  and  traveling  expenses,  the  institute  will  furnish 
them.     The  course  of  stiidy  is  based  upon  the  same  course  in  use 


110  LOUISIANA 

in  the  public  schools  of  the  state,  and  work  doue  iu  the  primary, 
grammar  and  high  school  grades  is  vei-y  nearly  the  same  as  that  of 
the  ordinary  school.  The  sense  of  touch  is  made  to  serve  in  place 
of  the  sense  of  sight,  and  the  intellect  is  reached  through  the  finger 
tips.  By  means  of  a  system  of  raised  dots  known  as  "New  York 
Point,"  the  pupils  readily  aecjuire  the  ability  to  read  from  books 
printed  in  these  characters,  and  also  a  facility  in  writing  the  point 
on  a  special  kind  of  tablet.  When  reading  and  writing  have  been 
learned,  the  pupil's  rate  of  progress  in  learning  depends,  as  else- 
where, upon  the  effort  and  industry  of  thff  individual.  Besides  the 
literary  course  tlie  pupils  are  taught  music  on  the  piano,  violin  and 
other  instruments,  with  the  purpose  of  fitting  them  for  the  position 
of  miisie  teachers.  Tlie  boys  are  taught,  as  trades,  piano  tuning, 
broom  making,  and  mattress  making.  ]Many  earn  a  good  living 
by  means  of  one  or  the  other  of  these  trades.  The  girls  are  taught 
the  use  of  the  sewing  machine,  and  instructed  in  needlework,  cro- 
cheting and  knitting. 

Blount  Conspiracy. — Prof.  F.  J.  Turner,  iu  his  introduction  to 
documents  relating  to  the  Blount  Conspiracy,  iu  the  American  His- 
torical Keview  for  April.  1905,  says:  "The  so-called  Blount  Con- 
spiracy must  be  considered  in  relation  to  the  designs  of  France 
upon  Louisiana ;  the  attitude  of  the  Tory  settlers  at  Natchez  and 
the  retention  of  the  Spanish  posts  upon  the  iMississippi ;  England's 
war  with  Spain  and  Jun*  attitude  toward  the  Mississippi  valley  from 
1795  to  1798;  Pitt's  negotiations  with  ^Miranda,  and  the  latter 's 
overtures  to  Adams,  Hamilton,  etc. ;  and  the  critical  relations  with 
France  during  Adams'  administration."  After  the  treaty  of  1783, 
Great  Britain  had  maintained  military  posts  within  the  limits  of 
the  territory  assigned  to  the  United  States,  and  insisted  upon  the 
right  to  make  treaties  with  the  Indians  as  independent  nations,  at 
liberty  to  give  their  allegiance  to  Em-opean  monarchs  if  they  might 
so  elect.  France,  taking  advantage  of  this  situation,  sent  agents 
to  the  frontier  to  induce  the  people  to  make  war  on  the  Spanish,  in 
the  hope  that  such  a  movement  would  lead  to  an  alliance  between 
France  and  tlie  United  States  against  Spain  and  England.  The 
project  failed,  however,  and  France  made  an  alliance  with  Spain. 

In  Oct.,  1796,  Gen.  Jean  Victor  CoUot,  one  of  the  emissaries  of 
France,  arrived  at  Natchez  and  aecpiainted  Gov.  Gayoso  with  a  plot 
on  the  part  of  the  British  and  Americans  to  dispossess  the  Span- 
iards of  the  territory  ea.st  of  the  Jlississippi  river.  About  a  month 
later  John  D.  Chisolm  escorted  a  party  of  Indian  chiefs  to  Phila- 
delphia, tlien  the  capital  of  the  United  States,  and  also  carried 
a  petitiou  signed  by  some  25  Britisli  sub.iects  living  among  the 
Indians,  asking  to  lie  made  naturalized  American  citizens,  etc. 
Chisolm  was  an  adventurer  who  had  come  to  America  with  the 
British  army  during  the  Kevolution.  When  Florida  was  ceded  to 
Spain  he  took  refuge  among  the  Indians,  subsequently  became  a 
trader  in  the  Ilolston  district,  and  was  a  loyal  friend  to  William 
Blount  while  the  latter  Mas  governor  of  "the  territoiy  of  the  United 
States  south  of  the  Oliio."    Upon  his  arrival  in  Philadeliiliia  he  was 


LOUISIANA  111 

not  received  with  as  much  respect  by  the  Federal  authorities  as  he 
felt  he  was  entitled  to,  and  in  his  pique  he  sought  out  Mr.  Liston, 
the  Britisli  minister,  to  whom  he  proposed  a  plan  of  attack  on  the 
Spanish  posts.  Liston  wrote  to  London  that,  according  to  the 
information  received  from  Chisolm,  "there  are  settled  among  these 
tribes  from  1,000  to  1,500  white  inhabitants,  principally  British 
sub.jects,  attached  to  their  country  and  sovereign,  and  ready  to 
enter  into  a  plan  for  the  recovery  of  the  Floridas  to  Great  Britain." 
Chisolm  afterward  stated  that  he  "communicated  the  plan  to  Col. 
William  Blount,  who  immediately  agreed  to  give  all  his  aid  and 
influence."  Blount  was  at  that  time  a  U.  S.  senator  from  the  State 
of  Tennessee,  and  it  was  in  this  way  his  name  became  connected 
with  the  conspiracy.  Two  months  later  Liston  sent  Chisolm  to 
London,  and  on  April  21,  1797,  Blount  wrote  a  letter  from  "Col. 
King's  iron  works"  on  the  Cumberland  river,  to  James  Carey,  a 
friend  of  Chisolm,  in  which  he  said:  "I  believe,  but  am  not  quite 
sure,  that  the  plan  then  talked  of  will  be  attempted  this  fall,  and, 
if  it  is  to  be  attempted,  it  will  be  in  a  much  larger  way  than  then 
talked  of;  and  if  the  Indians  act  their  part  I  have  no  doubt  but  it 
will  succeed.  A  man  of  consequence  has  gone  to  England  about 
the  business,  and  if  he  makes  arrangements  as  he  expects,  I  shall 
myself  have  a  hand  in  the  business  on  the  part  of  the  British.  You 
are,  however,  to  understand,  that  it  is  yet  not  quite  certain  that  the 
plan  will  be  attempted,  and  to  do  so  will  require  all  your  manage- 
ment; I  say,  will  require  all  your  management,  because  you  must 
take  care,  in  whatever  you  say  to  Rogers,  or  anybody  else,  not  to 
let  the  plan  be  discovered  by  Hawkins,  Dinsmoor,  Byers,  or  any 
other  person  in  the  interest  of  the  United  States  or  Spain." 

In  his  proclamation  of  June  14,  1797,  Gov.  Gayoso  intimated  the 
possibility  of  a  conflict  with  the  United  States,  and  about  the  same 
time  the  rumor  gained  credence  in  New  Orleans  that  'an  American 
and  British  military  force  might  at  any  time  descend  the  Missis- 
sippi and  attack  the  Spanish  posts.  Another  rumor  said  that  Chis- 
olm had  enlisted  1,000  Tennesseeans  for  the  same  purpose,  and 
that  he  had  "obtained  a  list  of  1,500  Tories  or  English  loyalists  of 
the  Natchez,  who  had  agreed  to  take  up  arms  in  favor  of  the  Eng- 
lish, whenever  they  appear  to  attack  lower  Louisiana  and  march 
on  Santa  Fe. "  This  report  also  said  that  6  pieces  of  artillery  orig- 
inally intended  for  the  expedition  of  Genet  were  ready  on  the  Ten- 
nessee river ;  that  the  Americans  would  rendezvous  at  Knoxville 
on  July  1 ;  that  a  British  force  was  to  come  from  Canada  to  aid 
the  movement ;  that  this  expedition  would  be  accompanied  by  2,000 
Indians  under  the  redoubtable  Brant;  and  that  several  members  of 
the  U.  S.  senate  were  connected  with  the  conspiracy.  Chisolm, 
who  seemed  to  know  more  about  the  affair  than  any  one  el^e,  sub- 
sequently told  his  story  of  the  scheme,  which  was  in  substance  as 
follows:  The  Tennesseeans,  Whitley's  men  from  Kentucky,  with 
the  Natchez  and  Choctaw  Indians  were  to  attack  New  Orleans, 
probably  under  the  command  of  Blount;  Chisolm  was  to  attack 
Pensacola  at  th'e  same  time  with  the  Creeks  and  Cherokees ;  and 


112  LOUISIANA 

Craig,  Mitchell  and  Brant  with  the  Canadians,  Indians  and  fron- 
tiersmen were  to  attack  New  Madrid.  The  letter  written  by  Blount 
to  Carey  was  intercepted  and  sent  to  President  Adams,  who  sub- 
mitted it  to  Congress  with  a  special  message  on  July  3.  1797.  In 
his  message  he  asserted  that  the  nation  was  in  a  critical  condition, 
that  there  was  a  conspiracy  to  wrest  New  Orleans  and  the  Floridas 
from  Spain  and  transfer  them  to  the  English  crown,  and  that 
Senator  Blount  had  been  engaged  in  a  coi-respondence  that  proved 
him  to  be  implicated  in  the  plot.  On  the  8th  Blount  was  expelled 
from  the  senate  by  a  vote  of  25  to  1,  Tazewell  of  Virginia  being  the 
only  one  to  cast  a  negative  vote.  The  charge  against  him  was 
"high  misdemeanor  entirely  inconsistent  with  his  public  trust  and 
duty." 

Yrujo,  the  Spanish  minister  at  Philadelphia,  with  whom  Bloimt 
had  been  all  the  time  a  "frequent  guest  and  intimate  companion," 
lost  no  time  in  communicating  with  Timothy  Pickering,  the  Fed- 
eral secretary  of  state,  demanding  the  immediate  punishment  of 
the  senator.  Mr.  Liston,  the  British  minister,  advised  that  the 
whole  matter  would  better  be  kept  quiet.  He  explained  the  pub- 
licity that  was  given  to  the  affair  by  the  fact  that  President  Adams 
was  constantly  accused  of  being  in  sympathy  with  the  Britisli  by 
the  Jefferson  party,  of  which  Blount  was  a  member.  Bloimt.  upon 
his  expulsion  from  the  senate,  returned  to  Tennessee,  where  he  was 
elected  to  the  legislature  and  became  president  of  the  senate.  The 
sergeant-at-arms  of  the  F.  S.  senate  went  to  Knoxville  to  arrest 
him  and  take  him  to  Philadelphia  for  trial  and  impeachment,  but 
he  refused  to  go  and  none  of  the  citizens  would  aid  the  officer  in 
making  the  arrest.  On  Jan.  14,  1799,  the  court  of  impeachment 
decided  by  a  vote  of  14  to  11  that  as  Blount  was  no  longer  a  mem- 
ber of  the  senate  it  had  no  jurisdiction.  Turner  says:  "From  the 
point  of  view  of  the  larger  diplomatic  problems,  the  most  tangible 
result  of  the  affair  was  the  retention  by  Spain  of  Natchez  and  the 
other  posts  east  of  the  Mississippi,  under  the  sincere  apprehension 
that  if  they  were  evacuated,  in  accordance  with  the  treaty  of  1795, 
a  clear  road  would  be  opened  for  the  British  into  Louisiana." 

Bluff  Creek,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  southeastern  portion  of  East 
Feliciana  parish,  is  situated  on  a  creek  of  the  same  name,  which 
flows  into  the  Amite  river  about  a  mile  southeast  of  the  village. 
It  is  8  miles  northeast  of  Pride,  the  nearest  railroad  station. 

Bluffs,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  southern  part  of  Bossier  parish,  is 
about  4  miles  south  of  Bodcau,  the  nearest  railroad  station,  and  8 
miles  southeast  of  Shreveport. 

Board  of  Liquidation. —  (See  Finances.  State.) 

Boarman,  Alexander,  lawyer  and  member  of  Congress,  was  born 
in  ^Mississippi  in  1830.  He  received  his  education  at  tlie  Kentucky 
military  institute  at  Frankfort,  Ky.,  after  which  he  studied  law  and 
began  practice  at  Slireveport.  He  was  elected  a  representative  to 
the  42nd  Congress  as  a  liberal,  in  place  of  James  McCleary,  de- 
ceased, and  served  from  Dec.  3,  1872,  to  March  3,  1873. 

Boatner,  a  post-hamlet  and  station  in  the  southern  part  of  Jack- 


LOUISIANA  113 

son  parish,  is  situated  at  the  junction  of  the  Tremont  &  Gulf  and 
Wyatt  &  Donovan  R.  Rs.,  and  about  12  miles  south  of  Vernon,  the 
parish  seat. 

Boatner,  Charles  J.,  lawyer  and  politician,  was  born  at  Columbia, 
Caldwell  parish,  La.,  Jan.  23,  1849 ;  studied  law  and  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  Jan.,  1870;  was  elected  a  member  of  the  state  senate 
in  1876,  but  resigned  in  May,  1878 ;  was  a  candidate  for  Congress 
in  1884,  but  was  defeated  by  Gen.  J.  Floyd  King,  who  was  the  in- 
cumbent at  the  time.  He  was  elected  to  the  51st,  52nd,  and  53d 
Congresses,  and  received  thfe  certificate  of  election  to  the  54th,  but 
his  seat  was  declared  vacant  March  20,  1896.  At  a  special  election 
held  June  10,  1896,  he  was  elected  to  the  short  term  of  the  54th 
Congress  as  a  Democrat.    He  died  March  21,  1903,  at  New  Orleans. 

Bob,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  southeastern  corner  of  Grant  parish, 
is  about  two  miles  west  of  Little  River  and  6  miles  southeast  of 
Pollock,  the  nearest  railroad  station. 

Bodcau,  a  village  in  the  southern  part  of  Bossier  parish,  is  a  sta- 
tion on  the  main  line  of  the  Vieksburg,  Shreveport  &  Pacific  R.  R., 
about  12  miles  east  of  Shreveport.  It  has  a  money  order  postoffice, 
an  express  office,  and  is  a  trading  center  for  the  neighborhood. 

Boeuf  River,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  northeastern  part  of  Caldwell 
parish,  is  situated  on  the  river  of  the  same  name,  about  5  miles 
northeast  of  Riverton,  the  nearest  railroad  station,  and  9  miles 
northeast  of  Columbia,  the  parish  seat. 

Bogalusa,  the  newest  and  one  of  the  important  cities  in  the  state 
is  located  in  the  eastern  part  of  Washington  parish  about  a  mile 
west  of  the  Pearl  river,  on  the  New  Orleans  Great  Northern  R.  R., 
and  about  20  miles  southeast  of  Franklinton,  the  parish  seat,  in 
the  very  heart  of  the  heavily  wooded  yellow  pine  belt.  It  was 
named  from  the  "Bogue  Lusa,"  a  small  stream,  on  both  banks  of 
which  the  town  is  built,  and  the  name  contracted  to  Bogalusa. 
About  1904  the  Goodyears  of  Buffalo,  and  other  eastern  capitalists, 
began  to  acquire  immense  tracts  of  timberland  in  Tangipahoa, 
"Washington  and  St.  Tammanj'  parishes,  and  up  into  Pike  and 
Marion  counties.  Miss.  After  securing  several  thousand  acres,  the 
Great  Southern  Lumber  company  was  organized,  and  cooperated 
with  others,  holding  control  of  a  few  miles  of  railroad  known  as 
the  Eastern  Louisiana  R.  R.,  in  operation  between  the  Pearl  river 
and  Covington.  This  led  to  the  organization  of  the  New  Orleans 
Great  Northern  R.  R.,  and  in  1906  the  main  line  was  built  through 
Bogalusa  from  Slidell.  The  transportation  problem  having  been 
solved,  as  well  as  the  water  facilities  provided  by  the  Pearl  river, 
the  mill  and  town  site  was  selected  midway  in  the  company's  hold- 
ings, giving  them  access  on  all  sides  to  their  timber.  At  that  time 
the  ground  upon  which  Bogalusa  stands  was  unbroken  forest,  today 
it  is  a  growing  town  with  over  1,500  inhabitants.  Lumbering  is  the 
principal  industry.  The  company  has  built  the  largest  saw-mill 
under  one  roof  in  the  world,  and  the  product  of  the  mill  is  a  for- 
tune in  itself.  At  present  Bogalusa  is  a  saw-mill  settlement,  though 
far  ahead  of  many  old  Louisiana  towns  in  population  and  modern 
1—8 


114  -  LOUISIANA 

improvements.  Tlie  First  National  bank  of  Bogalusa  lias  a  paid 
up  capital  of  $25,000,  ami  has  the  honor  of  being  the  first  national 
bank  instituted  in  Washington  parish.  Bogalusa  has  a  newspaper, 
two  hotels — the  Workingman's  hotel  for  the  employes  and  a  hotel 
intended  for  a  resort,  as  Bogalusa  is  in  the  famous  "Ozone  belt," 
an  ice  factory,  a  modern  80-room  hospital  biiilt  at  a  cost  of  $35,000, 
for  the  uses  of  the  company's  employes,  as  well  as  the  general  com- 
munity, a  model  schoolhouse,  costing  $25,000  and  employing  5 
teachers,  a  colored  school,  as  well  as  up-to-date  water,  sewerage 
and  lighting  plant  systems.  One  of  the  most  important  industries 
is  the  pulp  and  paper  mill,  which  can  use  the  immense  quantities  of 
material  on  every  hand.     July  4,  1914,  it  became  a  city. 

Boisblanc,  Pierre  Hardy  de,  a  successful  planter  and  influential 
citizen  of  Louisiana  aliout  the  close  of  the  French  domination,  was 
a  member  of  the  superior  council  that  issued  the  order  for  the  ex- 
pulsion of  Gov.  I'lloa  from  the  colony,  and  was  otherwise  active  in 
the  Kevolution  of  1768.  For  his  participation  in  this  event  he  was 
arrested  by  order  of  Gov.  O'Keilly  on  Aug.  21,  1769;  was  tried 
and  convicted,  and  sentenced  to  six  years'  imprisonment.  He  was 
taken  to  Havana  and  confined  in  ^lorro  Castle,  wliere  he  remained 
until  1771,  when  all  the  prisoners  sentenced  as  conspirators  in  the 
revolution  were  liberated  through  the  intercession  of  the  French 
government. 

Boisbriant,  Sieur  de,  who  administered  the  affairs  of  the  colony 
for  something  less  than  a  .vear,  between  the  departure  of  Bienville 
for  France  in  1725,  and  the  arrival  of  Gov.  Perier  in  1726.  was  one 
of  the  prominent  men  connected  with  the  early  .vears  of  Louisiana. 
He  tirst  arrived  in  the  colony  on  Dec.  7,  1699,  witli  a  commission  as 
major  at  Fort  IMaiu-epas,  and  was  left  in  command  of  a  small  gar- 
rison at  the  fort  when  Bienville  removed  his  headquarters  to 
Mobile  in  1702.  He  was  a  cousin  of  Bienville,  who  employed  him 
in  many  important  and  dangerous  services,  was  a  brave  and  valiant 
oiBcer  and  served  the  colony  altogether  for  some  25  years.  He  was 
later  sent  by  Bienville  to  take  command  in  the  Illinois  district, 
where  he  established  the  strong  post  on  the  Mississippi,  later  known 
as  Fort  Chartres.  His  services  were  rewarded  with  the  cross  of 
St.  Louis,  brought  him  by  Director-General  Duvergier.  July  15, 
1721,  and  he  also  held  the  oflSce  of  king's  lieutenant  and  was  a 
member  of  the  superior  council  of  the  colony.  He  came  down  from 
the  Illinois  and  served  as  governor  ad  interim,  M'heu  Bienville  was 
recalled  to  France  in  1724,  owing  to  the  machinations  of  his  ene- 
mies in  the  province.  Boisbriant,  a  little  later,  suffered  the  same 
fate,  the  chief  instrument  in  his  downfall  being  the  commis.sary, 
De  la  Chaise,  who  had  been  sent  to  the  colony  in  1723  by  the  India 
company,  "to  exercise  inquisitorial  powers  over  the  affairs  of  Lou- 
i.siana,  and  to  report  on  the  conduct  of  the  administrators  of  the 
colony  to  the  government"  (Gayarre). 

Boleyn,  a  post-hamlet  near  the  western  boundary  of  Natchi- 
toches parish,  is  a  station  on  tlie  Texas  &  Pacific  R.  R.,  about  20 
miles  west  of  Natchitoches,  the  parish  seat. 


LOUISIANA  115 

Bolinger,  a  village  in  the  northern  portion  of  Bossier  parish,  is  a 
station  on  the  main  line  of  the  St.  Louis  Southwestern  R.  R.,  about 
•4  miles  south  of  the  Arkansas  line.  It  has  a  money  order  postoffice, 
an  express  office,  and  is  the  trading  center  for  a  considerable  dis- 
trict.    The  population  is  300. 

Bolivar,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  northern  part  of  Tangipahoa  parish, 
is  a  station  on  the  Kentwood  &  Eastern  R.  R.,  and  is  about  12 
miles  northeast  of  Amite,  the  parish  seat. 

Bolton,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  northern  part  of  Vernon  parish,  is 
situated  on  the  Quelqueshoe,  about  10  miles  south  of  Jerguson,  the 
nearest  railroad  station. 

Bonami,  a  village  in  Beauregard  parish,  is  a  station  on  the  Kan- 
sas City  Southern  R.  R.,  about  5  miles  south  of  De  Ridder.  It  has 
a  money  order  postoffice,  express  and  telegraph  offices,  and  is  a 
shipping  point  of  some  consequence.     Population  300. 

Bonaparte,  Lucien,  Prince  de  Canino,  a  brother  of  Napoleon,  was 
born  at  Ajaccio.  Corsica,  in  ]\Iarch,  1775.  He  was  educated  at  the 
college  of  Autun  and  the  military  school  of  Brienne ;  was  elected 
to  the  council  of  500  in  April,  1798 ;  and  after  the  return  of  Napo- 
leon from  Egypt  became  president  of  that  body.  In  Dec,  1799,  he 
was  appointed  minister  of  the  interior,  and  in  Nov.,  1800,  was  sent 
as  ambassador  to  Spain.  At  Madrid  he  negotiated  the  treaty  of 
March  21,  1801,  modifying  the  treaty  of  the  previous  October, 
which  receded  the  province  of  Louisiana  to  Prance  and  gave  the 
duchy  of  Tuscany  to  the  Duke  of  Parma,  who  was  to  receive  the 
title  of  King  of  Etruria.  On  Oct.  15,  1802,  Charles  IV.  of  Spain 
signed  Bonaparte's  treaty  on  condition  that  "France  must  pledge 
herself  not  to  alienate  Louisiana,  and  to  restore  it  to  Spain  in  case 
the  King  of  Etruria  should  lose  his  power."  It  was  under  this 
arrangement  that  Spain  opposed  ,the  transfer  of  Louisiana  to  the 
United  States  a  year  later.  In  1804  Lucien  Bonaparte  became  an 
exile  at  Rome,  and  some  years  later  was  ordered  to  quit  the  con- 
tinent of  Europe.  In  1810  he  embarked  for  the  United  States,  but 
on  the  voyage  was  captured  by  an  English  cruiser  and  held  a  pris- 
oner in  that  country  until  1814.  After  the  abdication  of  his  brother 
he  advocated  the  claims  of  Napoleon  II,  after  whicli  he  retired  to 
Italy  and  there  devoted  the  remainder  of  his  life  to  literary  pur- 
suits.   He  died  at  Rome  in  1840. 

Bonaparte,  Napoleon,  one  of  the  greatest  generals  in  history, 
was  born  at  Ajaccio,  Corsica,  Aug.  15,  1769.  Before  he  was  ten 
years  old  he  entered  the  military  school  at  Brienne,  France,  where 
he  remained  for  over  five  years,  when  he  went  to  Paris,  completed 
his  education  in  the  military  school  of  that  city,  and  in  Sept.,  1785, 
entered  the  army  as  a  lieutenant  of  artillery.  Napoleon  first  came 
into  notice  on  Oct.  5,  1794,  when,  at  the  head  of  5,000  troops,  he 
crushed  30,000  of  the  national  guards  in  an  hoiu-'s  time.  Larned 
says:  "That  was  the  opening  hour  of  his  career."  He  then  led  an 
expedition  to  Egypt,  but  in  Oct.,  1799,  he  returned  to  Paris,  formed 
an  alliance  with  Sieyes,  a  veteran  revolutionist,  and  accomplished 
the  overthrow  of  the  -directory.     On  Nov.  9,  1799,  he  was  chosen 


116  LOUISIANA 

first  consul  under  a  new  constitution,  -with  power  that  was  almost 
absolute.  The  next  two  years  he  devoted  to  the  recovery  of  Italy 
and  the  humiliation  of  Austria,  the  most  noted  battle  of  the  cam- 
paign being  that  of  Jlarengo,  which  was  fought  on  June  1-1,  1800, 
and  resulted  in  the  complete  defeat  of  the  Austrian  army.  Simul- 
taneously with  the  establishment  of  his  power  in  Europe  he  under- 
took the  work  of  regaining  some  of  the  French  possessions  in  Amer- 
ica. He  persuaded  Charles  IV.  of  Spain  that  if  Louisiana  belonged 
to  Prance  it  would  stand  as  a  bulwark  between  ]\Iexaco  and  the 
United  States,  and  would  also  serve  as  a  protection  to  Spanish 
commerce  on  the  Gulf  of  j\Iexico.  The  consequence  was  that  the 
province  was  receded  to  France  by  the  treaty  of  St.  Udefonso, 
which  was  concluded  on  Oct.  1,  1800.  (See  Treaties.)  Napoleon's 
next  step  was  to  provide  a  thorough  system  of  government  for  the 
colony.  The  principal  officials  under  this  s.ystem  of  government, 
with  their  salaries,  were  a  captain-general,  70,000  francs;  a  colonial 
prefect,  50,000  francs:  a  grand  judge,  36,000  francs;  and  a  sub-pre- 
fect for  Upper  Louisiana,  6,075  francs.  He  also  had  struck  270 
silver  medals  for  the  chiefs  of  the  Indian  tribes  at  a  cost  of  8,792 
francs.  His  power  over  Louisiana  was  of  short  dxiration.  Spain 
delayed  in  making  the  transfer;  Napoleon  failed  to  reestablish 
French  authority  in  the  island  of  St.  Domingo :  he  also  became  in- 
A^olved  in  other  colonial  troiibles;  a  war  with  England  Avas  im- 
minent, and  he  foresaw  that  in  the  contest  his  American  colony 
would  probably  be  wrested  from  him  by  Great  Britain.  At  this 
crisis  in  his  career  the  United  States  made  overtures  for  the  pur- 
chase of  that  part  of  Louisiana  lying  east  of  the  Jlississippi  river, 
and  the  negotiations  ended  by  the  transfer  of  the  entire  province 
to  the  latter  country.  (See  Louisiana  Purchase.")  lu  relinquishing 
Louisiana  to  the  United  States  Napoleon  dictated  the  third  article 
of  the  treaty,  which  provided  for  the  admission  of  the  inhabitants 
into  the  Union  "with  all  the  rights,  advantages  and  immunities  of 
citizens  of  the  United  States,"  etc.  When  the  cession  was  com- 
pleted he  said:  "Let  Louisianians  know  that  we  part  from  them 
Avith  regret ;  that  we  stipulate  in  their  favor  everything  that  thej" 
can  desire,  and  let  them  hereafter,  happy  in  their  independence, 
recollect  that  they  have  been  Frenchmen,  and  tliat  France,  in  ced- 
ing them,  has  secured  for  them  advantages  which  they  could  not 
have  obtained  from  a  European  power,  however  paternal  it  might 
have  been.  Let  them  retain  for  us  sentiments  of  affection;  and 
may  their  common  origin,  descent,  language  and  customs  perpetu- 
ate the  friendship." 

On  Aug.  2,  1802,  Napoleon  was  made  consul  for  life  by  a  decree 
of  the  senate.  On  IMay  18,  1804,  he  assumed  the  title  of  emperor, 
and  on  Dee.  2,  following,  he  compelled  the  pope  to  crown  him  as 
Napoleon  I,  in  the  ancient  cathedral  of  Notre  Dame.  On  Jlay  26, 
1805,  he  was  crowned  king  of  Italy  in  the  cathedral  of  ililan.  To 
follow  in  detail  his  movements  during  the  next  ten  years  would 
require  a  large  volume.  The  fatal  expedition  to  Russia  in  1812 
marked  the  beginning  of  his  downfall.    In  March,  1814,  he  signed 


LOUISIANA  117 

an  act  of  abdication  and  retired  to  the  island  of  Elba,  of  which  he 
was  to  have  the  sovereignty,  with  the  title  of  emperor  and  an 
annual  allowance  of  6,000,000  francs.  But  he  soon  grew  tired  of 
the  life  of  inaction.  On  March  1,  1815,  he  landed  in  France,  near 
Frejus ;  his  old  troops  deserted  the  Bourbons  in  a  body  and  flocked 
to  his  standard ;  in  Paris  he  was  again  received  as  emperor  of 
France,  and  with  an  army  of  125,000  men  he  marched  against  the 
allied  armies  of  England  and  Prussia.  The  battle  of  Waterloo, 
June  18,  1815,  completed  his  overthrow.  Upon  his  return  to  Paris 
the  house  of  representatives  demanded  his  unconditional  abdica- 
tion. On  the  22nd  he  did  abdicate  in  favor  of  his  son.  Napoleon  II, 
but  the  representatives  further  demanded  that  he  leave  France 
forever,  and  he  began  making  his  preparations  to  embark  for 
America.  On  July  7  the  allies  took  possession  of  Paris,  and  Napo- 
leon, finding  escape  impossible,  surrendered  to  Capt.  Maitland  of 
the  British  vessel  Bellerophon.  He  was  sentenced  by  the  English 
government  to  confinement  for  life  on  the  lonely  island  of  St. 
Helena,  where  he  died  on  May  5,  1821. 

Bond,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  northeastern  part  of  Calcasieu  parish, 
is  about  5  miles  southeast  of  Hewitt,  the  nearest  railroad  station. 

Bonded  Debt. —  (See  Finances,  State.) 

Bonfouca,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  southeastern  part  of  St.  Tam- 
many parish,  is  about  4  miles  west  of  Salmens,  the  nearest  railroad 
station,  and  al)out  the  same  distance  north  of  Lake  Poutchartrain. 

Bonita,  a  village  and  station  in  the  northern  portion  of  More- 
house parish,  is  a  station  on  the  St.  Louis,  Iron  Mountain  &  South- 
ern K.  R.,  about  6  miles  south  of  the  Arkansas  state  line,  and  15 
miles  northeast  of  Bastrop,  the  parish  seat.  It  has  a  money  order 
postoffice,  1  free  rural  mail  route,  an  express  office,  telephone  and 
telegraph  facilities,  and  a  population  of  273. 

Bonzano,  Maxmilian  F.,  physician,  politician  and  planter,  was 
born  in  the  city  of  Ehningen,  Germany,  March  21,  1821.  In  1835 
he  came  with  his  father  and  brother  to  New  Orleans,  where  he  was 
employed  in  a  printing  office  until  the  yellow  fever  epidemic  of 
1837,  wlien  tlie  father  took  his  two  sons  to  Houston,  Tex.  Subse- 
quently they  returned  to  New  Orleans  and  "Max"  resumed  work 
in  the  printing  office  until  he  had  leai-ned  the  English  language 
sufficiently  well  to  become  a  clerk  in  a  drug  store,  and  while  em- 
ployed in  this  capacity  he  took  up  the  study  of  medicine.  In  1843 
he  entered  the  Charity  hospital  as  a  student,  graduated,  and  was  a 
visiting  physician  to  that  iustitution  until  1848,  when  he  was  ap- 
pointed by  President  Polk  to  the  position  of  melter  and  refiner  of 
the  mint.  Here  he  remained  until  the  breaking  out  of  the  war  in 
1861,  when,  being  opposed  to  secession,  he  went  north  and  remained 
until  after  the  occupation  of  New  Orleans  by  the  Federal  forces 
in  the  spring  of  1862.  He  tlieu  returned  to  that  city  and  in  the  fall 
of  1864  was  elected  to  represent  the  1st  district  in  Congress.  His 
seat  was  contested,  and,  although  a  majority  of  the  committee  re- 
ported in  his  favor,  the  opposition  was  strong  enough  to  prevent  a 
vote  on  the  report.     On  the  last  day  of  the  session  he  was  voted 


118  LOUISIANA 

.$2,000  to  cover  his  expenses  of  the  contest.  After  the  war  he  held 
several  official  positions,  but  iu  1883  retired  to  private  life  and  took 
up  his  residence  on  a  plantation,  which  he  had  purchased  in  1878, 
on  the  Mississippi  river,  near  Chalmette,  the  old  mansion  on  the 
plantation  having  been  Gen.  Jackson's  headquarters  at  the  time 
of  the  battle  of  New  Orleans. 

Bordelonville,  a  village  in  the  eastern  part  of  Avoyelles  parish, 
is  a  station  on  the  line  of  the  Louisiana  Kaihvay  &  Navigation  com- 
pany, about  12  miles  southeast  of  IMarksville,  the  parish  seat.  It 
has  a  money  order  postofBce  and  a  population  of  175. 

Bore,  Jean  Etienne  de,  the  pioneer  sugar  manufacturer  of  Louisi- 
ana, was  born  at  Kaskaskia.  Dee.  27.  1741,  a  deseendent  of  an  old 
Norman  family,  one  of  his  ancestors,  Kobert  de  Bore,  having  been 
one  of  the  councilors  of  Louis  XIV.  In  his  bojiiood  he  was  sent 
to  France  to  be  educated,  and  upon  lea^•ing  school  became  one  of 
the  king's  mouscjuetaires.  In  1768  he  returned  to  Louisiana  to  see 
about  some  property  there,  but  went  back  to  France  and  was  com- 
missioned a  captain  of  cavah-y.  In  1771  he  married  a  daughter  of 
Destrehan,  who  had  been  at  one  time  treasurer  of  Louisiana  under 
the  French  domination,  and  settled  on  a  plantation  iu  St.  Charles 
parish,  about  6  miles  above  the  city  of  New  Orleans,  where  he 
devoted  his  attention  to  indigo  culture.  This  business  proved  to 
be  unremunerative  and  in  1794  he  turned  his  attention  to  sugar. 
Notwithstanding  tlie  advice  of  his  friends  he  planted  a  crop  of  cane, 
and  while  it  was  growing  built  a  mill  for  converting  the  crop  into 
sugar.  Others  had  failed  in  tliis  effort,  but  in  1795  he  succeeded, 
selling  that  year  $12,000  worth  of  sugar,  an  event  that  revolution- 
ized the  agriculture  of  the  delta.  He  was  subsequently  mayor  of 
New  Orleans  under  the  Laussat  regime ;  was  a  member  of  the  tirst 
territorial  legislature:  and  was  one  of  those  who  agreed  to  be  re- 
sponsible for  $10,000  to  reimburse  Gen.  Yillere  to  that  amount 
for  the  defense  of  New  Orleans  if  the  legislatiu-e  failed  to  do  so. 
He  died  iu  1819. 

Borgne,  Lake. — (See  Lake  Borgne.) 

Bosco,  a  village  in  the  extreme  southeastern  part  of  Ouachita 
parish,  is  a  station  on  the  St.  Louis,  Iron  ^Vlouutaiu  &  Southern 
R.  R.,  about  15  miles  south  of  ^lonroe,  the  parish  seat.  It  has  a 
money  order  postoffice  and  a  population  of  about  50. 

Bossier,  a  village  in  the  western  part  of  the  parish  of  the  same 
name,  is  a  station  on  the  line  of  the  Louisiana  Railway  &  Naviga- 
tion company,  the  St.  Louis  Southwestern  and  the  Vicksburg, 
Shreveport  &  Pacific  R.  Rs.,  just  across  the  Red  river  from  Shreve- 
port.  It  has  a  money  order  postoffice,  express  offices,  some  good 
mercantile  establishments,  and  a  population  of  775. 

Bossier  Parish  was  established  Feb.  24,  1843.  It  was  settled 
subsequent  to  1828  by  immigration  from  the  South  Atlantic  states 
and  ^lississippi.  Prior  to  1828,  when  Claiborne  parish  was  created, 
all  this  territory  belonged  to  Natchitoches,  one  of  the  original  19 
parishes  created  by  the  territorial  legislature  in  1807.  From  1828 
to  1843  Bossier  was  a  part  of  Claiborne.     The  first  session  of  the 


LOUISIANA  119 

parish  jury  was  held  June  19,  1843.  The  parish  seat  was  established 
at.  Fredonia  the  same  year,  but  the  name  of  the  town  was  changed 
to  Society  Hill  and  finally  to  Bellevue  before  the  end  of  the  year. 
In  Sept.,  1888,  an  election  was  held  to  determine  the  removal  of 
the  parish  seat  to  Benton,  but  it  was  not  removed  for  some  time 
afterward.  Judge  William  K.  Beck  opened  the  first  term  of  the 
parish  court  on  Sept.  25j  1843,  N.  C.  Copes  was  temporary  clerk, 
and  J.  B.  Lowry  the  first  sheriff.  All  the  business  of  the  district 
appears  to  have  been  transacted  by  the  parish  court,  until  Nov. 
16,  1846,  when  Edward  R.  Olcott,  judge  of  the  17th  district,  opened 
court.  Bossier  is  situated  in  the  northwestern  part  of  the  state ; 
is  bounded  on  the  north  by  tlie  State  of  Arkansas;  on  the  east 
by  Webster  and  Bienville  parishes ;  on  the  south  by  Red  River 
parish,  and  on  the  west  by  Caddo  parish,  from  which  it  is  separated 
by  the  Red  river.  The  parish  has  an  undulating  surface  of  832 
square  miles,  and  belongs  to  the  "good  upland"  parishes.  It  may 
be  divided  into  three  parts,  oak  uplands,  redlands  and  bottom  lands. 
The  soil  is  varied  but  good,  a  part  being  of  alluvial  formation.  The 
uplands  between  the  Red  river  bottoms  and  Lake  Bistineau  are 
known  as  "the  points."  This  tract  produces  in  great  abundance, 
while  the  Red  river  bottoms  are  the  richest  cotton  lands  in  the 
state.  The  "post-oak  flats,"  which  extend  north  from  "the  points" 
to  the  Arkansas  line,  are  cultivated  and  in  the  southern  portion 
there  is  a  large  tract  of  rolling  prairie.  The  hills  are  rich,  produc- 
tive and  well  timliered.  The  forests  are  largely  oak,  pine,  cypress, 
walnut,  gum,  beech,  holly,  hickory,  sycamore,  poplar  and  cotton- 
wood.  The  parish  is  drained  liy  Bodcaii  lake  in  the  central  part, 
and  by  the  Red  river  and  its  many  tril>utaries.  Bossier  is  one  of 
the  finest  cotton  divisions  of  the  south  and  is  conspicuously  a  cotton 
parish.  Besides  this  great  staple  it  prodvices  corn,  hay,  alfalfa, 
oats,  sugar-cane,  both  varieties  of  potatoes  and  all  the  fruits  and 
vegetables  common  to  this  latitude  and  region.  Prom  Rocky  point 
northward  there  is  a  heavy  deposit  of  iron  ore,  considerable  ore 
is  also  found  near  Bellevue,  near  wliich  there  is  a  brown  coal  belt 
about  30  miles  long,  and  as  early  as  1861  salt  works  were  in  opera- 
tion at  Lake  Bistineau.  The  Vicksburg,  Shreveport  &  Pacific  R.  R. 
traverses  the  southern  part  of  the  parish,  running  east  from  Shreve- 
port ;  the  St.  Louis  Southwestern  enters  the  northern  boundary  near 
Arkana,  and  runs  south  through  Benton  to  Shreveport;  the  Louisi- 
ana Railway  &  Navigation  company's  line  runs  southeast  from 
Shreveport  along  the  Red  river,  and  the  Minden,  East  &  West 
R.  R.  is  building  a  line  northeast  from'  Shreveport.  Cheap  trans- 
portation is  afi'orded  by  steaml)oats  on  tlie  Red  river.  Besides 
Benton,  the  parish  seat,  the  most  important  towns  are :  Alden 
Bridge,  Allentown,  Antrim,  Atkins,  Vanceville,  Bolinger,  Haugh- 
ton,  Bellevue,  Plain  Dealing  and  Rocky  Mount. 

The  following  statistics  concerning  farms,  manufactures  and 
population  are  taken  from  the  U.  S.  census  for  1910:  Niimber  of 
farms,  3,373 ;  acreage;  248,914 ;  acres  under  cultivation,  128,053 ; 
value  of  land  and  improvements  exclusive  of  buildings,  $3,594,846 ; 


120  LOUISIANA 

value  of  farm  buildings,  $951,751;  value  of  live  stock,  $912,248; 
total  value  of  all  crops,  $1,595,937.  The  population  is  21,738.  The 
recent  discovery  of  oil  and  natural  gas  in  this  section  of  the  state 
has  added  to  the  importance  of  Bossier  parish,  and  the  next  census 
will  doubtless  show  a  much  larger  percentage  of  increase,  both  in 
population  and  wealth. 

Bossier,  Pierre  Evariste,  member  of  Congress,  wa.s  a  native  of 
Louisiana,  of  a  Creole  family  which  was  among  the  first  to  settle 
in  the  French  colony.  He  received  a  classical  education  and  be- 
came a  politician.  After  serving  for  10  years  in  the  state  legis- 
lature, he  was  elected  a  representative  from  Louisiana  to  the  28th 
Congress  as  a  Calhoun  Democrat  by  a  large  majority  and  served 
from  Dec.  4,  1843,  until  his  death,  which  occurred  at  Washington, 
D.  C,  April  24,  1844. 

Boudreaux,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  central  part  of  Terrebonne  par- 
ish, is  situated  on  the  western  shore  of  Lake  Quitman,  about  12 
miles  south  of  Houma,  the  parish  seat  and  most  convenient  railroad 
station. 

Bougere,  a  village  in  the  southeastern  part  of  Concordia  parish, 
is  on  the  Mississippi  river  and  a  station  on  the  Texas  &  Pacific 
R.  R.  It  has  a  money  order  postoflSce  and  is  a  shipping  point  of 
some  importance. 

Boughton,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  southeastern  part  of  Richland 
parish,  is  on  Little  creek,  about  10  miles  southwest  of  Mangham, 
the  uearest  railroad  station. 

Bouligny,  Dominique,  United  States  senator  from  Louisiana,  was 
born  in  Louisiana  and  was  the  son  of  Francisco  Bouligny,  who  came 
to  Louisiana  with  O'Reilly.  He  was  educated  in  tlie  public  schools; 
studied  law  and  practiced  in  New  Orleans ;  was  elected  U.  S.  sena- 
tor from  Louisiana  (in  place  of  Henry  Johnson,  resigned").  He 
served  from  Dec.  21,  1824,  to  March  3,  1829 ;  died  at  New  Orleans, 
La.,  :\larch  5,  1833. 

Bouligny,  Francisco,  soldier,  was  born  at  Alicant,  Spain,  March 
5,  1735.  The  family  originally  came  from  Milan,  where  the  name 
was  spelled  "Bolognini,"  but  one  of  the  ancestors  of  Francisco 
was  captured  by  the  French,  which  led  to  a  change  in  the  orthogra- 
phy. At  the  age  of  18  years,  Francisco  entered  the  Spanish  service 
as  a  cadet,  and  in  1762  he  was  ordered  with  his  regiment  to  Havana. 
His  first  appearance  in  Louisiana  was  in  the  summer  of  1769,  when 
he  came  with  Gov.  O'Reilly.  He  carried  the  letter  of  O'Reilly 
from  the  Balize  to  New  Orleans,  notifying  Aubi'y  of  the  arrival  of 
the  Spanish  fleet.  When  O'Reilly  left  the  province  Bouligny  re- 
mained at  New  Orleans  at  the  head  of  his  regiment,  having  mar- 
ried earlier  in  tlie  year,  1770,  Louise  d'Aiiberville,  daughter  of  the 
marine  commissioner  of  Louisiana.  He  served  witli  Galvez  in  the 
campaigns  against  Baton  Rouge,  IMobile  and  Pensacola  in  1779-81, 
during  the  conquest  of  West  Florida,  and  rose  to  the  rank  of  briga- 
dier-general. He  was  for  a  short  time  acting-governor  at  the  death 
of  Gayoso  de  Lemos  in  1799.  Prior  to  that  time  (in  1776)  he  wrote 
a  memoir  entitled:     "Notice  of  the  actual  state  of  the  commerce 


LOUISIANA  121 

and  popiilation  of  New  Orleans  and  Spanish  Louisiana,  and  the 
means  of  advancing  that  province,  which  is  presented  to  his  Catho- 
lic Majesty  through  his  Minister  of  the  Indies,  the  most  illustrious 
Don  Josef  de  Galvez,  with  the  greatest  respect,  by  Don  Francisco 
Bouligny,  Captain  of  the  Battalion  of  Infantry  of  that  province." 
He  died  at  New  Orleans  on  Nov.  25,  1800,  and  of  all  the  Spanish 
officers  who  were  on  duty  at  various  times  in  Louisiana,  none  left 
a  more  honored  name  than  Francisco  Bouligny. 

Bouligny,  John  Edmund,  lawyer  and  memljcr  of  Congress,  was 
born  at  New  Orleans,  Feb.  25,  1824.  He  was  a  nephew  of  Domi- 
nique Bouligny ;  received  his  education  in  the  public  schools ;  stud- 
ied law  and  began  practice  in  New  Orleans ;  held  several  local  of- 
fices before  he  was  elected  a  representative  from  Louisiana  to  the 
36th  Congress  as  a  National  American,  and  was  the  only  represen- 
tative from  the  seceding  states  who  did  not  leave  his  seat.  His 
death  occurred  at  Washington,  D.  C,  Feb.  20,  1864. 

Boullemet,  Virgil,  first  president  of  the  New  Orleans  Howard 
association,  was  born  in  that  city  in  1820,  his  father  being  a  native 
of  France.  Wlien  the  Howard  association  was  organized  in  1837, 
he  was  elected  president,  though  only  17  years  of  age  at  the  time. 
He  was  active  in  the  yellow  fever  epidemics  of  that  and  svicceeding 
years,  and  in  1853  was  made  a  member  of  the  board  of  health  and 
chairman  of  several  of  its  most  important  committees.  Much  of 
the  subsequent  good  accomplished  by  the  Howard  association  was 
due  to  the  start  given  it  by  its  boy  president,  whose  name  is  still 
well  remembered  by  the  survivors  of  those  early  epidemics. 

Boundaxies. — A  volume  might  be  written  on  the  changes  in  the 
boundaries  of  the  French  possessions  in  America  under  the  name 
of  Louisiana,  from  the  time  La  Salle  laid  claim  to  all  the  country 
drained  by  the  Mississippi  in  1682  until  the  final  adju.stment  in  1819. 
At  the  Louisiana  Purchase  exposition,  held  at  St.  Louis  in  1904, 
the  U.  S.  general  land  office  bad  on  exhibition  a  series  of  maps, 
showing  the  boundaries  at  various  periods  of  history.  Map  No.  1, 
embracing  the  territory  claimed  by  La  Salle,  shows  the  eastern 
boundary  beginning  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  of  Palms  on  the 
western  coast  of  Florida  (near  what  is  now  Sarasota  bay),  and 
extending  northward  by  an  irregular  line  along  the  watershed 
between  the  streams  flowing  into  the  Atlantic  and  those  flowing 
westward  into  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  or  the  Gulf  of  Mexico ;  the 
northern  boundary  was  also  an  irregular  line,  dividing  the  basin 
of  the  great  lakes  from  the  Mississippi  valley,  and  extending  in  a 
northwesterly  direction  from  a  point  near  the  present  city  of  Buf- 
falo, N.  Y.,  to  the  49th  parallel  of  north  latitude ;  thence  along  that 
parallel  to  the  crest  of  the  Rocky  mountains ;  thence  in  a  south- 
easterly direction,  along  the  watershed  dividing  the  western  trib- 
utaries of  the  Mississippi  from  the  waters  of  the  Pacific  slope,  to 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  at  about  92°  west  longitude  (somewhere  near 
Vermilion  bay) ;  and  thence  along  the  gulf  coast  to  the  place  of 
beginning.  The  grant  to  Crozaf  in  1712  confirmed  these  boundar- 
ies, setting  forth  that  the  garrison  established  in  1699  "has  kept 


122  LOUISIANA 

and  preserved  the  possession  we  had  taken  in  the  verv  year  1683, 
etc." 

The  second  map  sliows  tlie  boundaries  as  adjusted  liy  the  trea- 
ties of  1762-63.  In  Nov.,  1762,  France  ceded  all  her  Louisiana  pos- 
sessions to  Spain,  but  a  few  months  later  Spain  permitted  France 
to  cede  to  Great  Britain  all  that  portion  of  Louisiana  lying  east  of 
the  Mississippi  and  north  of  31°  north  latitiide,  and  at  the  same  time 
Spain  ceded  to  Great  Britain  all  east  of  the  ^Mississippi  and  south 
of  the  31st  parallel.  The  boundaries  of  Louisiana  then  included 
only  that  portion  of  La  Salle's  claim  lying  west  of  the  Mississippi, 
which  was  actually  delivered  to  Spain  in  April,  1764.  The  next  map 
shows  the  boundaries  as  they  were  adjusted  by  England,  Spain  and 
the  United  States  at  the  close  of  the  Revolutionary  war,  when  the 
United  States  received  all  that  portion  of  the  original  claim  lying 
east  of  the  Mississippi  and  north  of  the  31st  parallel,  and  Great 
Britain  ceded  back  to  Spain  that  part  lying  south  of  that  parallel. 
By  the  secret  treaty  of  San  Ildenfonso,  Spain  ceded  back  to  France 
"the  colony  or  province  of  Louisiana,  with  the  same  extent  it  now 
has  in  the  hands  of  Spain,  and  that  it  had  when  France  possessed 
it."  As  this  included  the  cession  of  Great  Britain  of  the  territory 
south  of  tlie  31st  parallel,  the  boundaries,  as  shown  by  the  land 
ofifice  map  after  this  treaty,  extended  eastward  to  the  Perdido  river, 
which  now  forms  the  western  boundary  of  the  state  of  Florida, 
and  embraced  in  Louisiana  all  east  of  the  Mississippi  and  south  of 
the  31st  parallel  of  north  latitude.  However,  when  three  years  later 
France  ceded  to  the  Ignited  States  all  her  claims  to  Louisiana,  using 
the  same  language  that  had  been  used  in  tlie  treaty  of  San  Ude- 
fonso,  Spain  laid  claim  to  the  strip  south  of  31°  between  the  ilissis- 
sippi  and  Perdido,  but  the  United  States  insisted  that  the  disputed 
territory  was  included  in  the  cession.  Stoddard,  who  wrote  in  1812, 
says:  "If  the  claims  of  France  are  sufficiently  supported,  Loiiisi- 
ana  bounds  thus :  South  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico ;  west,  partly  on 
the  Rio  Bravo,  and  partly  on  the  Mexican  mountains;  north  and 
nortliwest,  partly  on  the  shining  mountains,  and  partly  on  Canada; 
east  on  the  Mississippi  from  its  source  to  the  31st  degree:  thence 
extending  east  on  the  line  of  demarcation  to  the  Rio  Perdido:  thence 
down  that  river  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico." 

In  tlie  meantime  Congress  had  by  an  act  of  ]\Iarch  26,  1804, 
divided  the  newly  acquired  territory  on  the  line  of  the  33rd  paral- 
lel, west  of  the  Mississippi  "to  the  western  boundary  of  said 
cession,"  the  southern  portion  to  be  erected  into  a  territory  known  as 
the  territory  of  Orleans,  (q.  v.)  In  Oct.,  1810,  President  Madison 
ordered  the  governor  of  Orleans  territory  to  take  possession  of  the 
region  in  dispute.  Notwithstanding  this  action  on  the  part  of  the 
president.  Congress,  on  Feb.  20.  1811.  pas.sed  an  act  enabling  the 
people  of  Orleans  territory  to  form  a  constitution,  preparatory  to 
admission  as  a  state,  the  provisions  of  the  act  to  apply  to  "the  in- 
habitants in  all  that  part  of  the  territory  or  country  ceded  under 
the  name  of  Louisiana,  by  the  treaty  made  at  Paris  on  the  30th  day 
of  April,  1803,  between  the  United  States  and  France,  contained 


LOUISIANA  123 

within  the  following  limits,  that  is  to  say :  Beginning  at  the  mouth 
of  the  river  Sabine,  thenee  by  a  line  to  be  drawn  along  the  middle 
of  the  said  river,  including  all  islands  to  the  32nd  degree  north 
latitude ;  thence  due  north  to  the  northernmost  part  of  the  33rd 
degree  of  north  latitude ;  thence  along  the  said  parallel  of  latitude 
to  the  river  Mississippi ;  thence  down  the  said  river  to  the  river 
Iberville ;  and  from  thence  along  the  middle  of  the  said  river  and 
lakes  Jlaurepas  and  Pontchartrain,  to  the  Gulf  of  ]\Iexico ;  thenee 
bounded  by  said  gulf  to  the  place  of  beginning ;  including  all  is- 
lands within  three  leagues  of  the  coast." 

This  description  did  not  include  the  territory  in  question,  and 
some  400  inhabitants  of  West  Florida,  under  the  leadership  of 
George  Patterson,  petitioned  Congress  for  annexation  to  Mississippi 
territory.  The  petition  was  referred  to  a  committee,  of  which 
George  Poiudexter  was  chairman,  and  this  committee  reported  in 
favor  of  granting  the  prayer  of  the  petitioners.  But  Gov.  Claiborne, 
acting  under  the  president's  order  of  Oct.,  1810,  was  in  actual  pos- 
session, and  was  therefore  in  a  position  to  secure  a  compromise. 
Accordingly  on  April  14,  1812,  the  president  approved  an  act  an- 
nexing the  following  territory  to  the  State  of  Louisiana:  "Begin- 
ning at  the  junction  of  the  Iberville  with  the  Mississippi ;  thenee 
along  the  middle  of  the  Iberville,  the  river  Amite,  and  of  the  lakes 
Maurepas  and  Pontchartrain  to  the  eastern  mouth  of  the  Pearl 
river;  thence  up  the  eastern  branch  of  Pearl  river  to  the  31st  de- 
gree of  north  latitude;  thence  along  the  said  degree  of  latitude  to  the 
river  ^Mississippi ;  then  down  the  said  river  to  the  place  of  begin- 
ning. ' '  This  included  the  western  portion  of  the  disputed  strip,  the 
act  annexing  it  to  Louisiana  to  become  effective  as  soon  as  the 
legislature  of  that  state  should  give  its  formal  consent.  This  was 
done  by  a  resoh;tion  adopted  on  Aug.  4,  1812,  and  at  the  same  time 
provision  was  made  for  the  representation  of  the  new  territory  in 
the  state  legislature.  The  eastern  portion  of  the  strip,  extending 
to  the  Perdido  river,  was  subsequently  divided  between  the  states 
of  Mississippi  and  Alabama. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  at  the  time  of  the  Louisiana  purchase  in  1803, 
none  of  the  boundaries  of  the  new  acquisition  was  definitely  deter- 
mined. Du  Pratz,  who  was  in  Louisiana  from  1718  to  1734,  as  an 
officer  under  the  crown,  published  a  map  in  1758,  showing  the 
French  Louisiana  as  including  the  whole  of  what  was  known  as 
West  Florida  down  the  gulf  coast  westward  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Rio  Bravo,  "laid  down  by  the  Spaniards  in  25°  53'  north  latitude, 
and  by  the  English  in  26°8'  north  latitude."  From  the  mouth  of 
the  Rio  Bravo  the  line  followed  that  stream  to  a  bend  about  29°  25' 
north  latitude,  then  diverged  to  the  northwest  on  the  summit  of  the 
Mexican  mountains,  and  terminated  in  the  46th  parallel,  north  lat- 
itude. It  will  be  noticed  that  the  act  of  Congress  of  March  26, 
1804,  above  referred  to,  did  not  definitely  fix  the  western  boundary 
of  the  territory  of  Orleans,  merely  defining  it  as  "the  western  boun- 
dary of  said  cession."  Had  the  boundary  been  settled  on  the  line 
laid  down  by  Du  Pratz,   Orleans   territory   would   have  included 


124  LOUISIANA 

practically  all  that  part  of  the  present  State  of  Texas  lying  south 
of  the  33rd  parallel.  In  1803  there  was  a  warm  dispute  at  New  Or- 
leans, between  the  French  and  Spanish  commissioners,  relative  to 
the  western  limits  of  Louisiana,  the  former  contending  for  the  Kio 
Bravo  and  the  latter  for  the  Sabine.  "While  the  controversy  was  in 
progress  the  province  was  ceded  to  the  United  States  and  the  dis- 
cxTssion  was  brought  to  a  summary  end.  Although  the  enabling  act 
of  Feb.  20,  ISll,  names  the  Sabine  as  the  western  boimdary  of  the 
State  of  Louisiana,  when  admitted,  that  river  was  not  fully  deter- 
mined as  the  line  between  the  United  States  and  the  Spanish  pos- 
sessions on  the  west  until  the  treaty  of  1819.  The  northern  bound- 
ary, named  in  the  enabling  act  as  the  33rd  parallel  of  north  lati- 
tude, was  not  established  \intil  some  years  later.  On  May  19,  1828, 
Congress  passed  an  act  authorizing  the  president  to  appoint  a  sur- 
vej'or  or  commissioner,  or  both,  to  act  in  conjunction  with  the  con- 
stituted authorities  of  the  State  of  Louisiana,  "to  cause  to  be  run, 
and  distinctly  marked,  the  line  dividing  the  Territory  of  Arkansas 
from  the  State  of  Louisiana."  By  an  act  of  Feb.  18,  1830,  the  gen- 
eral assembly  of  Louisiana  authorized  the  governor  to  appoint  one 
commissioner  and  one  surveyor,  ''agreeably  to  an  act  of  Congress, 
approved  May  19,  1828."  to  run  and  mark  the  line.  Thus  the  north- 
ern boundary  was  established.  The  present  boundaries  of  Louisi- 
ana are  the  same  as  those  defined  by  the  enabling  act  and  the  act  of 
April  14,  1812,  annexing  the  district  west  of  the  Pearl  river  and 
south  ef  the  line  of  31°  north  latitude.  A  dispute  arose  between 
Louisiana  and  ilississippi  abo\it  the  beginning  of  the  present  cen- 
tury over  the  maritime  boundary.  This  dispute  was  settled  by  a 
friendly  suit  in  the  U.  S.  supreme  court,  for  a  full  accout  of  which 
see  the  article  on  Heard's  administration.  (See  also  the  articles 
on  Treaties.  West  Florida,  Dunbar's  Line  and  Louisiana  Purchase.) 

Bourg,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  Terrebonne  par- 
ish, situated  on  Bayou  Chene  about  10  miles  southeast  of  Houma, 
the  parish  seat  and  nearest  railroad  station, 

Boutte,  a  ^-illage  in  the  central  part  of  St.  Charles  parish,  is  sit- 
iiated  on  tlie  Southern  Pacific  R.  R.,  about  5  miles  south  of  Hahn- 
ville,  the  parish  seat.  It  has  a  money  order  postofBce,  an  express 
office,  and  a  population  of  300. 

Bovee,  George  E.,  was  somewhat  prominent  in  Louisiana  political 
affairs  during  a  portion  of  the  reconstruction  period.  In  1868  he 
was  elected  secretary  of  state  on  the  ticket  with  Gov.  "Warmoth, 
and  bj'  virtue  of  that  office  he  became  a  member  of  what  was  known 
as  the  Lynch  returning  board.  In  August,  1871,  "Warmoth  removed 
him  for  alleged  malfeasance  in  office  and  appointed  F.  J.  Herron  in 
his  place.  Judge  Emerson  of  the  8th  district  court  holding  that 
Warmoth  had  the  right  to  remove  the  secretary  and  fill  the  vacancy 
until  the  close  of  the  next  session  of  the  legislature.  In  iMarch, 
1872,  Bovee  brought  suit  against  Herron  for  possession  of  the  of- 
fice. Judge  Diblile  decided  that  although  Herron 's  commission  was 
legal  his  term  had  expired  and  that  Bovee  was  entitled  to  the  of- 
fice.    This  decision  was  affirmed  by  the  supreme  court  the  follow- 


LOUISIANA  125 

ing  December,  and  "Warmoth,  fearing  that  Judge  Dibble  would  ex- 
ecute the  writ,  removed  him  and  appointed  Judge  Elmore,  who  re- 
fused to  do  so.  With  the  overthrow  of  the  carpet-bag  regime  Bovee 
disappeared  from  the  political  arena. 

Bowie,  one  of  the  principal  towns  of  Lafourcbe  parish,  is  a  sta- 
tion on  the  Southern  Pacific  R.  R.,  about  15  miles  east  of  Thibo- 
daux,  the  parish  seat,  and  it  is  the  southern  terminus  of  a  short 
line  of  railroad  called  the  Bowie,  Lafourche  &  Northwestern.  It 
has  a  money  order  postoffice,  telegraph  and  express  offices,  some 
good  retail  stores,  and  a  population  of  1,000. 

Bowles,  William  A.,  adventurer,  was  born  in  Maryland  in  1761. 
In  1776  he  enlisted  in  the  British  army  and  the  following  year, 
w'hile  serving  as  ensign  in  Jamaica,  he  was  disciplined  for  insubor- 
dination. In  his  anger,  he  threw  off  his  uniform,  returned  to  Flor- 
ida and  there  married  the  daughter  of  a  Creek  chief.  In  1781  he 
led  a  party  of  Creeks  to  the  aid  of  Gen.  Campbell  at  Pensaeola, 
which  place  was  then  being  besieged  by  Gov.  Galvez,  and  for  his 
timely  assistance  was  pardoned  by  the  British  authorities.  Again 
he  joined  the  British  army,  but  as  he  was  not  amenable  to  disci- 
pline he  was  again  dismissed.  He  then  went  to  New  York  and  tried 
to  become  an  actor,  and  about  this  time  he  won  the  friendship  of 
Lord  Dunmore,  governor  of  the  Bahamas,  who  appointed  him  agent 
of  a  trading  house  on  the  Chattahoochee  river.  Later  he  went  to 
England  with  a  delegation  of  Creeks,  Seminoles  and  Cherokees,  to 
secure  the  protection  of  those  tribes  against  the  aggressions  of  the 
United  States.  The  Spanish  government  in.strueted  the  governors 
of  Louisiana  and  Pensaeola  to  make  efforts  to  bribe  Bowles  into  an 
alliance  with  Spain,  or  place  him  under  arrest.  On  March  12,  1792, 
he  was  brought  a  prisoner  to  Gov.  Carondelet,  who  ordered  him  to 
be  taken  to  Madrid.  Threats  and  bribes  alike  failed  to  induce  him 
to  enter  the  Spani.sh  service,  and  he  was  taken  to  the  island  of 
Manila,  where  for  some  time  he  was  kept  in  close  confinement.  He 
was  then  ordered  back  to  Spain,  biit  on  the  way  managed  to  effect 
his  escape  at  Ascension  island,  and  finally  reached  London.  His 
next  appearance  on  the  western  hemisphere  was  as  a  privateer  on 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  where  he  made  war  on  the  trade  of  Panton, 
Leslie  &  Co.,  who  had  a  trading  house  at  Pensaeola  and  were  the 
agents  of  Spain  in  dealing  with  the  Indians.  Finally  both  Spain 
and  the  United  States  secretly  offered  the  Indians  a  reward  for  the 
capture  of  Bowles.  He  was  soon  taken  prisoner  by  the  Indians,  but 
managed  to  effect  his  escape  by  gnawing  in  two  the  ropes  with 
which  he  was  bound.  After  an  exciting  chase  he  was  recaptured 
and  taken  to  Havana,  where  he  died  a  prisoner  in  ]\[orro  castle. 
Perrin  du  Lac  speaks  of  Bowles  as  a  great  man  and  a  patriot,  but 
his  greatness  lay  in  doing  reprehensible  things,  and  his  patriotism 
was  of  a  questionable  nature,  to  say  the  least. 

Boyce  is  an  incorporated  post  town  of  Rapides  parish,  is  situated 
on  the  Red  river  and  the  Texas  &  Pacific  R.  R.,  about  15  miles 
noi'thwest  of  Alexandria,  the  parish  seat.  This  town  was  first 
known  as  Cotile  Lauding,  and  the  first  postoffice  was  established  in 


126  LOUISIANA 

the  house  of  F.  il.  Amsdeu,  4  miles  up  Cotile  liaj'oii,  Init  in  1883  it 
was  moved  to  Cotile  Landing.  When  the  railroad  was  built  through 
the  town  the  name  was  changed  to  Boyee,  and  subsequentl.y  the 
postal  authorities  gave  the  office  the  same  name,  though  against  the 
wishes  of  a  majoi'ity  of  the  old  residents  of  the  town.  The  name 
was  .justified  by  the  fact  that  the  pioneer  family  of  that  name  set- 
tled near  the  town,  and  shipped  the  products  of  their  plantation 
from  tJie  landing.  Patrick  Boyee  was  the  first  merchant  of  Cotile 
Landing,  and  in  1882,  Henry  Boyee  had  the  town  surveyed.  It  was 
incorporated  in  1887,  and  the  tirst  meeting  of  the  council  under 
the  charter  occurred  on  I\Iay  7  of  that  year.  The  Knights  of  Pythias 
organized  a  lodge  in  1890  and  the  Episcopal  church  was  established 
in  1883.  Boyee  is  located  in  the  rich  Red  river  valley  and  is  the 
supply  and  shipping  point  for  a  large  area,  as  over  3,000  bales  of 
cotton  are  shipped  by  rail  or  water  each  year.  It  has  a  bank,  money 
order  postoffice,  express,  telegraph  and  telephone  facilities  and  a 
population  of  865.  The  principal  industries  are  cotton  gins,  cotton 
presses  and   an  oil  mill. 

Boyd,  David  French,  educator,  second  president  of  the  LoTiisiana 
State  universitv— 1865  to  1880  and  again  from  188-4  to  1886— was 
born  at  Wytheville,  Wythe  Co.,  Va.,  Oct.  5,  1834,  a  son  of  Thomas 
Jef¥erson  and  ^Minerva  Ann  (French)  Boyd.  The  first  of  his  ances- 
tors in  America  was  John  Boyd,  who  emigrated  from  Ayrshire, 
Scotland,  and  settled  in  Prince  George  county,  JId.,  in  1833.  David 
Boyd  received  his  education  at  a  classical  school  in  Staunton,  Va., 
and  the  I^niversity  of  Virginia,  graduating  at  the  university  in 
1856.  He  taught  school  for  some  time  in  Prince  George  county  be- 
fore removing  to  Louisiana,  where  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
ancient  languages  in  the  State  Seminary  of  Learning  and  Military 
academy,  near  Alexandria  in  1860.  He  enlisted  as  a  private  in  the 
9th  La.  infantr.y,  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  war;  was  rapidly  ad- 
vanced to  the  positions  of  captain  and  assistant  commissary  of  sub- 
sistence of  Gen.  Richard  Taylor's  ("Tiger")  brigade,  and  was  act- 
ing division  commissary  for  Gen.  Early  in  Nov.,  1862.  He  acted  in 
the  same  capacity  for  Gen.  Harry  Hays'  Louisiana  brigade,  but  re- 
signed on  ilay  11,  1863,  to  enter  the  line,  going  to  Louisiana  to 
join  the  Trans-ilississippi  army.  He  was  about  to  accept  the  posi- 
tion of  superintendent  of  the  Louisiana  Military  academy,  but  as 
the  territor.y  had  lieen  occupied  by  Federal  troops.  Gen.  Kirby 
Smith  assigned  him  to  duty  as  captain  of  engineers  on  Gen.  Richard 
Taylor's  staif,  Aug.  6,  1863.  He  had  charge  of  eon.structing  Fort 
DeRussy,  on  the  Red  river,  in  Dec,  1863;  was  promoted  and  be- 
came major  and  chief  of  engineers :  was  captured  Feb.  3,  1864,  and 
confined  in  the  Federal  prison  at  Natchez,  Miss.,  until  exchanged 
in  July,  1864,  Col.  Boyd  joined  the  Confederate  army  in  Dec, 
1864,  and  became  adjutant  general,  with  the  rank  of  major,  in 
Brent's  Louisiana  cavalry  brigade.  In  the  autumn  of  1865  he  was 
again  appointed  superintendent  of  the  Louisiana  Military  academy, 
which  had  been  closed  for  two  years.  AVhen  the  l)uildings  were 
burned  in  Oct.,  1869,  he  opened  the  school  at  Baton  Rouge,  within 


LOUISIANA  127 

two  weeks.  It  was  due  to  Col.  Boyd's  personal  efforts  and  sacrifices 
that  the  academy  was  kept  open  during  the  reconstruction  period, 
and  he  may  be  considered  the  founder  of  the  present  Louisiana 
State  university.  All  state  appropriations  were  withheld  from  the 
academy  for  a  number  of  years  by  the  carpet-bag  legislature.  At 
this  time  he  was  appointed  superintendent  of  the  Royal  ililitary 
college  at  Cairo,  Egypt,  but  the  abduction  of  the  Khedive  and  Brit- 
ish control  there  prevented  his  accepting  the  position,  and  he  re- 
mained at  the  university.  It  was  due  to  Col.  Boyd's  influence  that 
the  legislature  in  1876,  passed  an  act  uniting  the  state  university 
with  the  agricultural  and  mechanical  college  of  New  Orleans.  He 
secured  the  government  barracks  at  Baton  Rouge  for  a  home  for 
the  university,  was  president  of  the  Louisiana  State  seminary  and 
military  academy,  during  1865-80  and  1884-86,  and  professor  in 
the  college  until  his  death.  The  Louisiana  State  university  con- 
ferred the  degree  of  LL.D.  upon  him  in  1890.  A  $50,000  memorial 
building  has  been  built  at  the  Louisiana  state  university  dedicated 
to  his  memory.  He  was  married  on  Oct.  5,  1865,  to  Esther  Ger- 
trude, daughter  of  Dr.  Jesse  and  Sarah  Robert  (Grimball)  Wright 
and  died  at  Baton  Rouge,  La.,  May  27,  1899. 

Boyd,  Thomas  Ducket,  seventh  president  of  the  Louisiana  State 
university,  since  1896,  was  born  in  Wythe  county,  Va.,  Jan.  20, 
1854,  a  son  of  Thomas  Jefferson  and  Minerva  Ann  (French)  Boyd, 
and  brother  of  David  French  Boyd.  (q.  v.)  Thomas  Boyd  went  to 
the  Louisiana  State  university  at  the  age  of  fourteen  and  graduated 
with  the  degree  of  A.  M.  in  1872.  Upon  his  graduation  he  M-as  ap- 
pointed assistant  professor  at  the  university  and  later  became  com- 
mandant of  cadets  and  professor  of  history  and  English  language 
and  literature.  His  success  as  a  teacher  was  so  great  that  he  was 
made  acting  president  of  the  institution  at  the  first  vacancy  of  the 
presidency  in  1886,  and  oft'ered  the  presidency  but  declined.  In 
1888  Col.  Boyd  was  elected  president  of  the  Louisiana  State  normal 
school,  and  placed  that  struggling  institution  upon  its  feet,  so  that 
today  it  is  one  of  the  first  normal  schools  of  the  South.  The  ability 
Col.  Boyd  displayed  as  organizer  and  administrator,  at  the  normal 
school,  caused  him  to  be  unanimously  elected  president  of  the 
Louisiana  State  university  in  1896.  Col.  Boyd  received  the  degree 
of  LL.D.  from  the  Tulane  University  of  Louisiana  in  1896. 

Boyer,  Benjamin,  M.,  a  member  of  the  Congressional  committee 
appointed  to  investigate  the  New  Orleans  riots  of  1866,  was  born 
in  Montgomery  county,  Pa.,  Jan.  22,  182.3.  He  was  graduated  at 
the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in  the  fourth  decade  of  the  19th 
century,  occupied  the  office  of  district  attorney  of  his  native  county 
from  1848  to  1850,  and  was  a  member  of  the  39th  and  40th  Con- 
gresses. He,  with  Thomas  D.  Elliott  and  Samuel  Shellabarger,  was 
made  a  member  of  the  above  mentioned  committee  to  investigate 
the  riots  which  followed  the  negro  convention  in  the  Louisiana 
metropolis  in  1866,  which  convention  seems  to  have  had  for  its 
purpose  the  placing  of  the  state  under  negro  domination.  Jlr. 
Boyer's  two  colleagues  rendered  the  majority  report,  in  which  the 


128  LOUISIANA 

blame  was  placed  upon  the  shoulders  of  the  city  aud  state  ofiSeials, 
aud  the  former  rebels.  Mr.  Beyer  made  the  minoritj-  report. 
Though  he,  in  a  large  measure,  blamed  the  incendiary  speeches, 
revolutionary  acts  and  threatened  violence  of  the  conveutionists,  he 
severely  censored  those  members  of  Congress  who  were  furthering 
the  reconstr\ietion  law  as  being  "indirectly  responsible  for  the 
bloodj'  result,"'  but  the  most  rigorous  condemnation  was  directed 
at  Gov.  Wells,  who  he  said,  "lent  to  the  conspiracy  his  official  sanc- 
tion and  in  the  day  of  danger  deserted  liis  post  without  an  effort 
to  preserve  the  public  peace." 

Bra.gg,  Brajcton,  a  general  in  the  Confederate  army  in  the  war 
between  the  states,  was  born  in  Warren  county,  N.  C.,  March  22, 
1817,  graudated  fifth  in  the  class  of  1837  at  the  U.  S.  military 
academy  and  entered  tlie  army  as  lieutenant  of  artillery.  He  served 
in  the  Indian  wars  in  Florida ;  was  then  stationed  at  Fort  Moultrie 
until  the  annexation  of  Texas  in  1845,  when  he  joined  the  army  of 
occupation  aud  sei'ved  with  distinguished  gallantry  in  the  war  with 
Mexico,  being  brevetted  captain  for  bravery  in  the  defense  of  Fort 
Brown,  major  for  valor  at  Monterey,  and  lieutenant-colonel  for 
meritorious  semdces  at  Buena  Vista.  He  then  served  on  garrison 
duty  and  on  the  staff  of  Gen.  Gaines  until  1856,  when  he  resigned 
his  commission  in  the  army  and  became  a  planter  in  Lafourche 
parish.  La.  In  1859  he  was  appointed  commissioner  of  public  works 
and  served  in  that  capacity  until  1861.  Immediately  after  the  pas- 
sage of  the  sece.s.sion  ordinance  he  was  placed  in  command  of  the 
Louisiana  state  troops  with  the  rank  of  major-general,  and  on 
IMarch  7,  1861,  was  commissioned  brigadier-general  in  the  provi- 
sional army  of  the  Confederate  States  and  assigned  to  the  command 
of  Pensacola.  Here  he  remained  until  Jan.  27,  1862,  when  lie  was 
given  command  of  the  department  of  Alabama  and  West  Florida, 
having  in  the  meantime  been  raised  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant- 
general.  In  command  of  the  2nd  army  corps  he  participated  in  the 
battle  of  Shiloh,  and  after  the  death  of  Gen.  Albert  Sidney  John- 
ston, was  promoted  general  and  assigned  to  the  command'  of  the 
Army  of  the  Mississippi.  Subsequently  he  succeeded  Gen.  Beaure- 
gard in  command  of  the  department;  planned  the  invasion  into 
Kentucky  before  the  Federals  were  ready  to  receive  him;  captured 
4.000  Federal  troops  at  Munfordville.  but  after  the  battle  of  Perry- 
ville  fell  back  to  Tennessee,  and  defeated  Gen.  Rosecrans  in  the 
battle  of  IMurfreesboro.  In  June,  1863,  he  occupied  Chattanooga 
and  was  in  command  of  the  Confederate  forces  at  the  battle  of 
Chickamauga.  Sept.  19-20,  1863.  In  Feb.,  1864.  he  was  assigned  to 
duty  at  Richmond  under  the  direction  of  President  Davis,  and  the 
following  November  was  placed  in  command  of  the  army  at  Wil- 
mington, and  was  engaged  in  the  final  movements  against  Gen. 
Sherman,  including  the  battle  of  Reutouville.  After  the  war,  hav- 
ing lost  all  his  property,  he  took  up  the  work  of  a  civil  engineer  at 
New  Orleans,  superintended  harbor  improvements  at  Mobile,  and 
died  at  Galveston,  Tex.,  Sept.  27.  1876. 

Briathwaite,  a  post-hamlet  and  station  in  the  northern  part  of 


LOUISIANA  129 

Plaquemines  parish,  is  situated  on  the  I\Iississippi  river  and  the 
Louisiana  Southern  R.  R.,  about  10  miles  southeast  of  New  Orleans. 

Branch,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  central  part  of  Acadia  parish,  is  a 
station  on  the  Opelousas,  Gulf  &  Northeastern  R.  R.,  about  7  miles 
north  of  Rayne.  It  is  tlie  distributing  center  of  a  large  rice  district 
and  has  a  population  of  125. 

Brandon,  a  post-hamlet  and  station  of  "West  Feliciana  parish,  is 
situated  on  the  Mississippi  river  and  the  line  of  the  Louisiana  Rail- 
way &  Navigation  company,  about  12  miles  northwest  of  St.  Fran- 
cisville,  the  parish  seat. 

Braud,  Denis,  a  French  printer,  obtained  through  the  influence 
of  D'Abbadie  in  1764,  the  exclusive  privilege  of  printing  and  of 
selling  books  in  the  colony  of  Louisiana.  Gayarre  says  that  this 
was  the  last  monopoly  conceded  by  the  French  government  before 
tiie  beginning  of  the  Spanish  domination.  Braud  became  known  as 
the  "King's  printer,"  and  in  this  semi-ofificial  capacity  he  printed 
the  long  memorial  touching  the  events  of  Oct.  29,  1768,  when  the 
superior  council  issued  the  decree  expelling  Gov.  Ulloa  from  the 
province.  On  Aug.  21,  1769,  he  was  arrested  by  order  of  Gov. 
O'Reilly,  for  his  participation  in  the  revolution  of  the  preceding 
year,  especially  the  printing  of  the  memorial  above  mentioned. 
Brand's  defense  was  that,  being  the  king's  printer,  he  was  obliged 
to  print  whatever  the  authorities  directed,  and  on  this  plea  he  was 
discharged  from  custody. 

Breaux  Bridge,  one  of  the  chief  towns  of  St.  Martin  parish,  is 
situated  on  the  Bayoii  Teche,  at  the  junction  of  two  branches  of  the 
Southern  Pacific  R.  R.,  about  12  miles  north  of  St.  Martinville,  the 
parish  seat.  It  was  incorporated  in  1850;  has  a  money  order  post- 
office,  express,  telegraph  and  telephone  facilities,  cotton  gins,  and 
is  the  distributing  point  for  a  very  rich  farming  district.  Popula- 
tion 1,3.39. 

Breaux,  Joseph  A.,  jurist,  is  a  native  of  Louisiana,  born  in  Iber- 
ville parish,  Feb.  18,  1838,  a  descendant  of  the  French  Acadians. 
In  1853  he  entered  Georgetown  college,  Kentucky,  but  poor  health 
compelled  him  to  return  home  after  two  years  and  he  did  not  grad- 
uate. After  some  time  he  attended  Louisiana  college  for  one  ses- 
sion, and  when  it  was  incorporated  into  the  University  of  Louisi- 
ana, he  attended  for  a  second  session.  He  studied  law  and  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar,  but  had  not  practiced  long  before  the  Civil  war 
broke  out,  when  he,  like  so  many  young  southerners,  enlisted  in  the 
Confederate  army,  where  he  served  under  Gen.  Kirby  Smith,  until 
his  surrender.  At  the  close  of  the  war  Mr.  Breaux  again  practiced 
law ;  was  president  of  the  scliool  board  of  his  parish  for  some  time, 
and  instrumental  in  increasing  the  efficiency  and  usefulness  of  the 
common  schools.  In  1888  he  was  elected  superintendent  of  public 
instruction  of  Louisiana,  and  while  in  office  had  a  bill  introduced 
into  the  legislature  remodeling  the  school  laws,  which  was  passed 
by  a  large  majority.  He  compiled  the  school  laws,  and  decisions 
relating  to  them,  which  compilation  was  published  in  1889.  On 
April  24,  1890,  he  was  appointed  associate  justice  of  the  supreme 
1—9 


130  LOUISIANA 

court  of  Louisiana,  and  some  years  later  became  cliief  justice.  Judge 
Breaux  has  great  judicial  faculty,  and  his  rulings  are  noted  for 
justice  and  eqiiity. 

Breazeale,  Phanor,  lawyer  and  member  of  Congress,  was  born 
at  Natchitoches,  La.,  Dec.  29,  1858.  He  was  educated  by  a  private 
tutor  and  in  1879  began  the  study  of  law  with  Col.  "W.  H.  Jack  of 
Natchitoches.  In  May,  1881,  he  graduated  in  the  law  department 
of  what  is  now  Tulane  university  and  began  the  practice  in  his 
home  city.  In  1888  he  was  elected  president  of  the  parish  school 
board,  which  office  he  held  for  three  years ;  was  elected  prosecviting 
attorney  for  the  11th  judicial  district  in  1892,  and  was  reelected  in 
1896,  withoiit  opposition ;  was  a  member  of  the  constitutional  con- 
vention of  1898,  and  the  same  year  was  elected  on  the  Democratic 
ticket  to  represent  the  4th  Louisiana  district  in  the  56tli  Congress. 
He  was  reelected  to  the  57th  and  5Sth  Congresses,  serving  three 
terms  in  all,  and  upon  retiring  from  the  ofiSce  resumed  the  prac- 
tice of  law.  In  1908  he  was  appointed  by  Gov.  Sanders  as  one  of 
the  commissioners  to  revise  and  codify  the  criminal  laws  of  the 
state.  Mr.  Breazeale  is  a  member  of  the  Louisiana  Historical  so- 
ciety and  the  State  Bar  association. 

Breland,  a  post-hamlet  in  tlie  northeastern  part  of  Tangipahoa 
parish,  is  about  4  miles  northeast  of  Bolivar,  which  is  the  nearest 
railroad  station.    It  has  a  population  of  about  30. 

Brent,  William  L.,  lawyer  and  politician,  was  born  in  Charles 
county,  Md.  He  received  a  liberal  education,  studied  law  and  re- 
moved to  Louisiana,  where  he  practiced.  He  was  elected  a  repre- 
sentative from  Louisiana  to  the  ISth,  19th,  and  20th  Congresses  as 
a  AVliig.  After  serving  in  Congress,  he  practiced  law  in  Washing- 
ton, D.  C,  and  in  Louisiana.  He  died  on  July  7,  1848,  at  St.  !Mar- 
tinsville.  La. 

Brimstone,  a  post-hamlet  and  station  in  the  southern  part  of  Cal- 
casieu parish,  is  on  the  Southern  Pacific  R.  R.,  about  6  miles  west' 
of  Lake  Charles,  the  parish  seat.  It  has  an  express  office,  telephone 
and  telegraph  facilities,  and  does  some  shipping. 

Brockdale,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  northern  part  of  "Washington 
parish,  near  tlie  ^Mississippi  boundary,  is  a  .station  on  the  Kentwood 
&  Eastei-n  R.  R.,  about  10  miles  uortliwest  of  Franklinton,  the  par- 
ish seat.  It  has  an  express  office  and  telephone  and  telegraph  facil- 
ities. 

Brodnax,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  central  part  of  IMorehouse  parish, 
is  situated  about  a  mile  south  of  Bartholomew  bayou  and  2  miles 
west  of  Galliou,  the  nearest  railroad  station. 

Brooke,  John  R.,  soldier,  was  born  in  Pennsylvania.  July  2L  1838. 
In  April,  1861,  he  entered  the  army  as  a  captain  of  the  4th  Pa. 
volunteer  infantry,  and  rose  by  successive  promotions  imtil  'Slay 
12,  1864,  when  he  was  made  a  brigadier-general.  He  was  with  Gen. 
Grant  in  tlie  Wilderness  campaign,  and  after  the  war  was  assigned 
to  duty  in  the  Department  of  the  Gulf.  He  was  appointed  by  Gen. 
W.  H.  Emory  to  take  possession  of  the  arms  and  other  .state  prop- 
erty surrendered  by  Gov.  John  IMeEnery,  on  Sept.  17,  1874,  and'  to 


LOUISIANA  131 

take  command  of  the  city  of  New  Orleans  until  the  state  and  city 
governments  conld  be  reorganized.  When  the  Federal  troops  were 
withdrawn  from  Louisiana,  Gen.  Brooke  was  ordered  west,  Avhere 
he  continued  on  duty  until  the  breaking  out  of  the  Spanish-Ameri- 
can war.  In  1888  he  was  made  a  brigadier-general  in  the  regular 
army  and  placed  in  command  of  the  Department  of  the  Platte,  with 
headquarters  at  Omaha,  Neb.  In  April,  1898,  he  was  sent  to  com- 
mand the  troops  at  Chiekamauga  Park,  Ga.,  and  in  July  was  ordered 
to  Porto  Rico.  He  was  at  the  head  of  the  military  commission;  gov- 
ernor-general of  Porto  Rico,  and  later  governor-general  of  Cuba. 
President  Grant  did  not  approve  Gen.  Emory's  action  in  appointing 
Gen.  Brooke  to  the  command  of  the  city  of  New  Orleans,  insisting 
that  the  Kellogg  government  should  have  been  recognized  under 
any  and  all  circmnstauces.  To  the  president's  criticism  Gen.  Emory 
replied  that  anarchy  would  have  been  certain  to  result  had  not 
Brooke  been  placed  in  command.  (See  Kellogg 's  Administration 
and  White  League.) 

Brooklyn,  a  postoffice  in  the  eastern  part  of  Jackson  parish,  is 
located  about  4  miles  southeast  of  Chathamville,  which  is  the  most 
convenient  railroad   station. 

Brooks  (R.  R.  name  Seibert  Station),  a  post-village  in  the  central 
part  of  Pointe  Coupee  parish,  is  on  the  Texas  &  Pacific  R.  R.,  about 
4  miles  northwest  of  New  Roads,  the  parish  seat. 

Broussard,  an  incorporated  town  in  the  eastern  part  of  Lafayette 
parish,  is  on  the  Southern  Pacific  R.  R.,  about  7  miles  southeast  of 
Lafayette,  the  parish  seat.  It  has  a  money  order  postoffice,  an  ex- 
press office,  telephone  and  telegraph  facilities,  and  is  a  shipping 
point  of  some  importance.    Population  499. 

Broussard,  Robert  F.,  member  of  Congress,  was  born  on  the 
Marie  Louise  plantation  near  New  Iberia,  La.,  Aug.  17,  1864.  He 
was  educated  at  several  public  and  private  schools  in  Louisiana 
and  entered  Georgetown  university,  Washington,  D.  C,  in  1879. 
He  was  a  student  there  until  1882 ;  received  an  appointment  as  in- 
spector of  customs  at  New  Orleans  in  1885 ;  was  afterward  made 
assistant  weigher,  and  later  became  export  statistician  of  the  port. 
While  in  the  government  service  at  New  Orleans,  he  studied  law  at 
Tulane  university,  where  he  graduated  in  1889,  and  soon  afterward 
located  at  New  Iberia,  where  he  began  to  practice  law  in  partner- 
ship with  Donelson  Foster.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the  political 
life  of  the  city  and  parish ;  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Democratic 
parish  executive  committee ;  the  Democratic  Congressional  execu- 
tive committee  of  the  3rd  district  and  the  Democratic  State  central 
executive  committee.  When  the  lottery  question  came  up  in  1890, 
he  took  an  active  part  on  the  anti-lottery  side  and  canvassed  the 
state  in  the  campaign  against  it.  He  became  nominee  for  the  office 
of  district  attorney  of  the  19th  district  of  Louisiana,  on  the  anti- 
lottery  ticket  and  was  elected  to  that  position  at  the  state  elections 
of  1892  and  1894.  In  1896  he  was  elected  to  represent  his  district 
in  the  lower  house  of  Congress,  and  has  been  reelected  at  each  sue- 


132  LOUISIANA 

ceeding  election.  Elected  U.  S.  senator  in  May,  liiTi,  to  succeed 
John  K.  Thornton  for  term  beginning  ]\Iareli  4,  1915. 

Brown,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  soiitliern  part  of  Bienville  parish,  is 
located  aliout  2  miles  noi-th  of  the  southern  ))Oundary  of  the  parish, 
and  ahout  halfway  between  Ashland  and  Saline,  which  are  the 
nearest  railroad  stations.  It  has  a  money  order  postoffice  and  is  a 
trading  center  for  the  neighborhood. 

Brown,  James,  U.  S.  senator  from  Louisiana,  was  born  near 
Stannton,  Va.,  Sept.  11,  1866.  He  was  ediicated  at  William  and 
Mary  college,  after  which  he  studied  law  and  practiced  at  Frank- 
fort, Ky.  In  1789  he  commanded  a  company  of  sharpshooters  in  an 
expedition  against  the  Indians;  was  secretary  to  Gov.  Shelby  in 
1792 :  soon  after  the  cession  of  the  Louisiana  teri-itory  removed  to 
New  Orleans;  aided  Edward  Livingston  to  compile  the  code  of  laws; 
was  appointed  secretary  of  the  territoi-y  and  later  U.  S.  district  at- 
torney. In  1813  he  was  elected  U.  S.  senator  from  Louisiana  to 
fill  the  unexpired  term  of  J.  N.  Destrehan;  served  from  Feb.  5, 
1813,  to  :March,  1817 ;  was  defeated  for  reflection  by  W.  C.  C.  Clai- 
borne, who  died  before  taking  his  seat ;  was  again  elected  U.  S. 
senator,  and  served  from  Dec.  6,  1819,  until  Dec,  1823,  when  he 
resigned:  was  appointed  minister  to  France  on  Dec.  23,  1823,  and 
served  until  July  1,  1829.     He  died  at  Philadelphia,  April  7,  1835. 

Bruce,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  southern  part  of  Rapides  parish,  about 
5  miles  west  of  Forest  Hill,  the  nearest  railroad  station.  It  has  a 
population  of  about  40. 

Brunett,  a  village  in  the  northeastern  part  of  East  Carroll  par- 
ish, is  situated  on  the  Mississippi  river  about  12  miles  above  Lake 
Providence,  the  parish  seat.  It  has  a  money  order  postoffice  and 
a  population  of  125. 

Bruns,  J.  Dickson,  M.  D.,  was  a  native  of  Soutli  Carolina.  After 
graduating  witli  first  honors  at  the  Carolina  college  at  Columbia, 
he  entered  the  Jefferson  medical  college  at  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  where 
he  also  distinguished  himself.  Soon  after  he  established  himself  in 
practice  at  Charleston  the  Civil  war  broke  out  and  he  enlisted  as 
a  private  soldier  in  the  Confederate  army,  but  after  the  fall  of  Fort 
Sumter  he  was  appointed  surgeon,  in  which  capacity  he  continued 
until  the  close  of  the  war.  He  then  visited  Europe,  and  upon  his 
return  to  America  was  called  to  a  professorship  in  the  New  Or- 
leans scliool  of  medicine.  In  New  Orleans  he  built  up  a  successful 
practice,  and  also  took  a  keen  interest  in  political  affairs.  In  1874 
he  was  one  of  the  organizers  of  the  White  League,  and  he  estab- 
lished the  Democrat  for  the  purpose  of  opposing  the  reconstruction 
policy — especially  Jvellogg's  administration.    He  died  in  1883. 

Brusly  is  a  post-hamlet  of  West  Baton  Kouge  parish. 

Bryan,  a  post-handet  in  the  southern  part  of  Bienville  parish,  is 
about  .')  miles  west  of  Crowson,  tlie  nearest  railroad  station. 

Bryceland  (R.  R.  name  Bryce),  a  post-handet  in  tlie  northern 
part  of  Bienville  parish,  is  on  the  Louisiana  &  Northwest  R.  R., 
about  12  miles  southwest  of  Arcadia,  the  parish  seat. 

Buchanan,  Robert  C,  soldier,  was  born  in  the  State  of  Maryland 


LOUISIANA  133 

about  1810;  graduated  at  the  U.  S.  military  academy  in  1830;  served 
as  lieutenant  in  the  Black  Hawk  and  Seminole  wars;  was  then  on 
the  Western  frontier  until  1845,  when  he  joined  Gen.  Taylor's  army 
of  occupation  in  Texas;  was  brevetted  major  in  May,  1846,  for  gal- 
lantry at  Palo  Alto  and  Resaca  de  la  Palma;  was  made  lieutenant- 
colonel  of  J\laryland  volunteers  in  Nov.,  1846;  and  served  in  Mexico 
until  the  close  of  the  war.  He  was  in  the  defenses  of  Washington 
from  Nov.,  1861,  to  March,  1862;  took  part  in  Gen.  McClellan's 
Peninsular  campaign ;  became  brigadier-general  of  volunteers  in 
Nov.,  1862,  and  was  for  a  short  time  a  member  of  the  military  com- 
mission near  the  close  of  the  war.  On  Jan.  2,  1868,  'he  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  command  of  the  District  of  Louisiana,  and  on  March 
25  issued  his  Special  Orders  No.  63,  relative  to  the  election  under 
the  reconstruction  act  of  1867.  This  was  followed  by  other  orders 
supporting  tlie  reconstruction  policy  of  Congress.  He  remained  in 
command  of  the  district  under  Gens.  Sheridan  and  Rousseau  until 
Jan.,  1869,  and  the  following  year  was  retired.  He  died  at  Wash- 
ington, D.  C,  Nov.  29,  1878.  Gen.  Neill,  who  served  as  'his  adju- 
tant-general in  Louisiana,  says:  "Buchanan's  course  was  strongly 
characterized  by  wisdom,  firmness  and  moderation  under  the  most 
trying  and  difficult  circumstances  in  which  a  department  com- 
mander has  ever  been  placed  since  tlie  war.  On  the  meeting  of  the 
legislature,  anticipating  trouble  and  bloodshed,  by  his  strong  and 
manly  and  prompt  action  I  believe  he  saved  the  city  of  New  Or- 
leans from  a  massacre."  Such  is  the  testimony  of  one  who  belonged 
to  the  same  party  as  Gen.  Buchanan.  After  a  lapse  of  forty  years 
the  impartial  historian  can  have  no  hesitancy  in  saying  that  his 
"wisdom,  firmness  and  moderation"  were  exerted  to  sustain  an 
administration  tliat  was  distasteful  to  a  majority  of  the  people  of 
Louisiana. 

Buck,  Charles  F.,  member  of  Congress,  was  born  at  Durrheim, 
Grand  Duehy  of  Baden,  Germany,  Nov.  5,  1841.  His  family  came 
to  America  when  he  was  young  and  settled  in  New  Orleans.  He 
was  educated  in  the  public  schools  of  New  Orleans,  and  at  the 
Loiiisiana  State  university,  and  was  elected  a  representative  from 
Louisiana  to  the  54t'h  Congress  as  a  Democrat. 

Buckeye,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  eastern  part  of  Rapides  parish,  is 
situated  on  a  braneli  of  the  Little  river,  about  6  miles  northeast  of 
Kees,  the  nearest  railroad  station. 

Buckhouse,  a  little  post-village  in  tlie  northern  part  of  Bossier 
parish,  is  located  on  a  short  line  of  railroad  called  the  Arkansas  & 
Eastern,  which  connects  with  the  St.  Louis  Southwestern  at  Arkana. 

Buckner,  a  post-village  in  the  southwestern  part  of  Richland 
parish,  is  situated  on  the  Boeuf  river,  about  8  miles  west  of  Maug- 
ham, the  nearest  railroad  station. 

BuUard,  Henry  Adams,  jurist  and  educator,  was  born  at  Groton, 
^lass.,  Sept.  9.  1781.  He  was  educated  at  Harvard  college,  where 
he  graduated  in  1807 ;  studied  law  and  practiced  for  some  time ; 
accompanied  Gen.  Toledo  as  military  secretary  on  a  revohitionary 
expedition  into  New  Mexico,  which  was  repulsed  by  Spanish  troops 


134  LOUISIANA 

at  San  Antonio ;  and  after  snflferiug  many  hardships  reached  Nat- 
chitoches, where  he  engaged  in  the  practice  of  law.  In  1822  he  was 
elected  district  jiidge,  representative  from  Louisiana  to  the  22nd 
Congress  as  a  Whig,  and  reelected  to  the  23d  Congress,  serving 
from  Dec.  5,  1831,  lantil  1834,  when  he  resigned  to  become  judge  of 
the  supreme  court  of  Louisiana.  He  remained  on  the  supreme  bench 
until  1846,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  months  in  1839,  when  he 
acted  as  secretary  of  state.  In  1847  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
civil  law  in  the  Louisiana  law  school  and  delivered  two  courses  of 
lectm'es;  in  1850  he  was  elected  to  the  lower  house  of  the  state  leg- 
islature, and  to  the  31st  Congress  as  a  Whig  to  fill  the  vacancy 
caused  by  the  death  of  Charles  M.  Conrad.  He  served  from  Dec.  5, 
1850.  until  his  death  April  17,  1851,  at  New  Orleans,  La.  He  was 
the  first  president  of  the  Louisiana  Historical  society. 

Bullitt  Bayou,  a  post-village  in  the  northeastern  part  of  Con- 
cordia parish,  is  on  the  ^lississippi  river,  about  8  miles  northwest 
of  Yidalia.  the  parish  seat,  and  5  miles  northeast  of  Sycamore,  the 
nearest  railroad  station. 

Bundick,  a  post-hamlet  in  Beauregard  parish,  is  situated  on  a 
creek  of  the  same  name,  about  5  miles  north  of  Kedbuck.  the  nearest 
railroad  station. 

Bunkerhill,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  central  part  of  L'nion  parish,  is 
on  the  Arkansas  Southeastern  R.  E.,  about  8  miles  east  of  Farmer- 
ville.  the  parish  seat. 

Bunkie,  formerly  'known  as  Irion,  is  an  incorporated  banking 
town  in  the  southwestern  part  of  Avoyelles  parish,  on  the  Texas  & 
Pacific  K.  R.,  about  12  miles  southwest  of  ]\Iarksville,  the  parish 
seat.  The  first  house  was  built  in  1882,  when  the  town  was  named 
by  Capt.  Haas  after  his  little  daughter.  The  first  record  of  the 
council  is  dated  April  14.  1885.  The  first  postofiice  was  established 
in  1883.  and  since  that  time  the  town  has  grown  with  great  rapidity. 
It  is  a  large  cotton  shipping  point,  and  supplies  a  rich  agricultural 
district.  It  has  an  international  money  order  postofiice,  an  express 
ofiice  as  well  as  telegrapli  and  telephone  facilities,  and  a  popula- 
tion of  1,765. 

Buras,  a  village  in  tlie  southern  part  of  Plaquemines  parish,  is 
situated  on  the  j\Iississippi  river  and  is-  the  southern  terminus  of 
the  New  Orleans,  Fort  Jackson  &  Grand  Isle  R.  R.  It  has  a  money 
order  postofiice.  an  express  office,  and  a  population  of  500. 

Burch,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  northern  part  of  Washington  parish, 
near  the  Mississippi  border,  is  about  a  mile  southwest  of  Brock- 
dale,  the  nearest  railroad  station. 

Burgess,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  northwestern  part  of  Bossier  par- 
ish, is  near  the  Arkansas  line  and  a  short  distance  from  Ansel,  the 
nearest  railroad  station. 

Burissa  (R.  R.  name  Houston),  a  post-hamlet  and  station  in  Allen 
parish,  is  on  the  St.  Louis,  Iron  ^It.  &  Southern  R.  R.,  about  30 
miles  northeast  of  Lake  Charles,  the  parish  seat. 

Burke,  Edward  A.,  wlu>  was  prominent  in  Louisiana  politics  dur- 
ing the  reconstruction  davs,  was  of  Irish  extraction,  as  his  name 


LOUISIANA  135 

would  indicate.  His  grandfather  fled  from  that  island  to  America 
to  escape  punishment  for  complicity  in  a  rebellion  against  the  Brit- 
ish government,  and  became  a  naturalized  American  citizen.  In 
1861,  at  the  age  of  19  years,  Edward  enlisted  in  the  army,  and  at 
the  close  of  the  war  located  in  New  Orleans,  where  he  became  agent 
for  the  Jackson  railroad  (now  the  Illinois  Central).  He  was  bit- 
terly opposed  to  the  Kellogg  administration  and  when  the  White 
League  was  formed  in  1874  he  became  an  active  and  influential 
member  of  the  organization.  In  the  conflict  of  Sept.  14,  1874,  he 
served  on  the  staff  of  Adjt.-Gen.  Ellis,  and  received  the  thanks  of 
Gen.  Ogden  in  his  official  report.  In  1878  he  was  elected  treasurer 
of  state  and  held  the  office  for  10  years,  retiring  in  April,  1888. 
Shortly  after  his  election  to  this  office  he  was  one  of  a  company  that 
bought  the  New  Orleans  Democrat,  of  which  he  became  the  sole 
owner  the  following  year.  In  Dec,  1881,  he  purchased  the  New  Or- 
leans Times  and  consolidated  the  two  papers  under  the  name  of 
the  Times-Democrat,  which  it  still  bears.  He  was  one  of  the  prime 
movers  in  the  Cotton  Centennial  exposition  at  New  Orleans  in 
1884-5  and  was  director-general  of  the  enterprise.  In  Sept.,  1889, 
irregularities  in  the  conduct  of  the  treasurer's  office  during  his 
administration  came  to  light,  and  in  October  he  was  indicted  for 
the  illegal  use  of  bonds  and  for  negotiating  bonds  that  ouglit  to 
have  been  destroyed.  At  that  time  he  was  in  London,  England, 
and  instead  of  returning  to  Louisiana  to  face  the  charges,  he  went 
to  Spanish  Honduras.  He  never  returned  to  New  Orleans,  nor 
coukl  he  be  brought  back  for  trial,  though  in  July,  1890,  the  gov- 
ernor offered  a  reward  of  $10,000  for  his  apprehension.  Through 
the  exercise  of  the  principle  of  law  that  the  state  is  not  responsible 
for  the  unauthorized  acts  of  officials,  the  loss  to  Louisiana  was 
comparatively  small,  as  most  of  the  fraudulent  bonds  were  recov- 
ered. 

Burkplace,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  southern  part  of  Bienville  par- 
ish, is  about  3  miles  southwest  of  Lucky,  the  nearest  railroad  station. 

Burnside,  a  village  in  the  southern  part  of  Ascension  parish,  is 
on  the  Yazoo  &  Mississippi  Valley  R.  R.,  and  about  6  miles  north- 
east of  Donaldsonville,  the  parish  seat.  It  has  a  money  order  post- 
office,  an  express  office,  telephone  and  telegraph  facilities. 

Burr,  Aaron,  lawyer  and  politician,  was  born  at  Newark,  N.  J., 
Feb.  6,  1756.  His  father  was  a  Presbyterian  minister  and  the 
founder  of  Princeton  college,  where  Aaron  graduated  in  1772.  He 
then  began  the  study  of  law,  but  when  the  Revolutionary  war  be- 
gan he  entered  the  army,  served  with  Benedict  Arnold  in  the  expe- 
dition to  Canada,  then  became  a  member  of  Washington's  staff  and 
later  served  as  aide  to  Gen.  Putnam.  After  the  war  he  settled  in 
New  York;  was  elected  to  the  U.  S.  senate  from  that  state  in  1791; 
and  in  1800  was  elected  vice-president.  Intense  rivalry  between  him 
and  Alexander  Hamilton  led  to  a  duel  on  July  11,  1804,  in  which 
Hamilton  was  killed.  Burr  fled  to  South  Carolina  until  the  excite- 
ment over  the  affair  cpiieted  down,  then  retiu-ned  to  Washington, 
Avhere  he  formulated  the  project,  the  exact  nature  of  which  has 


136  LOUISIANA 

never  been  made  public.  It  is  on  account  of  this  scheme  that  his 
career  is  of  interest  in  connection  with  Louisiana's  history.  (See 
Burr  conspiracy.)  He  was  arrested  and  tried  for  treason,  but  was 
aeqiiitted,  after  Avhich  he  went  to  Europe,  where  he  remained  for 
several  years.  Under  a  tictitious  name  and  in  disgi;ise  he  returned 
to  America  and  resumed  the  practice  of  law  in  New  York.  He  died 
on  Statcn  Island,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  U,  1836. 

Burr  Conspiracy. — The  precise  object  of  Aaron  Bun-  and  his  col- 
leagues is  to  a  great  extent  a  matter  of  conjecture.  The  actors  in 
the  drama  have  all  passed  away,  and  the  records  left  by  them  are 
both  scant  and  contradictory.  The  prevailing  opinion  is  that  Burr's 
designs  contemplated :  1st  the  separation  of  the  west  from  the 
east  along  the  line  of  Alleghany  mo\mtains,  or  2nd,  in  case  he 
failed  to  accomplish  this,  to  seize  New  Orleans  and  use  that  city  as 
a  base  of  operations  for  the  conciuest  or  "liberation"  of  Spanish 
America.  Burr's  term  as  vice-president  of  the  United  States  ex- 
pired on  March  4,  1805,  and  soon  afterward  he  commenced  his  op- 
erations. On  his  way  to  the  southwest  he  visited  Harmon  Blenner- 
hassett,  an  Englishman  living  on  Blennerhassett  island  in  the  Ohio 
river,  near  Parkersburg,  W.  Va.,  and  enlisted  his  sympathy  and  co- 
operation. From  Blennerhassett 's  he  went  to  Kentucky  and  Ten- 
nessee, Avhere  he  was  warmly  received.  He  next  spent  several  days 
at  Fort  Ma.ssae  with  Gen.  James  "Wilkinson.  On  June  26  he  arrived 
at  New  Orleans  with  letters  from  Wilkinson  to  several  prominent 
men,  among  whom  were  Gov.  Claiborne,  Gen.  John  Adair  and 
Daniel  Clark.  In  the  letter  to  Adair,  Wilkinson  said:  "He  (Burr) 
understands  your  merits  and  reckons  on  you.  Prepare  to  visit  me 
and  I  will  tell  you  all.  We  must  have  a  peep  at  the  unknown  world 
beyond  me."  In  the  letter  to  Clark,  Wilkinson  stated  that  Biirr 
would  "communicate  many  things  not  proper  to  write."  and 
pledges  his  life  tliat  confidence  in  Burr  would  not  be  misplaced. 
Gov.  Claiborne,  who  knew  nothing  of  the  scheme,  gave  a  banquet 
with  Biirr  as  the  guest  of  honor,  tlius  enabling  him  to  meet  with 
and  form  the  acquaintance  of  the  leading  men  of  the  city.  PreA'ious 
to  this  time  there  had  been  rumors  of  a  conspiracy  between  Wil- 
kinson and  Gov.  Miro  to  found  an  empire  extending  from  the  Alle- 
ghany mountains  to  the  Pacific  ocean,  and  that  tiie  former  was  in 
the  pay  of  S]>ain  to  secure  the  secession  of  Kentuck}^  and  Tennessee 
from  the  United  States.  If  this  dream  constituted  any  part  of  Burr's 
plot,  he  was  careful  to  keep  the  fact  concealed,  discussing  it  only 
when  forced  by  circumstance  to  do  so,  and  then  in  a  vague  and 
incoherent  way.  The  whole  French  territory  of  Louisiana  had  re- 
cently passed  into  the  hands  of  the  United  States,  the  whole  Mis- 
sissippi valley  was  full  of  adventurers,  many  of  whom  were  dis- 
satisfied with  the  change,  and  it  was  from  this  reckless  and  per- 
'haps  disloyal  element  that  Burr  expected  to  recruit  many  of  his 
followers.  But  it  was  ne/'cssary  to  have  a  few  men  of  character  and 
influence  to  control  the  destinies  of  the  new  republic — hence  the 
letters  of  Wilkinson  to  such  men  as  Clark,  Adair  and  others. 

In  New  Orleans  was  an  organization    known   as  the    Mexican 


LOUISIANA  137 

Association,  the  ultimate  purpose  of  wliicli  was  the  liberation  of 
Mexico,  ilayor  Watkins  was  one  of  the  leading  members,  and 
through  his  influence  Burr  soon  won  the  confidence  and  assistance 
of  the  association.  Information  was  rapidly  gathered,  and  after 
about  two  weeks  Burr  left  New  Orleans  with  the  promise  to  return 
in  October.  After  visiting  Natchez  he  went  on  to  Tennessee  and 
Kentucky  and  in  September  again  called  on  Wilkinson,  who  after- 
ward testified  that  it  was  at  this  time  his  suspicions  were  aroused 
and  he  advised  the  president  that  Burr  ought  to  be  watched.  Burr 
then  went  east,  where  it  is  said  he  devoted  himself  to  the  work  of 
persiiading  England  to  tiuauce  his  scheme  of  an  independent  gov- 
ernment in  the  Mississippi  valley.  It  is  also  said  that  he  tried  to 
intimidate  the  Spanish  minister  into  defraying  the  expenses  of  an 
expedition  for  the  liberation  of  Mexico  and  the  Floridas.  Failing 
in  both  these  undertakings,  he  turned  to  his  personal  friends,  fore- 
most among  whom  were  his  son-in-law,  Joseph  Alston,  of  South 
Carolina,  and  Blennerhassett.  Burr  did  not  return  to  New  Orleans 
as  he  had  promised,  but  he  sent  emissaries  there  to  keep  alive  the 
interest  in  his  movement.  The  most  prominent  of  these  were  Sam- 
uel Swartwout,  Dr.  Erick  Bollman  and  Peter  V.  Ogden,  all  of  high 
social  standing,  who  gained  ready  access  to  the  homes  of  the  men 
they  desired  to  bring  over  to  Burr's  side. 

All  through  the  summer  and  fall  of  1806  rumors  flew  thick  and 
fast.  Northern  newspapers  intimated  that  Burr's  purpose  was  to 
seize  the  military  posts  on  the  ]\rississippi  and  call  a  convention  of 
the  western  states  to  form  an  independent  government.  Another 
report  was  that  the  new  government  would  give  away  the  public 
lands,  instead  of  selling  them,  as  the  United  States  were  then  doing. 
Still  another  was  that  Burr's  army,  aided  by  the  English,  M-ould 
invade  Mexico  and  revel  in  plunder.  Late  in  September  Wilkinson 
arrived  at  Natchitoches  and  assumed  command  of  the  troops  there. 
Here  on  Oct.  8  he  received  a  letter  from  Burr,  brought  by  Samuel 
Swartwout,  .stating  that  detachments  of  the  expedition  would  soon 
descend  the  Mississippi,  and  that  Burr  would  reach  Natchez  in  the 
early  part  of  December.  Swartwout  returned  to  New  Orleans  on 
the  16th  and  about  a  week  later  Wilkinson  sent  a  messenger  to 
President  Jefferson,  advising  liim  of  Burr's  intention  to  send  an 
armed  force  down  the  Mississippi.  Previous  to  this  time  Burr  had 
been  twice  arrested  in  Kentucky  on  the  charge  of  plotting  against 
the  Spanish  territory,  but  each  time  he  had  been  acquitted,  the 
president  even  allowing  the  impression  to  go  abroad  that  Burr  was 
acting  under  official  approval.  But  in  the  fall  of  1806  information 
came  to  tlie  president  from  various  sources,  among  which  was  Wil- 
kinson's messenger,  and  on  Nov.  27  he  issued  a  proclamation  warn- 
ing all  loyal  citizens  against  taking  part  in  "the  criminal  enter- 
prise." 

Soon  after  Burr's  departure  from  New  Orleans  in  July,  1805,  it 
became  known  that  he  had  been  negotiating  with  Baron  Bastrop 
for  a  large  concession  on  the  Ouachita  river,  and  the  rumor  was 
circulated  that  Burr's  intention  was  to  found  his  new  state  in  that 


138  LOUISIANA 

locality.  The  IMexicau  government,  upon  hearing  this  report,  sent 
troops  to  protect  the  frontier  against  an  invasion.  (See  Sabine  Ex- 
pedition.) On  Oct.  29,  1806,  Wilkinson  made  arrangements  for 
the  -withdrawal  of  troops  on  both  sides  and  to  allow  the  govern- 
ments to  settle  the  disputed  cjnestion  of  boundaries.  The  people  of 
New  Orleans  grew  alarmed  for  the  safety  of  the  city  and  asked  for 
protection.  xVccordingly,  early  in  December  the  army  arrived  from 
Natchitoches  and  Wilkinson  asked  Gov.  Claiborne  to  proclaim  mar- 
tial law.  This  proposal  was  courteously  but  firmly  refused  by  the 
governor,  the  business  men  were  called  together,  and  in  a  short 
time  several  thousand  dollars  were  subscribed  for  the  defense  of  the 
city.  By  this  time  many  people  had  begun  to  mistrust  Wilkinson. 
Cowles  ]Mead,  acting  governor  of  Mississippi,  wrote  to  Claiborne : 
"It  is  believed  here  tliat  General  Wilkinson  is  the  soul  of  the  con- 
spiracy. *  *  *  If  I  stop  Burr,  this  may  hold  the  general  in  his  alle- 
giance to  the  United  States.  But  if  Burr  passes  this  territory  with 
2,000  men,  I  have  no  doubt  the  general  will  be  your  worst  enemy. 
Be  on  your  guard  against  the  wily  general.  He  is  not  much  better 
than  Cataline.  Consider  him  a  traitor  and  act  as  if  certain  thereof. 
You  may  save  yourself  by  it."  This  letter  may  have  had  something 
to  do  with  the  governor's  action  in  placing  the  militia  imder  arms, 
as  from  this  time  on  until  the  trouble  was  over  a  battalion  was  kept 
in  readiness  for  any  emergency  that  might  arise. 

On  Sunday,  Dec.  14,  Wilkinson  ordered  'the  arrest  of  Dr.  Boll- 
man,  Ogden  and  Swartwout  as  agents  of  the  "arch  conspirator." 
Bollman  was  released  by  a  civil  court  on  a  writ  of  habeas  corpus, 
Jiidge  Workman  holding  that,  as  the  prisoner  liad  not  been  reg- 
ularly charged  and  indicted,  his  detention  was  illegal.  Ogden  was 
also  released,  but  both  men  were  rearrested  and  held  in  spite  of 
the  habeas  corpus  proceedings.  The  court  then  issued  an  attach- 
ment against  Wilkinson  and  appealed  to  the  governor  to  use  force 
if  necessary  to  enforce  it.  This  the  governor  refused  to  do.  Work- 
man resigned,  and  Wilkinson  was  master  of  the  situation.  ^Martial 
law  prevailed.  Workman,  Gen.  Adair  and  others  were  arrested  by 
Wilkinson's  order,  and  the  prisoners  were  quickly  taken  beyond 
the  jurisdiction  of  Louisiana  courts.  In  view  of  the  fact  that  Adair 
and  Swartwout  had  both  been  the  recipient  of  letters  from  Wilkin- 
son, introducing  Burr,  their  arrests  looked  a  little  like  "the  irony 
of  fate,"  and  Burr's  friends  now  raised  the  cries  of  "Military  usur- 
pation," "Denial  of  the  habeas  corpus,"  etc.,  which  led  Jefferson 
to  write  to  Claiborne:  "The  Federalists  will  try  to  make  some- 
thing of  the  infringement  of  liberty  by  the  military  arrest  and  de- 
portation of  citizens,"  but  expressed  the  hope  that  the  public 
would  in  the  end  approve  the  action  of  Wilkinson,  if  the  infringe- 
ment did  not  go  too  far. 

While  these  events  were  occurring  in  New  Orleans  Blennerhas- 
sett's  island  home  was  raided  by  the  Virginia  militia.  He  escaped 
but  his  wife  and  children,  with  li  young  men  and  boys,  were  cap- 
tured. The  boys  were  acquitted,  after  which  they  took  Mrs.  Blen- 
nerhassett  and  her  children  down  the  river  in  a  small  house-boat 


LOUISIANA  139 

to  Bayou  Pierre,  where  she  was  joined  by  her  husband  about  the 
middle  of  Jan.,  1807.  Toward  the  middle  of  December  Burr  visited 
Gen.  Jackson,  who  agreed  to  assist  the  expedition  for  the  libera 
tion  of  Mexico,  but  whose  suspicions  had  been  awakened  when  he 
learned  that  Wilkinson  was  connected  with  the  enterpi-ise.  Burr 
assuerd  Jackson,  however,  that  he  had  no  disloyal  motives,  no 
hostile  designs  against  the  United  States.  Jackson  then  provided 
him  with  a  sum  of  money  and  some  of  the  general's  friends  joined 
the  expedition.  At  Fort  Massac  Burr  was  informed  by  Command- 
ant Bissell  that  Wilkinson  had  compromised  with  the  Spaniards, 
whereupon  Jackson's  friends  returned  to  their  homes.  McCaleb 
says:  "Burr  could  now  have  had  no  other  purpose  in  view  than  to 
begin  the  settlement  of  his  Washita  lands — there  was  no  other  al- 
ternative." By  the  end  of  the  year  1806,  8  vessels,  bearing  50  guns, 
were  anchored  in  the  vicinity  of  Natchez,  while  other  boats  lay 
further  down  the  I'iver  awaiting  the  "army  of  invasion." 

At  last  the  mountain  labored  and  the  mouse  was  born.  On  Jan. 
12,  1807,  Burr  reached  Bayou  Pierre  with  a  few  small  boats  and  a 
mere  handful  of  men.  Cable  says  the  news  reached  New  Orleans 
on  Jan.  28,  that  Burr  had  been  ai-rested  at  Natchez  by  the  Missis- 
sippi militia,  and  that  his  expedition  consisted  of  14  boats  and  100 
men.  Burr  was  released  under  $5,000  bail  to  await  the  action  of 
the  grand  jury.  That  body  failed  to  bring  an  indictment,  but 
the  bond  was  not  canceled  by  the  court.  In  company  with  a  man 
named  Ashley  he  left  the  territory,  and  the  governor  offered  a  re- 
ward of  $2,000  for  his  capture.  Burr  and  his  companion  were  ar- 
rested near  Fort  Stoddart,  Ala.,  and  taken  to  Washington.  With 
several  of  his  associates  he  was  tried,  but  all  were  acquitted,  and 
the  famous  conspiracy  that  had  kept  the  nation  in  a  turmoil  for 
more  than  a  twelvemonth  was  ended. 

Bvirr  Ferry,  a  post-hamlet  on  the  western  boundary  of  Vernon 
parish,  is  situated  on  the  Sabine  river,  about  15  miles  west  of  Pick- 
ering, the  nearest  railroad  and  banking  town.  It  has  a  money  order 
postoffiee. 

Burrwood,  a  post-haralet  of  Plaquemines  parish,  situated  on  an 
island  at  the  entrance  to  the  southwest  pass  on  the  Mississippi 
river.    It  is  the  most  southerly  village  in  Louisiana. 

Burton,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  western  part  of  St.  James  parish,  is 
a  station  on  the  Texas  &  Pacific  R.  R.,  about  3  miles  west  of  Con-- 
vent,  the  parish  seat. 

Burtville,  a  village  and  station  in  the  southern  part  of  East  Baton 
Rouge  parish,  is  on  the  Yazoo  &  Mississippi  Valley  R.  R.,  about  10 
miles  southeast  of  Baton  Rouge,  the  parish  seat.  It  has  a  money 
order  postoffice  and  a  population  of  125. 

Bush,  a  post-village  in  the  northeastern  part  of  St.  Tammany 
parish,  is  a  station  on  the  New  Orleans  Great  Northern  R.  R.,  about 
27  miles  north  of  Slidell. 

Bush,  Louis,  a  member  of  the  legislature  of  1861,  was  an  active 
advocate  of  secession  and  made  the  motion  in  the  house  to  sustain 
and   approve   the   action  of   Gov.  Moore  in  taking  possession  of  the 


140  LOUISIANA 

forts,  etc.,  within  tlie  limits  of  tlie  state.  The  motion  Avas  carried 
by  a  vote  of  119  to  5.  Mr.  Bush  was  also  a  stanch  and  consistent 
opponent  to  the  reconstruction  policy  of  Congress  after  the  war. 
He  was  one  of  the  signers  of  the  call  of  Sept.  13,  1874,  for  the  meet- 
ing at  the  Clay  statue  on  Canal  street,  for  tlie  purpose  of  devising 
ways  and  means  to  oust  the  Kellogg  administration,  and  was  a 
participant  iu  the  stirring  scenes  of  the  following  day.  On  Jan. 
1,  1877,  he  was  elected  speaker  of  the  house  in  the  legislature  that 
organized  at  St.  Patrick's  hall,  which  was  ultimately  recognized 
by  President  Hayes  as  the  legal  legislature  of  the  state.  He  founded 
the  "Louis  Bush  medal  for  French"  at  the  Univei-sity  of  Louisi- 
ana, now  Tulane. 

Butler,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  southeastern  part  of  de  Soto  parish, 
is  about  6  miles  east  of  Pelican,  the  nearest  railroad  station. 

Butler,  Benjamin  F.,  lawyer  and  soldier,  M'as  born  at  Deerfield, 
X.  H.,  Nov.  5,  1818,  the  son  of  Jolua  Butler,  who  served  as  captain 
of  dragoons  ^ath  Gen.  Jackson  at  the  battle  of  New  Orleans,  Jan. 
8,  1815.  Benjamin  was  graduated  at  Waterville  college  (now  Col- 
by university)  in  1838,  then  studied  law  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1840.  He  soon  won  a  reputation  as  a  criminal  lawyer  and 
became  active  in  politics  as  a  Democrat.  In  1860  he  was  a  delegate 
to  the  Democratic  national  convention  at  Charleston,  but  was  one 
of  those  who  withdrew  and  subsequently  nominated  Breekenridge 
and  Lane.  At  the  breaking  out  of  the  Civil  war  lie  held  a  commis- 
sion as  brigadier-general  in  the  Massachusetts  militia,  and  was  or- 
dered by  the  governor  of  that  .state  to  proceed  to  Washington  with 
his  troops.  He  was  next  placed  in  command  at  Fortress  I\Ionroe, 
and  in  Feb.,  1862,  was  assigned  to  the  command  of  the  land  forces 
destined  for  tlie  capture  and  occupation  of  New  (Orleans.  On  ]\Iay 
1,  1862,  after  the  reduction  of  the  New  Orleans  defenses  by  Farra- 
gut's  tleet,  he  landed  his  army  and  occupied  the  city,  where  he  re- 
mained in  command  until  Dec.  16,  1862.  As  his  troops  marched  into 
the  city  they  were  hailed  with  maledictions  and  shouts  of  derision. 
This  may  have  made  Butler  more  severe  than  he  otherwise  would 
have  been  in  the  administration  of  affairs  in  the  vanquished  city, 
but  even  this  is  a  poor  excuse  for  many  of  his  harsh  and  imperious 
acts.  Shortly  after  his  arrival  he  sent  a  proclamation  to  the  office 
of  the  True  Delta  for  publication.  The  editor  refused  to  print  it, 
whereupon  the  office  was  seized  by  the  soldiers  and  tlie  proclama- 
tion was  set  up  by  printers  from  different  regiments  in  Butler's 
command.  On  the  2nd  Butler  established  his  headquarters  at  the 
St.  Charles  hotel,  and  after  a  conference  with  tlie  mayor  and  city 
council  it  was  decided  that  the  civil  authorities  should  continue  to 
exercise  their  power  in  everything  except  military  matters.  This 
arrangement  did  not  last  long,  however,  the  cause  of  the  charge 
being  tlie  famous  General  Order  No.  28,  which  was  issued  by  Butler 
on  ilay  15.  Naturally  the  women  of  New  Orleans  did  not  look  with 
favor  upon  the  occupation  of  their  city  by  an  enemy,  and  in  some 
instances  were  perhaps  too  free  in  their  manifestations  of  dislike. 
To  check  these  alleged  insults  the  order  above  referred  to  was  is- 


LOUISIANA  141 

sued  and  was  as  follows:  "As  the  officers  and  soldiers  of  the  United 
States  have  been  subject  to  repeated  insults  from  the  women  (call- 
ing themselves  ladies)  of  New  Orleans  in  return  for  the  most 
scrupulous  non-interference  and  courtesy  on  our  part,  it  is  ordered 
that  hereafter  when  any  female  shall  by  word,  gesture,  or  move- 
ment insult  or  show  contempt  for  any  officer  or  soldier  of  the  United 
States  she  shall  be  regarded  and  held  liable  to  be  treated  as  a 
woman  of  the  town  plying  her  avocation."  This  brought  a  protest 
from  the  mayor,  who  was  accordingly  removed  and  Gen.  George  F. 
Shepley  appointed  military  commandant  with  the  functions  of 
mayor.  Mayor  Monroe,  his  secretary.  Judge  Kennedy  and  the 
chief  of  police  were  arrested  and  taken  to  Fort  Jackson.  Pierre 
Soule  was  also  arrested  and  imprisoned  in  Fort  "Warren;  W.  B. 
Mumford  (q.  v.)  was  executed  in  June;  the  press  was  stifled;  cit- 
izens were  arrested  upon  the  slightest  pretext  and  sentenced  to 
Ship  island  where  the  men  were  often  condemned  to  hard  labor  and 
to  wear  the  ball  and  chain ;  property  of  Confederate  sympathizers 
was  confiscated ;  and  foreign  consi;ls  were  treated  with  insolence 
and  in  some  cases  with  absokite  injustice.  In  the  office  of  the  con- 
sul of  Holland  was  the  sum  of  .$800,000,  which  had  been  deposited 
there  for  the  payment  of  bills  to  Amsterdam  bankers.  This  money 
was  seized  by  Butler  who  claimed  that  it  had  been  intrusted  to  the 
consul  for  the  purpose  of  purchasing  supplies  and  munitions  of 
war,  but  in  August  the  president  ordered  the  return  of  the  money 
to  the  consul.  Butler  was  succeeded  by  Gen.  N.  P.  Banks  on  Dee. 
16,  1862,  and  on  taking  leave  of  the  people  of  New  Orleans  issued 
an  address  in  which  he  said:  "I  shall  speak  in  no  bitterness,  be- 
cause I  am  not  conscious  of  a  single  personal  animosity.  Command- 
ing the  Army  of  the  Gulf,  I  found  you  captured,  but  not  surren- 
dered ;  conquered  but  not  orderly ;  relieved  from  yoixr  presence  of 
an  army,  but  incapable  of  taking  care  of  yourselves.  So  far  from 
it,  you  had  called  upon  a  foreign  legion  to  protect  you  from  your- 
selves. I  restored  order,  punished  crime,  opened  commerce,  brought 
provisions  to  your  starving  people,  reformed  your  currency,  and 
gave  you  quiet  protection,  such  as  you  had  not  enjoyed  for  many 
years."  The  address  continued  in  the  same  strain  and  must  have 
appeared  as  a  superb  piece  of  irony  to  the  people  who  had  lived 
for  more  than  7  months  under  his  orders  in  constant  fear  for  life 
or  liberty.  James  Schouler,  in  his  History  of  the  United  States, 
says  of  Butler's  occupation  of  New  Orleans:  "In  one  way  or  an- 
other, Butler  laid  here  the  foundation  of  wealth  which  subserved 
his  later  ambition  in  politics,  and  those  he  attached  to  himself 
were  chiefly  such  as  sought  material  success  in  life  or  enjoyed  pun- 
ishing the  prostrate.  *  *  *  m  fitted  for  conqueror,  he  posed  as 
avenger."  After  the  war  Gen.  Butler  became  a  Republican,  was 
elected  to  Congress  in  1866,  and  with  the  exception  of  2  years  re- 
mained in  the  lower  house  until  1879.  In  1871  he  failed  to  receive 
the  nomination  for  governor  of  Massachusetts  and  became  some- 
what wavering  in  his  party  allegiance;  was  an  independent  candi- 
date for  governor  in  1878 ;  the  regular  Democratic  nominee  for  that 


U2  LOUISIANA 

ofiSee  iu  1879;  was  defeated  iu  both  eampaigus;  supported  Hau- 
cock  for  president  iu  1880;  was  again  nominated  for  governor  by 
the  Democratic  party  iu  1882,  for  want  of  a  better  candidate,  and 
tliis  time  was  elected.  He  died  in  Washington,  D.  C,  Jan.  11,  1893. 
Butler,  Thomas,  member  of  Congress,  was  born  at  Carlisle,  Pa. ; 
he  received  a  good  education  iu  his  native  state ;  removed  to  Lou- 
isiana, wliere  lie  was  elected  a  representative  to  the  15th  Con- 
gress, defeating  Edward  Livingston  for  the  position.  He  was  re- 
elected to  the  16th  Congress,  and  served  from  Fel).  26,  1818,  to 
March  .3,  1821.    He  died  at  New  Orleans,  Aug.  -i,  1847. 


Cabega  de  Vaca. — (See  Nuilez  Alvarez). 

Cabildo. — On  Nov.  25,  1769,  Gov.  O'Reilly  issued  a  proclamation 
abolishing  the  superior  council,  M-hich  for  more  than  half  a  century 
had  been  such  a  potent  agency  in  shaping  the  destinies  of  Louisi- 
ana, and  established  in  its  place  the  cabildo.  It  was  composed  of 
two  ordinary  alcaldes,  the  alferez  real,  the  provincial  alcalde,  the 
aguazil  mayor,  the  depository-general,  the  receiver  of  fines,  the 
attorney-general-syndic,  the  mayor-domo-de-proprios,  and  the  es- 
cribano  or  clerk.  By  virtue  of  Ins  office  the  governor  was  presi- 
dent of  the  cabildo,  but  in  his  absence  one  of  the  ordinary  alcaldes 
miglit  preside.  The  ordinary  alcaldes,  who  occupied  the  first  seats, 
were  judges  Avithin  the  city  in  civil  and  criminal  cases  where  the 
defendant  was  not  entitled  to  or  did  not  claim  the  privilege  of  a 
military  or  ecclesiastical  judge.  In  addition  to  their  duties  as 
members  of  the  cabildo  they  held  petty  courts  iu  tlieir  residences 
of  evenings,  at  which  they  gave  Tiiiwritten  decisions,  but  clergy 
and  soldiers  were  beyond  tlieir  jurisdiction.  In  cases  where  the 
amount  involved  did  not  exceed  .$20  no  record  was  kept,  and  when 
the  amount  exceeded  90,000  luaravedis  (.1^330.80)  the  defendant  had 
the  right  to  appeal  from  the  decision  of  the  ordinary  alcaldes  to 
the  cabildo  in  general.  The  alferez  real  was  an  honorary  office, 
his  duty  being  to  bear  the  royal  standard  on  public  occasions.  The 
principal  provincial  alcalde  had  jurisdiction  over  all  ott'euses  com- 
mitted outside  the  city  limits.  The  alguazil  mayor  executed  in  per- 
son or  by  deputy  all  processes  of  the  cabildo  and  liad  charge  of  the 
police  and  prisons.  The  depositary-general  took  charge  of  the  pub- 
lic revenues,  kept  and  dispensed  the  public  stores.  The  receiver  of 
fines  was  charged  with  the  collection  of  fines  and  penalties  imposed 
by  the  tribunal.  The  attorney-general-syndic  prosecuted  all  causes 
in  the  name  of  the  crown,  and  it  was  also  a  part  of  his  duty  to  de- 
fend the  rights  of  the  people  and  to  propose  measures  for  the  ad- 
vancement of  their  interests.  Tlie  mayor-domo-de-proprios  was 
simply  the  town  treasurer,  and  the  clerk  kept  a  record  of  the  pro- 
ceedings. According  to  Martin,  the  cabildo  sat  every  Friday,  but 
the  governor  had  power  to  convene  it  at  any  time.  Tlie  first  sitting 
was  on  Dec.  1,  1769,  with  Gov.  O'Reilly  presiding;  ordinary  alcaldes, 


LOUISIANA  143 

Dons  Lnis  Antonio  Lachaise  and  Jiian  Luis  Trndean,  who  served 
during  the  year  1770;  Alferez  real,  Don  Francisco  Maria  Reggio; 
principal  provincial  alcalde,  Don  Pedro  Francisco  Oliver;  alguazil 
mayor,  Don  Carlos  Juan  Bautista  Fleuriau ;  depositary-general, 
Don  Jose  Ducros ;  receivers  of  fines,  Dons  Dyonisio  Brand  and  An- 
tonio Bienvenu  ;  attorney-general-syndic,  Don  Luis  Rauson  ;  niayor- 
domo-de-proprios,  Don  Juan  Durel ;  clerk,  Don  Juan  Bautista  Garie. 

The  cabildo  was  abolished  by  Laussat  in  1803,  immediately  upon 
the  return  of  Louisiana  to  France.  The  building  known  as  the 
cabildo  (originally  called  the  casa  capitular)  was  erected  by  Don 
Andres  Almonester  in  1794,  on  the  site  of  the  town  hall,  which  had 
been  destroyed  by  fire,  just  south  of  the  church  and  fronting  the 
plaza.  For  a  long  time  it  was  believed  that  it  was  the  gift  of  Almo- 
nester to  the  city,  but  later  it  was  found  out  that  the  sum  of  $28,- 
500  had  been  returned  to  his  widow  and  daughters. 

At  the  cabildo  took  place  the  transfer  of  Louisiana  from  Spain  to 
France  on  Nov.  30,  1803,  and  from  France  to  the  United  States  on 
Dec.  20,  1803. 

Cabinet  Officers. — Louisiana  has  been  represented  in  the  cabinets 
of  three  presidents,  as  follows :  Edward  Livingston  was  appointed 
secretary  of  state  by  President  Andrew  Jackson  in  1831,  succeed- 
ing Martin  Van  Bureu ;  Charles  M.  Conrad  was  appointed  secretary 
of  war  by  President  Millard  Fillmore  in  1850,  and  served  until 
March  7,  1853,  when  he  was  succeeded  by  Jefferson  Davis;  Wil- 
liam H.  Hunt  entered  the  cabinet  of  President  James  A.  Garfield  as 
secretary  of  the  navy  on  March  5,  1881,  and  served  iintil  April  1, 
1882,  when  he  was  succeeded  by  William  E.  Chandler,  of  New 
Hampshire. 

Cable,  George  Washington,  author,  was  born  in  New  Orleans,  La., 
Oct.  12,  1844.  His  father  was  a  native  of  Virginia  and  his  mother 
of  New  England.  He  was  educated  in  the  schools  of  New  Orleans 
until  the  death  of  his  father,  when,  at  the  age  of  14  years,  he  was 
obliged  to  leave  school  to  help  support  his  mother  and  worked  as  a 
clerk  until  in  1863,  when  he  enlisted  in  the  4t'h  Miss,  cavalry  (Con- 
federate) and  served  until  the  end  of  the  war,  studying  in  his  spare 
time.  After  the  war  he  took  a  place  as  errand  boy  in  a  mercantile 
house ;  later  studied  civil  engineering  and  practiced  this  profes- 
sion for  some  time,  but  gave  it  up  because  of  malaria  contracted 
while  surveying  the  marsh  lands  along  the  Atchafalaya  river. 
Turning  his  attention  to  writing  he  contributed  work  to  the  New 
Orleans  Picayune  and  this  was  so  favorably  commented  on  that  in 
1869  he  became  one  of  the  editors  of  that  paper.  He  had  very  strong 
scrixples  against  the  stage  and  lost  his  position  on  the  paper  for 
refusing  to  edit  the  theatrical  news.  He  again  turned  to  clerical 
work  and  entered  the  employ  of  a  large  cotton  firm,  with  which  he 
remained  until  1879,  when  the  success  of  his  "Old  Creole  Days," 
which  had  been  published  in  Scribner's  Magazine,  induced  him  to 
turn  to  literature  as  a  profession.  In  1885  he  toured  the  northern 
states  with  Mark  Twain,  and  they  gave  readings  in  many  of  the 
large  cities.     Soon  after  this  he  settled  in  New  England,  making 


144  LOUISIANA 

his  home,  first  at  Simsbiii-y,  Conn.,  then  at  Xorthampton,  ilass. 
His  first  book  was  followed  by  "The  Grandissimes,"  "Dr.  Sevier," 
"The  Creoles  of  Louisiana,"  "The  Silent  South,"  and  several  other 
novels. 

Caddo  Parish. — The  history  of  Caddo  dates  back  to  1542,  when 
De  Soto  is  .supposed  to  have  explored  this  wilderness,  crossing  the 
Red  river  near  Fulton,  Ark.,  and  returning  to  the  Mississippi  by  way 
of  the  lakes  and  bayous.  Pere  Olnis  visited  the  Indian  tribes  of  the 
Red  River  and  the  Rio  Grande  in  1544.  and  between  that  time  and 
1682,  he  was  followed  by  many  of  the  zealous  fathers.  In  1700  the 
Red  river  was  explored  by  Bienville  and  St.  Denis,  and  in  1717  de 
la  Harpe  ascended  the  river  with  50  men  to  take  up  his  grant  of  land 
on  the  upper  Red  river.  He  established  a  post  at  33°  55',  just  across 
the  border,  in  what  is  now  Arkansas,  but  many  years  passed  before 
any  permanent  settlers  came  this  far  into  the  wilderness.  The  lands 
between  the  Sabine  and  Red  rivei's  were  claimed  by  both  France  and 
Spain  and  the  first  plantations  were  opened  and  cultivated  under 
grants  from  the  French  or  Spanish.  After  Louisiana  became  a  part 
of  the  L'uited  States,  the  Indians  ceded  all  this  country  to  the  gov- 
ernment, and  Caddo  prairie  became  the  scene  of  pioneer  operations, 
as  it  was  regarded  as  the  garden  spot  of  the  Red  river  valley.  Hun- 
dreds of  acres  were  under  cultivation  as  early  as  1836.  all  along  the 
banks  of  the  river  from  Grand  Ecore  to  beyond  the  Arkansas  state 
line.  One  of  the  first  settlements  was  made  at  Irwin's  Bluff,  by 
McXeil  and  Sprague,  who  soon  sold  out  to  James  Irwin,  a  son-in-law 
of  Henry  Clay.  Some  of  the  other  settlers  at  this  time  were  Joel 
Wadsworth,  Robert  Hamilton,  John  Herndon,  and  Dr.  J.  L.  Scott. 
One  of  the  first  settlements  in  the  Shreveport  neighboi'hood  was  the 
James  Cane  settlement,  and  towns  named  Coats'  Blutf  and  Red  Bluff 
were  laid  out,  but  never  settled  iip  as  the  river  changed  its  course  and 
they  were  left  withoiit  any  water  front.  Caddo  parish  was  created 
in  1838.  and  its  name  was  suggested  to  perpetuate  the  memory  of  the 
Red  river  valley  Indians.  In  1873  the  Democratic  convention  of  Texas 
proposed  annexing  Caddo  and  De  Soto  parishes  to  Texas.  The  resi- 
dents of  the  two  parishes  favored  these  propositions,  but  the  state  of 
Louisiana  would  not  agree  to  any  such  proceedings.  Shreveport,  the 
parish  seat,  was  started  as  a  town  in  1835,  when  a  large  force  of  raft 
removers  had  headquarters  there.  The  first  parish  court  was  opened 
Aug.  6.  1838,  by  Judge  Washington  Jenkins,  with  Samuel  C.  Wilson 
as  clerk  and  Samuel  B.  Hunter  as  deputy  clerk.  The  oldest  record  of 
the  police  jury  that  has  been  preserved,  is  dated  Sept.  4.  1840.  Judge 
Ephraim  K.  Wilson  opened  the  first  court  of  the  7th  judicial  district 
on  Sept.  3. 1839.  and  the  U.  S.  district  court  was  established  at  Shreve- 
port in  1881,  with  Alexander  Boarman  as  district  judge.  Caddo  par- 
ish lies  in  the  extreme  northwestern  corner  of  Louisiana,  on  the  bor- 
der lines  of  Texas  and  Arkansas;  it  is  in-egular  in  shape,  being 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Arkansas ;  on  the  east  by  Bossier  parish,  the 
Red  river  forming  the  183  miles  of  boundary  line ;  on  the  south 
bounded  by  Red  River  and  De  Soto  parishes  and  on  the  west  by  the 
Sabine  river,  which  separates  it  from  Texas.     Caddo  is  good  upland 


LOUISIANA  145 

with  some  alluvial  formation.  The  uplands  have  many  bayous  and 
lakes  and  a  soil  of  excellent  quality.  In  the  northern  portion  there 
are  heavy  cypress  brakes,  and  the  southwestern  portion  is  the  water 
shed  between  the  Red  and  Sabine  rivers.  The  Red  river  bottom  is 
from  2  to  8  miles  wide  and  the  soil  of  this  bottom  land  is  black,  vei\y 
deep  in  many  places,  and  of  almost  unsurpassed  fertility,  producing, 
when  above  inundation,  2  bales  of  cotton,  and  from  80  to  100  bushels 
of  corn  to  the  acre.  There  are  thousands  of  acres  of  iiplands,  which, 
when  brought  under  cultivation,  will  produce  immense  amounts  of 
cotton,  while  more  alluvial  land  is  being  reclaimed  every  year  by  tlie 
extension  of  the  levee  system.  Red  river  with  its  tributary  streams 
drains  the  eastern  portion.  Cypress  bayou  the  extreme  southern  por- 
tion, while  a  chain  of  lakes  consisting  of  Clear,  Cross,  Feriy,  Sodo, 
Swan  and  Roberta,  extend  above  Shreveport,  and  are  often  called 
Caddo  lake,  which  drains  the  central  portion,  and  Black  ba>ou,  with 
its  confluents,  runs  through  many  dense  cypress  brakes  in  the  north- 
ern portion.  The  foi'ests  of  the  parish  are  still  heavy  and  offer  a 
wealth  of  commercial  timber  to  the  lumberman.  The  trees  are  oak, 
gum,  elm,  beech,  hickory,  poplar,  sycamore  and  locust.  The  recent 
discoveries  of  oil  and  natural  gas  (q.  v.)  in  this  parish  have  done 
much  to  attract  the  attention  of  investors,  with  the  result  that  the 
industrial  development  of  the  parish  has  made  great  strides  since 
1905.  Crop  productions  are  varied,  with  cotton  far  in  the  lead,  and 
corn  second.  Live  stock  thrives  on  the  uplands,  and  some  of  the  finest 
grades  of  cattle,  sheep,  hogs  and  horses  are  raised  there,  as  good  pas- 
ture can  be  obtained  the  greater  part  of  the  year.  Game  and  fish 
are  plentiful  and  of  excellent  i|uality.  Caddo  has  the  best  transpor- 
tation facilities.  The  Kansas  City  Southern  R.  R.  enters  near  the 
center  of  the  northern  boundary,  runs  southeast  to  Shreveport,  and 
from  there  directly  south  to  Wallace's  lake;  the  Missouri,  Kansas  & 
Texas  R.  R.  runs  west  from  Shreveport;  the  Texas  &  Pacific  enters 
the  northern  boundary,  follows  the  general  course  of  the  Red  river 
to  Shreveport,  and  then  runs  southwest  to  Hadley;  the  Houston  & 
Shreveport  runs  southwest  from  Shreveport  to  Logansport  in  De  Soto 
parish;  the  Louisiana  Railway  &  Navigation  company,  the  Vicksburg. 
Shreveport  &  Pacific,  and  the  St.  Louis  Southwestern  railroads  all 
center  at  Shreveport.  The  following  statistics  are  taken  from  the  U. 
S.  census  for  1910:  Number  of  farms,  4,872;  acreage,  331,636;  acres 
improved,  211,002  ;  value  of  land  and  improvements  exclusive  of  build- 
ings, $6,516,597 ;  value  of  farm  buildings,  $1,299,890 ;  value  of  live 
stock,  $1,359,060;  total  value  of  products,  $2,641,588.  The  population 
was  58,200. 

Cades,  a  village  in  the  extreme  southwest  corner  of  St.  Martin 
parish,  is  about  6  miles  southwest  of  St.  Martinville,  the  parish  seat, 
and  has  a  population  of  350.  It  is  at  the  junction  of  two  divisions 
of  the  Southern  Pacific  R.  R.  system,  which  makes  it  an  important 
shipping  point.  It  has  a  money  order  postoffiee,  and  is  the  trad- 
ing center  of  a  rich  agricultural  district. 

Cadeville,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  western  part  of  Ouachita  parish 

I— 10 


146  LOUISIANA 

on  a  confliient  of  the  Ouachita  river,  about  6  miles  southwest  of 
Fleming,  the  nearest  railroad  station. 

Cadillac,  Antoine  de  la  Motte,  one  of  the  early  French  governors 
of  Louisiana,  was  born  in  Gaseony,  France,  about  1660,  of  noble 
family.    At  an  early  age  he  entered  the  French  army  and  rose  to 
the  rank  of  captain.    In  1691  he  received  a  grant  of  land  in  Amer- 
ica and  from  169-1  to  1699  was  commandant  at  ^lackinaw.     Two 
years  later  he  received  a  commission  from  Louis  XIV  to  found  a 
settlement  somewhere  near  the  foot  of  Lake  Huron,  and  on  July 
2-4  of  that  year,  landed  on  the  site  of  the  present  city  of  Detroit, 
Mich.,  "with  50  soldiers,  50  colonists,  and  2  priests,"  who  had  made 
the  voyage  igom  Quebec  in  bark  canoes  in  49  days.     His  rashness 
and  irritable  disposition  brought  about  trouble  in  the  colony  and 
in  1701:  he  was  tried  at  Quebec  for  official  misconduct,  but  was  ac- 
quitted and  governed  at  Detroit  for  several  years.     He  then  re- 
turned to  France,  where  he  became  associated  with  Antoine  Crozat 
in  mercantile  pursuits,  and  when  the  latter  was  granted  a  monopoly 
of  the  Louisiana  trade,  he  appointed  Cadillac  governor.     He  ar- 
rived at  ilobile  on  March  17,  1713,  and  it  was  not  long  until  the 
same  traits  of  character  that  had  involved  liim  in  trouble  at  Detroit 
began  to  manifest  themselves  in  Louisiana.    He  had  been  instructed 
to  seek  for  gold  and  silver,  which  were  believed  to  exist  in  bounti- 
ful quantities  in  Louisiana,  and  wasted  much  time  in  a  vain  search 
for  the  precious  metals.    He  refused  to  listen  to  or  cooperate  with 
Bienville,  who  had  been  with  the  colony  from  its  incipience,  and  by 
arbitrary  actions  alienated  the  Indian  tribes  with  whom  Bienville 
had  established  friendly  relations.     In  a  short  time  he    began     to 
write  complaining  letters  to  his  superior  in  Prance.    In  one  of  these 
he  says:     "What  can  I  do  with  a  force  of  fortj'  soldiers,  out  of 
whom  five  or  six  ai-e  disabled?    A  pretty  army  this,  and  well  cal- 
culated to  make  me  respected  by  the  inhabitants  or  by  the  Indians! 
As  a  climax  to  my  vexation,  they  are  badly  fed,  badly  paid,  badly 
clothed  and  without  discipline.     As  to  the  officers,  they    are    not 
much  better.     Verily,  I  do  not  believe  that  there  is  in  the  Avholo 
universe  such   another   government."     This   would    indicate     that 
Cadillac's  notion  of  government  was  to  have  a  large  and  well  dis- 
ciplined army,  so  he  could  command  by  force  the  "respect  of  the 
inhabitants  and  the  Indians."    It  would  doubtless  have  been  better 
had  he  tried  to  win  the  respect  of  the  people    by    measures     less 
harsh,  and  by  the  adoption  of  a  policy  that  would  have  contributed 
more  to  their  material  welfare.     In  the  summer  of  1716  Cadillac 
was  recalled  to  Fi-ance,  where  he  died  about  1720.      (See     Crozat 
Grant.) 

Caflfery,  Donelson,  lawyer,  soldier  and  U.  S.  senator,  was  born 
in  St.  Mary's  parish,  La.,  Sept.  10,  1835.  He  was  ediicated  at  St. 
Mary's  college,  of  Maryland,  after  which  he  studied  law  and  was 
admitted  to  the  bar.  In  Jan.,  1862,  he  enlisted  as  a  private  in  the 
Ci-escent  Rifles,  joining  his  command  at  Corinth,  Miss.,  but  two 
months  later  was  transferred  to  the  13th  La.  infantry,  with  which 
he  served  in  the  Corinth  campaign  and  the  battle  of  "Shiloh.    After 


LOUISIANA  147 

that  engagement  he  returned  to  New  Orleans,  where  he  soon  after- 
ward received  a  eonimission  as  second  lieutenant  in  the  1st  La. 
regular  infantry.  This  commission  was  signed  by  Jefferson  Davis, 
president  of  the  Confederate  States.  Before  reaching  his  command 
Lieut.  Caffery  was  detailed  as  an  aide-de-camp  on  the  staff  of 
Gen.  John  6.  Walker,  Avho  had  been  assigned  to  the  command  of 
a  division  under  Gen.  Eichard  Taylor  in  Louisiana.  He  served  in 
this  capacity  for  two  years,  taking  part  in  the  battles  of  Brashear 
and  Franklin  and  the  principal  engagements  of  the  Red  River  cam- 
paign in  the  spi'ing  of  1864,  after  which  he  was  ordered  to  join  his 
regiment  at  Mobile.  Upon  reaching  tliat  city  he  found  that  his 
command  had  moved  and  was  again  assigned  to  Gen.  Walker's 
staff,  but  before  he  could  report  for  duty  the  war  came  to  an  end. 
He  then  resumed  his  law  practice  and  became  extensively  inter- 
ested in  sugar  planting.  Mr.  Caft'ery's  first  active  connection  with 
political  affairs  was  in  1879,  when  he  was  elected  a  delegate  to  the 
constitutional  convention.  In  1892  he  was  elected  to  the  state  sen- 
ate, and  the  same  year  was  appointed  to  the  U.  S.  senate  to  fill 
the  vacancy  cavised  by  the  death  of  Gen.  Randall  L.  Gibson.  The 
legislature  of  1894  elected  him  for  the  remainder  of  this  unexpired 
term,  and  at  its  close  he  was  elected  for  a  full  term  of  six  years. 
He  was  succeeded  by  Murphy  J.  Poster  on  Jlareh  4,  1901.  Upon 
retiring  from  the  senate  he  resumed  his  law  practice  until  his  death 
in  1906. 

Calcasieu  Parish. — The  legislative  act  creating  this  parish  was 
approved  March  24,  1840.  It  is  situated  in  the  southwestern  part 
of  the  state  on  the  Texas  border  and  is  bounded  on  the  north  by 
Beauregard  parish ;  on  the  east  by  Jeft'  Davis  parish ;  on  the  south 
by  Cameron  parish,  and  the  Sabine  river  forms  its  entire  western 
boundary,  separating  it  from  Texas.  Calcasieu  has  an  area  of 
about  936  square  miles. 

The  early  history  of  the  parish  dates  back  to  the  closing  years  of  the 
18th  century,  when  the  tract  between  the  Rio  Hondo  and  the  Sabine 
river,  called  for  years  the  "neutral  strip,"  was  under  Spanish  juris- 
diction. In  1797,  a  large  grant  of  land  was  made  to  Jose  M.  Mora,  in 
this  vicinity,  and  the  country  soon  filled  up  with  desperadoes  from 
the  eastern  states  until  it  became  a  notorious  refuge  for  outlaws.  Pili- 
busterers  from  Carolina,  Georgia  and  Mississippi  filled  the  Rio  Hondo 
grant,  and  quite  a  period  elapsed  before  any  permanent  settlers  ven- 
tured to  take  up  claims  in  the  district.  Some  of  the  first  to  take  up 
land  were  Charles  Sallier,  an  Italian,  who  settled  in  Calcasieu  at  the 
beginning  of  the  19th  century.  His  name  is  perpetuated  by  the  city 
of  Lake  Charles.  The  Ryan,  Perkins,  Le  Blue  and  a  number  of  other 
English  speaking  families  settled  on  the  Rio  Hondo  lands,  as  Calcasieu 
was  then  known,  between  1811  and  1824.  Nearly  all  of  these  pioneers 
remained  on  the  east  side  of  the  river,  those  on  the  west  were  Joseph 
Cornow,  Hiram  Ours,  Dempsey  He,  Elias  Blount,  David  Choate,  Philip 
Deviers,  Joshua  Johnson,  John  Gilchrist,  George  Ower,  Isaac  Goster, 
Joseph  Clark,  Llitehell  Neil  and  John  Henderson.  At  a  later  date 
some  Acadians  emigrated  from  the  parishes  east  of  Calcasieu,  so  that 


148  LOUISIANA 

today  the  population  is  mixed,  consisting  of  Creoles,  Acadians.  Ameri- 
cans and  Indians,  or  their  half-breed  descendants.  After  the  organi- 
zation of  the  parish  the  first  courthouse  was  6  miles  fi"om  Lake  Charles, 
at  a  small  place  called  Marion,  but  which  is  now  known  as  Old  Town. 
About  1851-2,  the  parish  seat  was  removed  to  Lake  Charles,  where  a 
courthouse  was  erected  in  1872  and  a  jail  in  1873.  The  surface  of  the 
parish  is  nearly  level  and  is  partly  covered  with  savannas  or  open 
plains,  which  make  excellent  pastui'e  for  cattle  as  they  are  covered 
nearly  the  entire  year  with  luxuriant  grasses.  Originally  about  60 
per  cent,  of  the  pari.sh  was  covered  with  long  leaf  yellow  pine,  as 
the  northwestern  half  is  pine  flats  and  pine  hills.  The  eastern  half 
is  upland  and  prairie.  A  little  marsh  land  and  cypress  swamp  exists 
along  the  southern  boundaiy  and  the  center  of  the  parish,  while  all 
the  alluvial  land  lies  along  the  Sabine  river  and  the  other  water 
courses.  The  soil  of  the  uplauds,  while  not  so  fertile  as  that  of  the 
eastern  parishes,  produces  all  kinds  of  field  crops  in  paying  quantities 
and  the  rich  alluvial  laud  will  prodiiee  as  much  cotton  to  the  acre 
as  the  northern  and  eastern  parishes.  The  chief  industry  up  to 
recent  years  was  lumbering,  the  heavy  forests  providing  an  almost 
inexhaustible  supply  of  yellow  pine,  and  millions  have  been  invested 
in  the  lumber  interests.  As  the  pine  woods  were  cleared  away,  cattle 
raising  became  an  important  industry.  Better  breeds  of  stock  were 
introduced,  as  well  as  improved  methods  of  handling,  feeding,  etc. 
Today  the  crop  productions  are  principally  rice  and  sugar,  though 
cotton,  sweet  and  Irish  f)otatoes  and  some  small  grains  are  raised. 
Until  recently  fruit  culture  was  not  considered  profitable  except  in 
the  northern  part  of  the  parish,  but  both  soil  and  climate  are  adopted 
to  the  growth  of  fruit  trees  and  horticulture  is  a  growing  industry. 
Fruits  and  nuts  such  as  oranges,  peaches,  pears,  plums,  pecans,  guavas, 
pomegranates,  prunes  and  figs,  are  profitably  ■grown  and  exported  to 
the  northern  markets  during  the  winter  months.  Inexhaustible  de- 
posits of  sulphur  have  been  found  in  the  parish,  and  the  sulphur  mine 
at  Sulphur  City  is  one  of  the  richest  in  the  world.  Large  gj-psum 
beds  exist,  oil  of  a  high  grade  has  been  found,  and  though  none  of 
the  wells  so  far  have  been  gushers,  the  pumping  wells  are  paying. 
Gas  wells  have  been  struck  south  of  Sulphur,  Init  so  far  have  not  been 
put  to  commercial  use.  The  principal  streams  of  the  parish  are  the 
Sabine,  Houston  and  Calcasieu  rivers.  Bayou  Xez])if|ue.  and  their 
many  tributaries,  which  all  flow  south  to  the  Gulf  of  ilexico.  Trans- 
portation facilities  are  excellent.  The  Southern  Pacific  R.  R.  crosses 
the  southern  part  of  the  parish  from  Mermenton  on  the  east  to  Orange 
on  the  Sabine  river,  and  a  bi'anch  of  the  same  system  runs  from  Lake 
Charles  to  Lake  Arthur,  in  the  southeastern  part  of  the  parish;  the 
St.  Loi\is,  Watkins  and  Gulf  R.  R. ;  the  Colorado  Southern  R.  R. ; 
the  Kansas  City  Southern  R.  R.,  are  other  roads.  Lake  Charles, 
the  parish  seat,  is  the  largest  and  most  important  town  in  the  par- 
ish. The  following  statistics  are  taken  from  the  U.  S.  census 
for  1910:  Number  of  farms  3.199;  acreage,  490,594;  acres  improved, 
274,260;  value  of  farms  and  improvements  exclusive  of  buildings,  $8,- 
341,377;  value  of  farm  buildings,  $1,693,650;  value  of  live  stock.  $2,- 


LOUISIANA  149 

401,476;  total  value  of  all  crops,  $3,668,378.  The  population  is 
62,767".  These  figures  include  the  three  new  parishes  of  Allen, 
Beauregard  and  Jeff  Davis,  which  have  been  organized  since  that 
date. 

Caldwell  Parish,  situated  in  the  north-central  part  of  the  state, 
is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Ouachita  parish ;  on  the  east  by  Richland 
and  Franklin  parishes;  on  the  south  by  Catahoula  parish,  and  on  the 
west  by  Winn  and  Jackson  parishes.  Caldwell  parish  was  established 
in  1838,  during  the  administration  of  Gov.  Edward  White,  and  up 
to  that  time  formed  a  part  of  Catahoula,  one  of  the  original  19  par- 
ishes created  by  the  first  legislature  of  Orleans  territory  in  1807.  Upon 
the  organization  of  the  parish,  Columbia  was  selected  and  has  re- 
mained the  parish  seat.  The  first  meeting  of  the  es-officio  members  of 
the  police  jury  was  held  at  the  house  of  Fleming  Noble,  March  13, 
1838.  The  members  of  the  board  were  Thomas  B.  Rutland,  James  A. 
Woodbridge,  John  Gray  and  Jacob  Humble,  .justice  of  the  peace,  and 
William  B.  Snow,  parish  judge.  In  April,  1839,  Judge  Henry  Boyce 
presided  over  the  first  district  court,  which  was  held  in  a  log  building 
hurriedly  erected  as  a  court  house,  and  used  for  several  years  until 
torn  down  to  make  room  for  a  more  modern  structure.  At  an  early  date 
a  man  by  the  name  of  Copeidmgen  started,  about  a  mile  west  of  the 
Ouachita  river  on  a  small  prairie,  a  store,  which  became  a  trading  post 
and  around  which  quite  a.  settlement  sprang  up  within  a  few  years. 
The  second  settlement  was  made  on  Bayou  Castor,  in  the  western  part 
of  the  parish  by  immigrants  of  Scotch,  English  and  Irish  descent  from 
the  older  states.  Here  settled  the  Strouds,  Nortons,  Bannisters  and 
other  families.  In  1827,  Daniel  Humphreys  settled  where  the  city 
of  Columbia  now  stands,  and  3  miles  west  of  Columbia  a  bear 
hunter  by  the  name  of  Riley  Baker  made  a  settlement,  which  bears 
his  name  today.  A.  A.  Banks,  another  early  settler,  became  a 
wealtliy  planter  and  merchant.  A  numljer  of  Frenchmen  came 
into  the  i^arish  and  located  east  of  the  Ouachita  river,  where  their 
descendants  still  own  some  of  the  fine  plantations.  The  formation 
of  Caldwell  is  pine  hills,  good  uplands  and  alluvial  bottom  land.  Its 
physical  outlines  are  rugged  and  broken  in  the  upland  i^ortions, 
but  the  soil  is  rich  and  productive.  All  the  country  west  of  the 
Ouachita  is  wooded  upland,  with  many  valleys,  having  a  general 
trend  north  and  south.  The  hills  are  covered  with  fine  timber,  such 
as  pine,  oak,  ash,  beech,  hickory,  <.dm,  poplar,  magnolia,  locust, 
holly,  maple,  walnut  and  willow,  while  the  valleys  are  exceedingly 
rich,  farm  lands.  It  is  said  that  the  valley  of  the  Ouachita  and  its 
tributary  streams  has  the  richest  cotton  land  in  the  world.  The 
eastern  part  of  the  parish  is  watered  by  the  Ouachita  and  Boeuf 
rivers  and  their  branches ;  the  west  and  soiithwest  part  by  Bayou 
Beaucoup  and  Little  river,  and  other  portions  of  Bayous  Castor, 
Lafourche  and  ilarengo.  The  principal  products  are  cotton,  corn, 
and  potatoes,  while  rice,  sugar,  sorghum,  oats  and  tobacco  are  all 
paying  crops.  On  the  uplands  stock  raising  is  an  important  in- 
dustry, cattle,  hogs  and  horses  being  exported  in  considerable 
numbers.    All  the  hardy  fruits  thrive  well  in  this  latitude  and  prove 


150  LOUISIANA 

a  source  of  income  to  the  farmei's.  In  the  marshes  are  deposits  of 
fire  and  potter's  clay,  iron  and  marl,  but  thej'  have  not  been 
worked  much  as  yet  and  a  great  opportunity  is  offered  in  their 
development.  The  principal  industries  are  lumbering,  wooden- 
ware  manufacturing  and  fruit  canning.  The  St.  Louis,  Iron  j\Ioiin- 
tain  &  Southern  E.  K.  traverses  the  center  of  tlie  parish  north  and 
south  affording  transportation  by  rail,  while  cheap  shipping  is  fur- 
nished by  water  on  the  Ouachita  river.  The  parish  maintains  pub- 
lic schools  for  both  white  and  black.  Columbia,  the  parish  seat, 
is  the  most  important  town.  Other  towns  and  villages  are  Lively, 
Kelly,  Blankston,  Kiverton,  Grayson  and  Sinope.  The  following 
statistics  are  from  the  U.  S.  census  for  1910:  Number  of  farms,  956; 
acreage,  121,016 ;  acres  improved,  37,078 ;  value  of  lands  and  im- 
provements exclusive  of  buildings,  $853,849 ;  value  of  farm  build- 
ings, $329,880;  value  of  live  stock,  $320,959;  total  value  of  crops, 
$321,842.     The  popiUation  in  1910  was  8,593. 

Calhoun,  a  village  and  station  in  the  extreme  western  portion  of 
Ouachita  pai'ish,  on  the  Vicksburg,  Shreveport  &  Pacific  R.  E.,  is 
about  15  miles  west  of  jMonroe,  the  parish  seat.  It  has  a  money 
order  postoffice,  1  free  rural  delivery  route,  an  express  office,  tele- 
phone and  telegraph  facilities,  and  a  population  of  200. 

Calumet,  a  village  in  the  northern  part  of  St.  Mary  parish,  is  a 
station  on  the  Southern  Pacific  E.  E.,  about  10  miles  southeast  of 
Franklin,  the  parish  seat.  It  has  a  moue.y  order  postofi&ce,  an 
express  office,  telegraph  and  telephone  facilities,  and  does  consid- 
erable shipping. 

Calumet. — This  word  denoted  an  important  ceremonial  observ- 
ance by  the  Indians  of  Louisiana,  and  throughout  the  United 
States  and  Canada  generally.  It  means  a  pipe,  and  is  derived  from 
the  Norman  M-ord  "chalumeau,"  which  was  the  name  of  a  rustic 
pipe  or  musical  instrument  iised  by  the  shepherds  at  their  rural 
feasts  and  dances.  The  Norman-French  settlers  of  Canada  first 
applied  it  to  the  ceremonial  pipe  of  the  Indians,  and  it  grew  into 
general  use.  The  Indians  employed  it  both  as  a  symbol  of  peace 
and  of  war.  The  head  or  bowl  of  this  pipe  was  made  of  baked  clay, 
or  soft  red  stone,  fashioned  to  look  like  the  head  of  a  bird  or  animal, 
and  was  somewhat  larger  than  the  common  tobacco  pipe.  The 
head  was  fixed  to  a  hollow  reed  or  cane,  about  a  yard  in  length,  and 
verj^  much  ornamented  Avith  the  feather  of  the  paroquet,  wild  tur- 
key, some  species  of  water-fowl,  or  with  that  of  the  eagle  or  other 
bird  of  prey.  When  the  calumet  was  used  to  proclaim  war  it  was 
adorned  with  the  feathers  of  birds  of  prey ;  as  a  peace  symbol,  with 
the  feathers  of  water-fowl,  etc.  Among  the  Indians  the  dance  and 
song  of  the  calumet  of  peace  was  an  interesting  and  very  solemn 
ceremony  which  often  lasted  several  days,  and  was  only  made  use 
of  on  important  occasions,  such  as  to  confirm  an  alliance,  make 
peace  with  their  neighbors,  as  a  token  of  friendship  to  strangers 
who  arrived  among  them,  or  when  one  tribe  visited  another,  when 
it  was  made  the  occasion  of  a  grand  entertainment  with  much  feast- 
ing and  dancing. 


LOUISIANA  151 

"While  Iberville  was  constructing  Port  Maurepas  in  1799,  the 
Paseagoulas,  Colapissas,  Chickasaws,  Pensacolas  and  Biloxis,  headed 
by  their  several  chiefs,  came  with  great  ceremony  to  the  fort, 
singing  and  holding  out  the  calumet.  Iberville  smoked  it  solemnly 
in  conformity  to  the  Indian  custom.  The  ceremony  lasted  three 
days,  and  the  Indians  danced  and  sang  thrice  daily.  Again,  after 
the  completion  of  Port  Rosalie  among  the  Natchez  in  1716,  some 
600  Natchez  warriors,  together  with  about  30  Yasous,  danced  the 
calumet  before  the  fort,  to  signify  their  joy  over  the  new  alliance 
with  the  French. 

Calvin,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  western  portion  of  Winn  parish,  is 
a  station  on  the  Louisiana  &  Arkansas  R.  R.,  about  8  miles  north- 
west of  Winufield,  the  parish  seat. 

Cambon,  Jules,  a  Prench  legislator  and  diplomat,  was  born  in  the 
city  of  Paris,  April  5,  1845,  was  educated  in  his  native  city,  and 
in  1866  began  the  practice  of  law.  He  served  as  a  soldier  in  the 
Prench  army  in  the  Pranco-Prussian  war  in  1870-71,  and  in  the 
latter  year  was  appointed  a  member  of  the  provisional  commission 
that  replaced  the  council  of  state.  In  1874  he  was  made  director- 
general  of  civil  affairs  of  Algeria;  became  secretary-general  of  the 
prefecture  of  police  in  the  department  of  the  Seine  in  1879 ;  was 
made  governor-general  of  Algeria  in  1891  but  after  a  brief  service 
was  sent  to  "Washington  as  the  Prench  ambassador  to  the  United 
States,  which  position  he  held  until  1902.  On  Jan.  26,  1902,  he 
arrived  in  New  Orleans  as  the  guest  of  the  Atheuee  Louisianais, 
which  society  tendered  him  a  reception,  and  before  which  he  deliv- 
ered an  address  in  the  Prench  language.  He  also  delivered  an 
address  before  the  Prench  Circle  of  the  Tulane  University  of 
Louisiana. 

Cameron,  the  seat  of  justice  in  tlie  parish  of  the  same  name,  is 
located  on  the  Calcasieu  river,  about  half  way  between  Calcasieu 
lake  and  the  Gulf  coast.  As  the  entire  parish  is  without  a  railroad, 
Cameron  has  to  depend  largely  on  the  river  for  its  transportation. 
It  is  one  of  the  smallest  parish  seats  in  the  state,  having  a  population 
of  200.  Its  commercial  importance  is  much  greater,  however,  than 
the  census  would  indicate,  as  it  is  the  source  of  supply  for  a  consid- 
erable district.  The  town  was  originally  called  Leesburg  and  it  is 
mentioned  by  that  name  in  the  acts  of  the  legislature  of  1874,  the 
courthouse  having  been  destroyed  by  fire  on  Peb.  26  of  that  year. 
The  principal  point  of  interest  about  Cameron  is  the  gulf  biologic 
station,  which  was  established  here  by  act  of  the  legislature. 

Cameron  Parish,  with  an  area  of  1,445  square  miles,  was  estab- 
lished in  1870,  during  the  reeonsti-uetion  period,  while  Henry  Clay 
Warmoth  was  governor.  It  was  created  from  portions  of  Calcasieu 
and  Vermilion  parishes,  and  forms  the  southwest  extremity  of  Lou- 
isiana. It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Calcasieu  parish;  on  the  east 
by  Vermilion  parish ;  on  the  south  by  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  on 
the  west  by  Texas,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  Sabine  river, 
which  widens  into  Sabine  lake  before  it  enters  the  gulf.     Among 


152  LOUISIANA 

the  early  settlers  were  John  'SI.  Smith  and  George  McCall,  whose 
families  were  for  several  years,  the  only  ones  at  Grand  Cheuier. 
George  W.  Wakefield  came  from  Ohio  and  located  about  a  mile 
from  Leesbnrg  (now  Cameron)  in  1840.  Cameron  has  not  been 
settled  thickly,  owing  to  its  vast  area  of  sea  mai-sh  lands.  The  set- 
tlements have  been  confined  to  the  highlands,  above  overflow.  The 
principal  toMii  is  Cameron,  the  parish  seat,  and  the  only  other  set- 
tlements of  consequence  are  Grand  Chenier.  Hackberry,  Grandlake, 
Johnson's  Bayoii,  Berry,  Shellbank  and  Lakeside.  Cameron  parish 
has  no  railways,  but  transportation  and  shipping  facilities  are  pro- 
vided by  water  on  the  Calcasieu  river, to  Lake  Charles  and  over 
the  Gulf  and  ^Mississippi  river  to  New  Orleans.  The  formation  is 
largely  sea  marsh,  from  which  Cameron  derives  the  name  "sea 
marsh"  parish.  Part  of  the  parish  is  level,  open  prairie,  which 
makes  excellent  pastiire  for  cattle  and  sheep  and  live  stock  is  one  of 
the  important  industries.  In  the  alluvial  belt  the  soil  is  extremely 
rich  and  highly  productive.  Calcasieu  lake  divides  the  parish 
nearly  in  equal  halves:  the  principal  water  courses  are  the  Calca- 
sieu, ]\Iermentau  and  Sabine  rivers.  The  Calcasieii  flows  through 
Calcasieu  lake  before  it  falls  into  the  gulf.  The  natural  water  sup- 
ply is  excellent  for  live  stock,  but  cistern  water  has  to  be  used  for 
all  domestic  purposes.  Timber,  mostly  cypress,  oak  and  willow, 
grows  in  some  quantities  along  the  lakes  and  rivers.  Rice 'and  svigar 
are  the  principal  crop  prodiictions,  but  market  gardening  is  a 
growing  industry.  The  rich  soil  of  the  alluvial  bottoms  and  mild 
climate  combine  to  make  scientiflc  horticulture  profitable  to  the 
small  farmer,  and  the  orange  industry  has  increased  with  remark- 
able rapidity  within  the  last  few  years.  The  other  fruits  are  the 
lemon,  olive,  fig,  grape,  banana,  giiava,  prune,  plum,  mandarin  and 
peach.  Oil  and  gas  have  been  discovered  in  the  jiarish,  and  when 
developed  it  is  expected  they  will  be  a  source  of  wealth.  Game,  such 
as  wild  ducks,  wild  geese,  jack  snipe,  papabot  and  rice  birds,  is 
abundant  along  the  lakes  and  salt  marshes  of  the  coast.  Fish  are 
abundant,  the  sheepshead,  red  flsh,  pompano,  salt  water  trout.  Span- 
i.sli  mackerel,  carp,  shrimp  and  crabs  all  being  foiind  in  large  num- 
bers, and  under  state  protection  the  oyster  and  terrapin  industry  is 
becoming  one  of  the  first  in  Louisiana.  As  soon  as  shipping  facili- 
ties are  provided  it  is  expected  that  canning  Avill  become  important, 
and  shrimp  and  oysters  exported. 

The  following  statistics  are  from  the  IT.  S.  census  for  lf)10: 
Number  of  farms,  597;  acreage  in  farms,  105,525;  acres  improved, 
27,900;  value  of  land  and  improvements  exclusive  of  buildings, 
$907,469;  value  of  buildings,  $199,000;  value  of  live  stock,  $.35-4,908; 
value  of  all  crops,  $323,117.    The  population  was  4,288. 

Cammack,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  eastern  part  of  Natchitoches  par- 
ish, is  about  6  miles  east  of  the  city  of  Natchitoches  and  3  miles 
southAvest  op  Colora,  which  is  the  nearest  railroad  station. 

Cajnp,  a  post-village  in  the  central  portion  of  Claiborne  parish, 


LOUISIANA  153 

is  a  station  on  the  Louisiana  &  Northwest  R.  R.,  about  6  miles 
northwest  of  Homer,  the  parish  seat. 

Campbell,  John,  a  British  general,  was  in  command  of  the  Eng- 
lish forces  and  their  Indian  allies  in  Florida  during  the  closing  years 
of  the  Revolutionary  war,  where  he  was  opposed  by  Gov.  Galvez 
of  Louisiana.  On  March  14,  1780,  he  tried  to  drive  Galvez  out  of 
Fort  Charlotte,  but  was  defeated  and  fell  back  to  Pensacola,  which 
place  he  strongly  fortified  and  occupied  for  a  year.  When  Galvez 
appeared  before  Pensacola  in  JMarch,  1781,  a  spirited  correspond- 
ence occurred  between  him  and  Gen.  Campbell.  On  the  night  of 
March  21,  some  houses  in  front  of  Galvez 's  camp  were  burned,  and 
the  next  daj'  the  governor  wrote  to  Campbell  accusing  him  of  acting 
in  bad  faith,  adding:  "I  shall  see  Pensacola  burn  with  the  same 
indifference  as  I  would  see  its  cruel  incendiaries  perish  in  its  ashes." 
To  this  Campbell  replied:  "I  shall  destroy  as  much  as  possible, 
and  in  this  I  shall  only  be  fulfilling  my  duty  towards  my  king  and 
my  country,  a  motive  much  more  potent  for  me  than  the  fear  of 
your  displeasure."  On  May  9  following  this  correspondence  Pen- 
sacola was  surrendered  to  Galvez,  Campbell  and  Gov.  Chester  sign- 
ing the  articles  of  capitulation,  in  which  Galvez  was  generous 
enough  to  permit  the  British  to  leave  the  country  under  the  agree- 
ment that  they  woiild  not  again  take  up  arms  against  the  Spanish. 
Campbell  and  his  English  soldiers  at  Pensacola,  as  well  as  those 
stationed  at  Baton  Rouge  and  Mobile,  were  taken  to  Brooklyn  by 
the  Spanish,  and  there  thej^  joined  the  British  forces  that  were 
engaged  in  war  with  the  American  colonies. 

Campti,  a  village  in  the  northern  part  of  Natchitoches  parish,  is 
one  of  the  oldest  settlements  in  the  Red  river  valley  after  Natchi- 
toches and  Alexandria.  The  region  was  explored  by  Bienville,  St. 
Denis  and  La  Harpe  during  the  early  years  of  the  colony,  and  long 
before  the  close  of  the  18th  century  traders  located  where  Campti 
now  stands  to  carry  on  their  traffic  with  the  tribes  of  Indians  along 
the  Red  and  Sabine  rivers.  In  1805  Hypolite  Bordelin  bought  a 
tract  of  land  of  the  Indians  .just  north  of  Campti,  but  the  claim  was 
not  confirmed  by  the  U.  S.  commissioners.  On  April  4,  1864,  a 
.spirited  skirmish  occurred  here,  and  during  the  action  the  town 
caught  fire  and  was  almost  entirely  destroyed.  Campti  is  a  station 
on  the  line  of  the  Loiiisiana  Railway  &  Navigation  Company,  about 
9  miles  north  of  the  City  of  Natchitoches.  It  has  a  money  order 
postoffiee,  express  and  telegraph  offices,  is  quite  a  trading  and  ship- 
ping point,  and  has  a  population  of  664. 

Caney,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  westei-n  pai"t  of  Vei'non  parish,  is 
about  8  miles  west  of  Leesville,  the  parish  seat  and  nearest  banking 
town  and  railroad  station. 

Canton,  a  post-village  and  station  in  Allen  parish,  is  on  the  St. 
Louis,  Iron  Slountain  &  Southern  R.  R.,  about  35  miles  northeast  of 
Lake  Charles.     Population,  100. 

Capdevielle,  Paiil,  soldier,  lawyer  and  ex-mayor  of  New  Orleans, 


154  LOUISIANA 

was  born  in  that  city  in  1S42.  At  the  age  of  IS  years  he  was  grad- 
uated at  the  Jesuit  college,  and  in  1S62  entered  the  Confederate 
army  as  a  member  of  Capt.  Richard  M.  Boone's  company  of  artil- 
lery, with  which  he  sei'ved  in  the  engagement  at  Plains  Store,  and 
after  that  in  the  intrenchments  at  Port  Hudson  until  he  was  se- 
verely wounded  on  June  27,  1863.  He  was  taken  prisoner"  when 
Port  Hudson  capitulated,  but  was  exchanged  toward  the  close  of 
the  year  and  ordered  to  Mobile,  thence  to  Charleston,  S.  C,  where 
he  was  attached  to  LeGardeur's  battery  (the  Orleans  Guard  artil- 
lery), which  was  assigned  to  duty  on  James'  and  Sullivan's  islands. 
Wlien  Charleston  was  evacuated  on  Feb.  12,  1S65,  the  battery  was 
placed  in  the  rear-guard  of  the  retreat  and  was  daily  engaged 
with  the  advance  of  Sherman's  army.  It  participated  in  the 
battles  of  Averasboro  and  Bentonville,  and  surrendered  with  Gen. 
Johnston's  army  on  April  26,  1865.  Mr.  Capdevielle  then  returned 
to  New  Orleans,  where  he  found  emplo^Tnent  as  a  clerk,  studying 
law  as  opportunity  offered,  and  in  1868  graduated  in  the  law  de- 
partment of  the  University  of  Louisiana.  From  that  time  until 
1885  he  was  engaged  in  the  practice  of  his  profession.  Init  in  the 
latter  year  he  became  president  of  the  Merchants'  Insurance  Com- 
pany. In  1900  he  was  elected  mayor  to  succeed  Walter  Flower.  As 
the  chief  municipal  executive  he  welcomed  President  ilcKinley  to 
New  Orleans  on  the  occasion  of  his  visit  on  IMay  1,  1901;  attended 
the  dedication  exercises  of  the  Louisiana  Purchase  Exposition  at 
St.  Louis  on  April  30.  1903':  and  on  the  same  date  an  addres's  in 
Fi-eneh  prepared  by  Mayor  Capdevielle  was  read  in  the  Cabildo  at 
New  Orleans.  Mr.  Capdevielle  has  always  taken  a  keen  interest  in 
city  affairs ;  has  served  on  the  levee  board ;  the  city  park  and  other 
improvement  associations :  as  a  member  of  the  IMardi  Gras  carnival 
associations;  and  as  an  officer  of  the  Pickwick  and  Opera  clubs. 
He  is  now   (1914)   serving  his  third  terra  as  auditor  of  state. 

Capital. — The  State  of  Louisiana  has  shifted  its  seat  of  govern- 
ment six  different  times.  When  it  was  admitted  into  the  Union  in 
1812  the  capital  Avas  situated  at  New  Orleans.  The  fii-st  state  leg- 
islatTire  passed  a  joint  resolution  declaring  it  expedient  that  the 
seat  of  government  be  removed  "to  some  more  convenient  place" 
and  directing  that  a  committee,  to  consist  of  two  members  of  the 
state  senate  and  three  representatives,  should  consider  and  investi- 
gate the  various  sites  suggested,  receive  any  donations  of  property 
which  might  be  tendered  the  state,  and  report  to  the  general  as- 
sembly at  the  session.  A  few  days  later  Gov.  Claiborne  officially 
approved  this  resolution,  but  no  further  record  of  it  can  be  found, 
and  New  Orleans  continued  to  be  the  seat  of  government  for  nearly 
20  years  thereafter.  On  Feb.  4,  1825,  the  general  assembly  iointly 
resolved  that  the  state  govei*nment  be  moved  to  Donaldsonville  on 
or  before  Jan.  21,  1826,  and  that  the  governor  attend  to  the  matter 
of  removing  the  state  archives  and  other  belongings  to  the  new 
capital.     On  Feb.  19  of  the  same  year  the  legislature  reconsidered 


LOUISIANA  155 

its  former  action  by  enacting  that  New  Orleans  continue  to  be  the 
seat  of  government  until  May  1,  1829,  when  the  capital  should  be 
established  at  Donaldsonville.  The  general  assembly  met  at  the 
latter  place  in  Jan.,  1831,  but  became  dissatisfied  with  the  qiiarters 
there,  and  on  Jan.  6  adjourned  to  New  Orleans,  where  the  re- 
mainder of  the  session  was  held.  The  sergeant-at-arms  and  the 
door-keepers  of  both  houses,  under  the  surveillance  of  the  secretary 
of  the  senate  and  the  chief  clerk  of  the  house,  attended  to  the  mat- 
ter of  transferring  the  legislative  archives  and  furniture  back  to 
New  Orleans,  where  the  governmental  headquarters  were  located 
until  Mar.  9,  1846,  when,  in  compliance  with  Art.  112  of  the  constitu- 
tion of  1845,  the  general  assembly  enacted  that  after  Jan.  1,  1849, 
the  tovm  of  Baton  Rouge  was  to  be  the  capital  of  Louisiana.  This 
act  also  directed  that  the  governor  appoint  a  commission  to  be 
composed  of  three  members  to  attend  to  the  matter  of  selecting  a 
suitable  site  from  among  those  offered  in  the  above  named  town. 
The  capital  was  accordingly  established  there,  and  Art.  107  of  the 
constitution  of  1852  decreed  that  "The  seat  of  government  shall  be 
and  remain  at  Baton  Rouge,  and  shall  not  be  removed  without  the 
consent  of  three-fourths  of  both  houses  of  the  general  assembly." 
On  Mar.  15,  the  last  day  of  the  first  session  of  1855,  it  was  enacted 
that  on  the  first  day  of  the  general  election  in  the  following  Novem- 
ber a  poll  of  the  voters  should  be  taken  at  every  election  precinct 
in  the  state  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  as  to  whether  or  not  the 
seat  of  government  should  be  removed  from  Baton  Rouge  to  New 
Orleans,  and  this  act  further  directed  that  such  vote  was  to  be 
counted  by  the  governor,  the  secretary  of  state  and  the  attorney 
general,  who  were  to  assemble  in  the  executive  mansion  on  Dec.  1, 
1855,  for  siich  purpose.  The  majority  of  the  state's  electors  voted 
adversely  to  removing  the  governmental  headquarters  and  the  next 
session  of  the  general  assembly  convened  at  Baton  Rouge  on  Jan. 
23,  1856.  The  capital  remained  at  that  place  until  after  the  begin- 
ning of  the  Civil  war.  Wlien  the  Federal  troops  took  possession  of 
New  Orleans  in  1862,  Gov.  IMoore  retired  to  Opelousas,  where  he 
maintained  his  execi^tive  oiifice  for  some  time,  and  in  Jan.,  1864, 
Gov.  Allen  established  his  seat  of  government  at  Shreveport,  which 
city  remained  the  Confederate  capital  of  the  state  up  to  the  close  of 
the  war.  Article  130  of  the  constitution  of  1864  declared  that  "the 
seat  of  government  shall  be  and  remain  at  New  Orleans,  and  shall 
not  be  removed  without  the  consent  of  a  majority  of  both  houses  of 
the  general  assembly."  Consequently  on  Oct.  1,  1864,  the  govern- 
ment of  the  state  was  fully  established  in  the  metropolis  of  Louisi- 
ana, where  it  remained  for  more  than  seventeen  years.  A  short  time 
prior  to  the  constitutional  convention  of  1879  the  people  of  Baton 
Rouge  offered  to  contribute  a  liberal  sum  of  money  to  be  used  in 
defraying  the  expense  of  repairing  the  old  state-house  there,  in  case 
the  convention  should  decide  to  re-establish  the  seat  of  government 
at  that  place.    This  proposition  was  looked  upon  with  favor  by  the 


156  LOUISIANA 

couvention  aud  article  150  of  the  orgauic  law  of  the  state  drawu  up 
and  adopted  by  that  distinguished  body  deelarred  that  "The  seat  of 
government  shall  be  and  remain  at  the  City  of  Baton  Rouge.  The 
general  assembly  shall  at  its  first  session  make  the  necessary  appro- 
priations for  the  repair  of  the  state-house  and  for  the  transfer  of 
tlie  archives  of  the  state  to  Baton  Rouge :  and  the  City  of  Baton 
Rouge  is  hereby  authorized  to  issue  certificates  of  indebtedness  in 
siich  manner  and  form  as  to  cover  the  subscription  of  $35,000  ten- 
dered by  the  citizens  and  the  city  council  of  said  city;  provided, 
that  the  City  of  Baton  Rouge  shall  pay  into  the  state  treasury  the 
said  amount  before  the  contract  for  repairs  at  the  state-house  shall 
be  finally  closed."  Accordingly  the  next  session  of  the  general  as- 
sembly, the  above  constitutional  provision  having  been  complied 
with,  made  the  appropriations  necessary  for  the  restoration  of  the 
capital  at  Baton  Rouge.  The  last  session  of  tlie  legislature  ever  held 
in  New  Orleans  convened  in  the  old  capital  building  there  on  Dec. 
5,  1881,  and  adjourned  sine  die  Jan.  4,  1882.  On  Mar.  1  of  that  year 
the  administrative  branch  of  the  government  became  fully  estab- 
lished in  the  renovated  capital  at  Baton  Rouge,  more  than  two 
months  in  advance  of  the  general  assembly,  which  convened  there 
for  the  first  time  on  May  8,  1882.  The  seat  of  government  has  been 
retaini'd  there  from  that  time  to  the  present. 

Capitol. — Wlien  Louisiana  became  a  state  the  old  territorial  gov- 
ernment house  was  employed  as  the  state  capitol,  as  it  was  for 
many  years  thereafter.  The  first  legislative  appropriation  for  the 
erection  of  a  state-house  was  made  on  Feb.  19,  1825,  when  $30,000 
was  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  five  commissioners,  authorized  by 
the  same  enactment,  who  were  to  attend  to  the  matter  of  select- 
ing a  site  and  "letting  the  contract"  for  .such  a  building  at  Donald- 
sonville.  But,  as  recorded  in  the  article  on  "Capital,"  the  existence 
of  Donaldsonville  as  the  seat  of  government  was  short-lived  and 
in  the  early  part  of  the  ,vear  1831  the  seat  of  government  was  re- 
turned to  New  Orleans.  That  the  legislature  had  entirely  given  up 
the  idea  of  again  employing  the  old  state-house  at  Donaldsonville 
is  manifested  by  the  fact  that  on  March  30,  1833,  it  was  enacted  that 
all  right,  title  and  interest  in  the  state-house  property  at  the  last 
named  place  be  donated  to  the  parish  of  Ascension  to  be  employed 
as  a  seminary  of  learning. 

That  the  capitol  at  New  Orleans  was  not  very  commodious  is 
evinced  by  the  legislative  act  of  April  2,  1835,  which  directed  that 
the  governor,  state  treasurer,  secretary  of  state  and  the  engineer 
in  charge,  sho\ild  constitute  a  commission  to  attend  to  the  matter 
of  altering,  repairing  and  enlarging  the  building,  for  which  they 
Avere  to  have  at  their  disposal  $15,120.50,  and  that  they  were  also 
to  look  after  the  matter  of  reroofing  "the  two  public  offices  in  gov- 
ernment square."  for  which  $2,187  was  appropriated.  On  ^March 
27,  1843,  the  legislature  appropriated  $2,000  to  render  the  liuildings 
on  the  state-house  square  more  "suitable  and  convenient  for  the  use 
of  the  officers  of  the  state,  and  to  .supply  them  with  the  necessary 


LOUISIANA  157 

furniture."  On  Jan.  23,  1847,  the  legislature  of  the  preeedinu-  year 
having  enacted  that  the  seat  of  government  be  transferred  to  Baton 
Rouge  in  accordance  Avitli  article  112  of  the  constitution  of  18-45, 
an  appropriation  of  $100,000  was  made  which  was  to  be  paid  in  five 
installmeuts,  viz.:  $20,000,  Mar.,  1847;  $20,000,  June  1,  1847; 
$15,000,  July  1,  1847 ;  $20,000,  Oct.  1,  1847 ;  and  $25,000  on  Jan.  1, 
1848.  This  act  also  directed  that  the  commissioners  whose  appoint- 
ment had  been  provided  for  at  the  session  of  1846  should  proceed 
to  select  a  site  for  a  state-hoiise  at  Baton  Rouge,  and  that  they 
should  also  attend  to  the  matter  of  "letting  the  contract"  for  the 
erection  of  such  structure.  On  March  16,  1848,  the  general  assem- 
bly placed  $100,000  more  at  the  disposal  of  the  commissioners,  one 
half  of  which  was  to  be  available  for  the  completion  of  the  building, 
proper  and  was  to  be  payable  as  follows:  $15,000,  Julv  1;  $15,000, 
Sept.  1 ;  and  $20,000  on  Nov.  1,  1848.  The  other  half  of  this  appro- 
priation was  to  be  employed  for  the  embellishment  of  the  intei'ior 
of  the  structure  and  was  to  be  available  in  the  following  manner: 
$20,000,  April  1 ;  $15,000,  July  1 :  and  $15,000  on  Oct.  1,  1849.  Great 
credit  is  due  the  three  commissioners — Senator  Maunsel  White  and 
Representatives  Walter  Brashear  and  D.  D.  Averj^ — for  the  assid- 
uous enterprise  which  they  displayed  in  looking  after  the  details 
in  the  erection  of  this  capitol,  which  was  located  upon  a  site  con- 
taining 120,000  square  feet  of  ground,  generously  contributed  to 
the  state  by  the  citizens  of  Baton  Rouge,  overlooking  the  Missis- 
sippi river,  the  building  being  less  than  120  yards  from  this  historic 
waterway.  Dee.  1,  1849,  was  the  day  set  for  the  dedication  of  the 
new  structure,  and  the  citizens  of  Baton  Rouge  had  subscribed 
several  thousands  of  dollars  that  the  official  opening  might  be  at- 
tended with  suitable  and  imposing  ceremonies.  But  only  eight 
days  prior  to  the  day  set  for  this  event  the  city  was  visited  by  a 
most  disastrous  fire,  nearly  one-fifth  of  the  municipality  being  com- 
pletely devastated.  Upon  the  thoughtful  and  generous  suggestion 
of  Isaac  Johnson,  then  governor  of  the  state,  and  Gov. -elect  Joseph 
Walker,  a  large  part  of  the  above  mentioned  subscription  was  di- 
verted to  a  more  worthy  cause — the  aid  and  relief  of  the  numerous 
victims  of  the  fire — hence  the  dedication  of  the  new  state-house  was 
not  attended  with  the  pompous  ceremonies  which  had  been  orig- 
inally planned.  In  the  summer  of  1857  the  capitol  was  equipped  with 
a  modem  gas  lighting  plant,  for  the  installation  of  which  the  legis- 
lature of  that  year  had  appropriated  $3,500. 

Soon  after  the  reoccupation  of  the  capitol  city  by  the  Federal 
forces,  just  a  few  days  previous  to  Christmas,  1862,  Gen.  Cuvier 
Grover  indiscreetly  quartered  some  negro  troops  in  the  capital, 
and  some  of  these  while  in  the  act  of  preparing  their  supper  on  the 
evening  of  Dee.  28,  aceidently  set  fire  to  the  building.  The  dili- 
gent co-operative  efforts  of  the  municipal  firemen  and  the  Federal 
soldiers  arrested  the  progress  of  the  flames,  however,  and  the  build- 
ing was  not  greatly  damaged.  But  at  about  4  o'clock  of  the  follow- 
ing morning  a  fire  was  discovered  in  another  portion  of  the  build- 
ing, and  as  it  had  then  gained  considerable  volume  the  heroic  ef- 


158  LOUISIANA 

forts  of  soldiers  aud  civilians  were  -without  avail  aud  it  was  com- 
pletely destroyed.  Among  other  severe  losses  the  fine  state  library, 
the  value  of  wliich  was  estimated  at  $80,000,  was  utterlj'  annihi- 
lated. As  the  state  was  then  too  deeply  ingrossed  in  the  throes  of 
the  great  Civil  war  the  eapitol  was  not  immediately  i-ebuilt.  Later 
on  the  government  was  housed  in  leased  quarters  at  Opelousas  and 
Shreveport,  the  state  government  recognized  by  the  national  ad- 
ministration being  established  at  New  Orleans.  At  a  session  of 
the  general  assembly,  held  at  Shreveport,  $3,000  was  appropriated 
on  Jime  20,  1863,  for  the  rental  of  rooms  which  were  occupied  as 
state  offices  and  legislative  halls.  Although  the  constitutional  con- 
ventions of  1864  and  1868  specifically  designated  New  Orleans  as 
the  capital  of  the  state,  the  state-house  grounds  at  Baton  Rouge 
were  retained  in  tlie  state's  possession,  aud  ou  April  -i.  1865,  a 
legislative  enactment  provided  that  a  state  gardener,  to  have  gen- 
eral charge  of  the  premises  was  to  be  employed,  at  a  salary  of  $720 
per  annum. 

That  Louisiana,  soon  after  the  cessation  of  hostilities,  was  sorely 
in  need  of  more  spacious  and  ample  quarters  for  the  housing  of  her 
state  departments  and  the  sittings  of  the  legislature,  is  evinced  in 
the  fact  that  in  the  latter  part  of  the  summer  of  1865  arrangements 
were  made  whereby  the  historic  Mechanics'  Institute  in  New  Or- 
leans was  to  be  leased  to  the  state  at  the  rate  of  $8,000  per  annum. 
But  much  reconstruction  and  repair  work  was  necessary  to  put  the 
building  into  the  proper  condition,  and  on  Dec.  18,  1865,  the  legis- 
lature appropriated  -$7,050.10  to  defray  the  expenses  incurred  there- 
by. However,  the  authorities  wei'e  not  satisfied  with  these  quar- 
ters for  any  length  of  time,  and  on  Feb.  28,  1867,  the  legislature 
concurrently  adopted  a  resolution  which  set  forth  that  "the  IMe- 
chanics'  Institute,  in  its  present  condition,  does  not  afl:'ord  the 
necessary  accommodations  which  the  legislature  and  the  state 
offices  require;  that  the  mechanics'  society  be  required  and  em- 
powered to  make  the  necessary  repairs,  and  to  finish  all  of  the 
rooms  throughout  the  said  building,  the  same  to  be  ready  for 
occupancy  on  or  before  the  first  day  of  Nov.,  1867."  The  same 
enactment  appropriated  $15,000  for  the  performance  of  this  work. 
But  upon  the  completion  of  the  task  prescribed  in  the  above  resolu- 
tion the  quarters  were  still  inadequate,  and  in  the  early  '70s  it 
became  necessary  for  the  state  to  lease  rooms  elsewhere  for  the 
quartering  of  various  offices.  On  Feb.  10.  1873,  it  was  legisla- 
tively resolved  that  Attorney  General  A.  P.  Field  be  appropriated 
the  sum  of  $1,200  per  annum  with  which  to  defrny  the  expense  of 
leasing  oiatside  qiiarters  for  his  department. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  year  1875  the  state  authorities  began 
casting  about  to  find  a  suitable  site  upon  which  to  construct  a  eapi- 
tol. But  becoming  aware  of  the  fact  that  the  old  St.  Louis  Hotel 
eoTild  be  had  at  a  moderate  figure  the  legislature,  in  Feb.,  1875, 
authorized  the  purchase  of  this  hostelry,  the  sum  of  $250,000  beins 
appropriated  for  that  purpose.  The  governor  vetoed  the  bill,  but 
the  general  assembly  passed  it  over  the  veto  and  it  became  a  law 


LOUISIANA  159 

without  his  signature.  This  building  continued  to  be  the  capitol 
until  after  the  seat  of  government  had  been  returned  to  Baton 
Rouge,  when  it  was  sold  by  order  of  the  legislature  of  1882. 

After  the  last  named  city  had  been  designated  as  the  capital  of 
the  state  by  authority  of  article  150  of  the  constitution  of  1879,  and 
after  that  municipality  had  paid  into  the  state  treasury  the  $35,000 
which  had  been  promised  in  the  constitutional  convention,  the  legis- 
lature on  April  6,  1880,  appropriated  $141,000  for  the  reconstruc- 
tion of  the  old  capitol  at  Baton  Rouge,  one-half  of  which  sum  was 
to  be  available  during  the  year  1880  and  the  other  half  during  the 
following  year.  On  April  10,  1880,  it  was  enacted  that  a  commis- 
sion, to  be  comprised  of  the  governor,  who  was  to  act  as  the  ex- 
officio  chairman  thereof,  the  lieutenant-governor,  two  commission- 
ers to  be  elected  by  the  state  senate  from  among  its  membership, 
and  three  representatives  selected  by  the  lower  house,  was  to  have 
general  supervision  and  charge  of  all  the  details  in  connection  with 
the  renovation  of  the  building.  An  additional  appropriation  of 
$126,302.17  was  granted  on  Dee.  19,  1881,  to  be  at  the  disposal  of 
the  above  mentioned  commissioners,  the  same  enactment  also 
authorized  that  $4,000  be  available  for  the  purpose  of  defraying  the 
expense  of  returning  the  state's  archives  to  the  new  capitol,  and  it 
provided  $1,275  forinsurins  the  latter.  On  June  30,  1882,  a  final 
appropriation  for  the  completion  of  the  state-house  was  made  in 
the  sum  of  $36,700,  the  administrative  offices  of  the  state  were 
established  there  on  March  1,  1882,  and  the  general  assembly  was 
convened  thei-e  for  the  first  time  on  May  8,  of  the  same  year. 

Louisiana  solons  have  taken  as  much  pride  in  maintaining  in  a 
modern  and  "up-to-date"  style,  the  capitol  and  the  grounds  there- 
about, as  they  have  in  enacting  progressive  legislation  for  the  gen- 
eral welfare  of  the  commonwealth.  During  the  forepart  of  the 
year  1894  the  state-house  was  wired  and  fixtures  were  installed, 
that  the  state  departments  and  legislative  halls  therein  might  be  il- 
luminated by  electricity,  for  which  the  general  assembly,,  on  July  7 
of  that  year,  appropriated  $1,086.  In  the  month  of  June,  1906,  a 
fire  broke  out  in  the  senate  chamber,  and  before  it  could  be 
checked  wrought  no  little  damage,  leaving  the  offices  immediately 
underneath  exposed  to  the  elements.  On  June  29  of  that  year,  the 
legislature  concurrently  resolved  that  the  governor,  within  48  hoiu-s, 
advertise  for  bids  for  the  restoration  thereof,  and  that  he  be 
authorized  to  accept  or  reject  any  such  bid.  On  the  second  day  of 
July,  1908,  the  legislature  passed  an  act  to  the  effect  that  the 
horticulturist  and  director  of  the  state  experiment  stations  be  au- 
thorized to  beailtify  the  state-house  grounds,  and  those  about  the 
governor's  mansion,  and  that  he  have  at  his  disposal  the  sum  of 
$1,500  per  annum,  for  two  years,  to  defray  the  expenses.  On  the 
same  day  $2,380.21  was  appropriated  to  pay  the  state's  pro  rata  of 
the  amount  due  the  Bitulithic  company  of  Nashville,  Tenn.,  for 
installing  the  smooth,  durable  and  substantial  pavement  on  those 
streets  surrounding  the  grounds. 

The  present  capitol  is  one  story  higher  than  its  predecessor,  and 


i 


160  LOUISIANA 

is  a  fiue  gothic  structure,  with  circular  turrets  which  rise  from  the 
ground  aud  crown  the  extremities  of  the  building,  and  smaller  tur- 
rets which  top  the  larger  ones.  Situated  as  is  this  edifice,  on  tlie 
wooded  highland  overlooking  the  "Father  of  Waters,"  it  reminds 
one  of  the  days  of  chivalry  and  feudalism,  when  the  ma.iestic  and 
stately  turreted  castles  were  Avont  to  play  a  leading  role  in  the 
civil  and  military  affairs  of  the  world. 

Capuchins. — This  well  known  order  of  the  Roman  Catholic  church 
is  a  branch  of  the  order  of  Franciscan  monks,  which  originated 
with  ]\Iatteo  di  Basso,  an  Observantine  Franciscan  in  the  convent 
of  ]\rontefalco,  Urbino,  Italy,  in  152.5.  They  are  the  third  of  the 
chief  branches  of  the  Franciscans,  and  soiight  to  restore  the  orig- 
inal rigor  of  the  institutions  of  St.  Francis,  which  had  been  some- 
what relaxed  by  Pope  Innocent  IV,  when  he  granted  them  the 
privilege  of  possessing  property. 

They  have  very  strict  discipline,  are  committed  to  absolute  pov- 
erty aud  have  rendered  great  service  in  the  mission  field.  At  first 
they  did  not  cultivate  learning,  but  have  done  so  since  the  17th 
century.  In  1722,  the  province  of  Louisiana  was  divided  into  three 
grand  ecclesiastic  districts.  The  first  extending  from  the  mouth  of 
the  ilississippi  river  to  the  Illinois  river,  was  entrusted  to  the  Cap- 
uchins, who  were  tlms  among  the  first  to  administer  to  the  spir- 
itual wants  of  the  people  of  New  Orleans.  Churches  and  chapels 
were  started  throughoiit  the  colony,  as  the  only  places  of  worship 
up  to  this  time  had  been  sheltered  spots  in  the  forests  mnrked  by 
rude  crosses.  In  1724,  there  arrived  from  France  two  Capuchin 
monks  to  whom  was  intrusted  the  spiritual  control  of  New  Or- 
leans. An  arrangement  was  made  with  the  Jesuits  (q.  v.)  by  which 
the  superior  of  that  order  was  permitted  to  live  in  New  Orleans, 
but  could  not  exercise  any  of  the  ecclesiastical  functions  of  the 
chiirch  without  the  permission  of  the  Capuchins.  Father  Bruno, 
the  superior  of  the  Capuchins,  was  appointed  vicar-general  of  New 
Orleans  by  the  bishop  of  Quebec,  in  which  diocese  the  province  of 
Louisiana  was  inchided.  He  became  curate  and  was  assisted  by 
two  monks  as  vicars.  A  monastery  was  soon  built  by  the  members 
of  the  order  resident  in  New  Orleans,  on  the  square  below  the 
church,  now  occupied  ]\v  the  presbytery.  In  17.5,i  a  religious  war- 
fare broke  out  in  the  colony  known  as  the  "War  of  the  Capuchins 
and  Jesuits,"  and  produced  great  excitement  in  the  city  and  colony 
at  the  time.  Gayarre  chronicles  the  events  as  follows:  "In  the 
agreement  entered  into  with  the  India  Company  in  1726,  the  Jesuits 
had  taken  care  to  procure,  as  an  apparently  insignificant  favor,  that 
their  STiperior  might  reside  in  New  Orleans,  on  the  condition  that 
he  should  not  discharge  any  ecclesiastical  function  there,  luiless  it 
should  be  with  the  consent  of  the  superior  of  the  Capuchins.  But 
when  Father  Dasobert,  the  superior  of  the  Capuchins  asked  the 
superior  of  the  Jesuits  to  give  his  blessing  to  the  chapel  for  the 
hospital  of  the  poor  of  the  parish,  the  latter  claimed  that  this  gave 
him  .inrisdiction  in  the  district.  In  17fi4  the  Capuchins  were  rid 
of  their  adversaries  as  a  result  of  the  order  of  expidsion  against  the 


^ 


LOUISIANA  161 

Jesuits,  issued  by  the  French  goverument.  Gov.  O'Reilly,  who  took 
possession  of  the  province  in  the  name  of  the  Iviug  of  iSpain,  issued 
a  proclamation  and  instituted  a  number  of  changes,  but  none  took 
place  in  the  ecclesiastical  government  of  Louisiana.  Father  Hilarie 
de  Geneveaux  was  superior  of  the  French  Capuchins  at  the  time  the 
province  became  a  Spanish  possession,  and  when  he  refused  to  join 
the  superior  council  in  their  revolt  against  the  Spanish  govern- 
ment he  was  seat  out  of  the  country.  Father  Dagobert  became 
abbot  in  his  place,  received  Gov.  O'Reilly,  and  blessed  the  Spanish 
troops  and  colors  as  vicar-general  of  the  colony.  The  Capuchins 
were  also  maintained  in  the  curacies  of  their  parishes.  In  1789 
six  Capuchin  friars  arrived  at  New  Orleans  from  Spain,  among  them 
the  celebrated  Father  Antonio  Sedella  (q.  v.),  who  became  curate 
of  the  parish,  which  he  served  for  nearly  fifty  years.  Trouble  arose 
between  the  Spanish  and  French  friars,  in  which  the  Spanish  gov- 
ernor became  involved.  The  matter  was  referred  to  the  court  at 
Madrid  by  both  parties,  the  governor  upholding  the  French  Capu- 
chins and  the  vicar-general  the  Spanish  brothers,  who  claimed  the 
French  members  of  the  order  were  not  living  up  to  the  riiles  of  the 
order.  The  government  did  not  decide  upon  the  question,  but  ad- 
vised the  bishop  and  governor  to  "compromise  the  disagreement  as. 
would  best  preserve  the  harmony  between  the  civil  an  ecclesiastic 
authorities  in  the  colony."  This  advice  was  taken  and  the  quarrel 
ended,  the  Capuchins  continuing  to  administer  to  the  people  of 
New  Orleans. 

Cardenas,  Louis  Peiialver  y,  1st  Roman  Catholic  bishop  of  the 
Floridas  and  Louisiana,  was  born  in  Havana,  Cuba,  April  3,  1719. 
He  was  the  son  of  Don  Diego  Peiialver  and  Maria  Louisa  de 
Cardenas,  who  was  of  noble  descent.  When  Louis  Cardenas  was 
very  young  he  determined  to  become  a  priest  and  entered  the  Jesuit 
college  of  St.  Ignatius  at  Havana.  While  he  was  a  student  there 
the  pragmatic  sanction  of  Charles  III  suppressed  all  the  colleges 
of  the  Jesuit  society  and  expelled  the  Jesuits  from  the  lands  ruled 
by  Spain.  Cardenas  then  went  to  the  university  of  St.  Jerome 
where  he  received  the  degree  of  Ph.  D.,  in  1771.  Two  years  later 
the  bishop  of  Santiago  de  Cuba  appointed  him  vicar-general  and 
while  employed  in  the  administration  of  that  office  he  learned  the 
details  and  difficulties  of  the  church  in  the  Floridas  and  Louisiana. 
This  made  him  well  fitted  to  take  charge  of  the  diocese  when  it 
was  created  in  1793.  He  was  consecrated  bishop  of  the  diocese  of 
the  Floridas  and  Louisiana  in  Havana  and  took  up  his  episcopal 
residence  in  New  Orleans  on  July  17,  1795.  Bishop  Cardenas  im- 
mediately began  pi;tting  the  affairs  of  the  diocese  in  order,  by  re- 
quiring the  priests  in  charge  of  congregations  to  report  annually  as 
to  the  temporal  and  spiritual  welfare  of  their  parishes.  In  New 
Orleans  he  was  unable  to  found  any  great  institutions,  but  was 
active  along:  educational  lines;  he  had  progressive  ideas  and  was  a 
great  benefactor  of  the  poor.  Li  1806  he  was  made  archbishop  of 
Guatemala  and  transferred  to  Havana,  where  he  died  on  July  17, 
1810. 

I— 11 


162  LOUISIANA 

Carencro,  an  iucorporated  town  in  the  uortliern  part  of  Lafayette 
parish,  is  situated  on  the  Southern  Pacific  R.  R.,  6  miles  north  of 
Lafayette,  the  parish  seat  and  nearest  banking  point.  It  has  a 
money  order  postoffice,  express  ofi&ee,  telephone  and  telegraph 
facilities,  and  is  the  distributing  point  for  a  very  large  district.  Its 
population  is  609. 

Caresse,  Pierre,  Avas  one  of  the  leading  merchants  of  New  Or- 
leans at  the  time  the  province  of  Louisiana  was  ceded  to  Spain  in 
1763.  When  Gov.  Ulloa  issued  his  order  regarding  the  methods  of 
conducting  the  commerce  of  the  colony,  it  was  Caresse  who  drew 
up  the  petition  to  the  superior  council,  asking  that  body  not  to 
enforce  the  order,  and  with  a  body  of  insurgents  guarded  the 
council  chamber  to  prevent  the  members  from  leaving  it  until  they 
had  rendered  a  favorable  decision  on  the  petition.  In  the  Revolu- 
tion of  1768,  he  furnished  food  to  the  Acadians  and  was  otherwise 
active  in  compassing  the  expulsion  of  Ulloa.  In  a  letter  to  La- 
freniere  he  said:  "This  day  will  be  the  most  beautiful  in  your  life; 
we  hope  to  see  re-vive  in  Louisiana  the  orator  of  Rome  and  'M.  de 
Meaupou  to  uphold  the  rights  of  the  nation."  For  his  activity 
in  the  opposition  to  Spanish  authority  he  was  arre.sted  by  order  of 
Gov.  O'Reilly  on  Aug.  21,  1769,  charged  with  being  "one  of  the 
chief  and  principal  promoters  of  the  conspiracy,"  and  sentenced  to 
death.  In  company  with  five  others  he  was  shot  by  Spanish  sol- 
diers on  Oct.  2.5,  1769.  Thoiigh  he  died  as  a  felon,  his  memory  is 
still  cherished  in  Louisiana  as  that  of  a  man  of  humane  instincts, 
courageous  in  his  loyalty  to  Fi-ance,  and  faithful  to  the  interests  of 
his  countrymen. 

Carmelites,  or  the  order  of  Our  Lad.v  of  ilount  Carmel,  is  a 
monastic  order  of  the  Roman  Catholic  church.  It  was  founded  on 
Mount  Carmel,  in  the  Holy  Land,  in  1157,  by  the  Crusader  Ber- 
thold  of  Calabria,  but  the  Carmelites  claim  to  have  been  instituted 
by  the  Prophet  Elijah.  They  were  compelled  by  the  Saracens  to 
wear  a  striped  costume,  but  later  their  present  brown  habit  with 
white  cloak  and  scapular  was  adopted,  and  from  this  they  received 
the  name  of  "White  Friars. "At  first  they  were  under  the  rule 
given  them  by  Albert,  patriarch  of  Jerusalem  in  1209,  and  for  years 
they  were  hermits,  but  were  driven  out  of  the  Holy  Land  in  1238, 
by  the  JMohammedans.  English  Crusaders  carried  some  of  these 
recluses  from  IMount  Carmel  to  England  and  formed  the  first  Car- 
melite monastery  in  England,  at  Alnwick.  Near  the  middle  of  the 
13th  century  Louis  IX  on  his  return  from  the  Holy  Land,  took  a 
number  to  Paris  and  established  them  there.  After  their  expul- 
sion from  IMount  Carmel  they  passed  to  the  different  countries  of 
Europe  and  established  themselves  under  the  protection  of  the 
popes.  The  first  general  chapter  was  held  at  Aylesford,  England, 
in  1245,  and  under  the  new  head  elected  there  they  were  changed 
to  a  mendicant  order  by  Pope  Innocent  IV,  in  1247,  from  which 
time  they  shared  in  the  varioiis  vicissitudes  of  the  mendicant  orders. 
They  had  more  or  less  rigid  rules:  were  divided  into  several 
branches,   one   of  Miiieh  was  distinguished  by  walking  barefoot. 


LOUISIANA  163 

The  order  of  Carmelite  nuns  was  instituted  by  the  Carmelite 
Soreth  in  1452;  it  is  numerous  in  Italy  and  played  a  conspicuous 
part  in  France  duriag  the  reign  of  Louis  XV.  The  Carmelites  came 
to  Louisiana  with  other  Catholic  orders,  during  the  early  days  of 
the  province,  and  when  it  was  divided  into  three  ecclesiastical  dis- 
tricts in  May,  1722,  the  Carmelites  were  given  charge  of  that  dis- 
trict which  comprehended  "all  the  country  east  of  the  Mississippi, 
from  the  sea  to  the  Wabash."  The  superior,  who  was  also  grand 
vicar  of  the  order,  usually  resided  at  Mobile.  Fortier,  in  his  his- 
tory of  Louisiana,  says:  "The  jurisdiction  of  the  Carmelites  was 
added  to  that  of  the  Capuchins  on  Dec.  19,  1722,  and  the  former 
returned  to  France."  Thus  they  had  actual  charge  of  a  part  of 
the  province  for  only  about  7  months.  A  convent  of  Carmelite 
nuns  was  founded  at  Port  Tobacco  in  1790,  but  was  subsequently 
removed  to  Baltimore,  and  was  the  first  established  in  the  original 
territory  of  the  United  States.  They  exist  today  in  many  Roman 
Catholic  countries,  and  wear  as  a  distinctive  dress  a  scapular  of 
gray  cloth.  The  Carmelite  nuns  established  a  convent  in  New 
Orleans  about  1880,  but  as  they  are  a  Cloistered  order,  their  work 
is  carried  on  entirely  inside  the  walls  of  the  convent.  In  the  same 
year  176  Carmelites  were  banished  from  France.  There  were  51 
Carmelite  fathers  in  the  United  States  and  Canada  in  1901. 

Carondelet,  Baron  de,  6th  Spanish  governor  of  Louisiana,  was 
born  in  Flanders  in  1747.  His  full  name  and  title  was  Francisco 
Luis  Hector,  liaron  de  Carondelet,  de  Noyelles,  Seigneur  D'Haine 
St.  Pierre.  He  was  a  man  of  ability  and  rose  to  the  rank  of  colonel 
in  the  royal  armies  of  Spain.  On  March  13,  1791,  he  was  ap- 
pointed governor  and  intendant  of  the  provinces  of  Lotiisiana  and 
West  Florida,  being  at  that  time  governor  of  San  Salvador,  Guate- 
mala. He  did  not  assume  the  duties  of  his  new  ofSce  until  Dee.  30, 
1791,  when  he  succeeded  Gov.  Miro,  who  left  for  Spain  the  same 
day.  On  Jan.  22,  1792,  Carondelet  issued  his  Bando  de  buen 
Gobierno,  dividing  the  city  into  four  wards,  each  presided  over  by 
an  alcalde  de  barrio,  or  commissary  of  police,  who  Avere  directed 
to  get  the  names  of  the  persons  occupying  each  house  in  their 
respective  wards,  newcomers  to  report  on  the  day  of  their  arrival 
or  the  day  following.  The  alcalde  de  barrios  were  also  to  assume 
the  management  of  the  fire  engines  in  case  of  conflagrations.  His 
manifesto  further  provided  for  the  lighting  of  the  city  by  oil  lamps, 
the  expenses  of  the  lamps  and  oil  to  be  met  by  a  tax  of  $1.1214 
on  each  chimney  in  the  city.  He  prohibited  the  importation  of 
slaves  from  Jamaica  and  the  Fi-eneh  island,  for  fear  that  they  might 
be  imbued  with  insurrectionary  spirit  and  cause  troiible  in  the 
province;  made  treaties  with  the  Indians;  recommended  leniency 
toward  the  debtors  of  the  Natchez  district;  issued  regulations  re- 
garding the  treatment  of  slaves,  prescribing  the  kind  and  amount 
of  food  and  clothing  they  should  have,  the  hours  of  work  and  the 
nature  of  their  piinishment ;  placed  New  Orleans  in  a  comparatively 
good  state  of  defense :  and  tried  in  every  possible  way  to  reduce 
expenses.    Altogether  he  deserves  the  credit  of  having  been  one  of 


164  LOUISIANA 

the  most  active  and  energetic  of  the  ISpaiiish  governors.  In  1794  he 
began  a  canal  in  the  rear  of  the  city,  to  drain  the  marshes,  and 
by  connecting  with  the  Bayou  St.  John  open  a  navigable  route  to 
the  sea.  This  canal  Mas  constructed  by  slave  labor,  M'hieh  was  do- 
nated b}-  the  planters,  and  was  opened  in  the  fall  of  1795.  It  still 
bears  the  name  of  the  "Caroudelet  canal."  When  the  news  i-eached 
Louisiana  early  in  1793  that  Spain  had  declared  Avar  against  France, 
the  French  population  of  New  Orleans  became  filled  with  hope 
that  the  province  would  again  pass  into  the  hands  of  their  "beloved 
France."  They  did  not  break  into  open  revolution  as  in  1768,  but 
at  the  theatres  the  more  enthusiastic  would  demand  that  the 
orchestra  play  the  "Marseillaise,"  while  some  would  even  go  so  far 
as  to  sing  the  songs  of  the  Jacobins.  This  condition  of  atfairs  led 
Caroudelet  to  issue  the  order  prohibiting  revolutionary  music  and 
martial  dances  in  the  theatres.  About  this  time  he  wrote  to  his 
home  government:  "By  extreme  vigilance  and  by  spending  sleep- 
less nights,  by  scaring  some  and  punishing  others,  by  banishing  a 
number,  particularly  some  newcomers  who  were  debauching  the 
people  with  their  republican  teaching,  by  intercepting  letters  and 
documents  suspected  of  being  incendiary,  and  by  prevaricating  with 
everybody,  I  have  done  better  than  I  had  expected,  as  the  province 
is  now  quite  orderly  and  quiet."  Caroudelet  renewed  the  negotia- 
tions, begrun  by  his  predecessor,  for  the  secession  of  the  west. 
(See  Caroudelet  Intrigue.)  His  administration  came  to  an  end 
in  Aug.,  1797,  when  he  was  appointed  president  of  the  royal  audi- 
ence of  Quito,  and  was  afterward  viceroy  of  Peru.  His  death  oc- 
curred in  1807.  Gayarre  says  he  was  a  "short-sized,  plump  gentle- 
man, somewhat  choleric  in  his  disposition,  but  not  destitute  of  good 
nature.  He  was  firm  and  prudent,  with  a  good  deal  of  activity  and 
capacity  for  business,  and  he  has  left  in  Louisiana  a  respected  and 
popular  niemorj'." 

Carondelet  Intrigue. — In  the  spring  of  1791,  after  the  excitement 
incident  to  the  artful  schemes  of  Genet  had  somewhat  subsided, 
Gov.  Carondelet  began  to  throw  impediments  in  the  way  of  the 
western  trade,  in  order  to  aid  the  work  of  the  agents  he  had  sent 
into  Kentucky  to  persuade  the  people  there  to  withdraw  from  the 
United  States  and  form  an  alliance  with  Spain,  wliereby  the  Mis- 
sissippi would  be  opened  to  them.  Gayarre  says:  "The  times  were 
highly  auspicious  for  the  intrigues  of  Spain.  Not  only  were  the 
inhabitants  of  Kentucky  and  Tennessee  weary  of  struggling  against 
such  obstacles  to  their  commerce,  and  irritated  against  the  Federal 
government  that  could  not  remove  them,  but  western  Pennsylvania 
also  had  been  thrown  into  a  ferment  by  the  'excise  on  distilled 
spirits,'  giving  rise  to  what  is  commonly  called,  in  American  his- 
tory, 'the  Wliisky  Insurrection,'  wliich  had  taken  such  proportions 
as  to  require  the  presence  of  an  army  of  12,000  troojis  from  the 
Eastern  States  to  quell  it.  *  *  *  England  in  the  northwest,  and 
Spain  in  the  south,  seemed  to  be  united  in  pressing  with  all  their 
weight  on  both  flanks  of  the  West,  to  break  it  loose  from  the  Fed- 
eral government  and  force  it  into  a  permanent  separation.     Lord 


LOUISIANA  165 

Dorchester  had  sent  from  Canada,  aud  Baron  de  Caroudelet,  from 
Louisiana,  numerous  emissaries  who  were  emulously  at  work  to 
heat  and  exasperate  the  ditferent  parties  then  existing  in  Kentucky, 
and  to  produce  a  state  of  feeling  which  might  be  favorable  to  their 
views. ' ' 

Carondelet's  principal  agent  was  Thomas  Power,  an  Englishman 
who  had  become  a  naturalized  subject  of  Spain,  aud  who  had  been 
selected  because  he  was  "intelligent,  cautious,  aud  had  a  natural 
disposition  to  intrigue."  He  repaired  to  Kentucky,  ostensibly  en- 
gaged in  collecting  material  for  a  natural  history,  but  really  to  sow 
the  seeds  of  sedition  and  to  revive  the  plot  that  had  been  inaugu- 
rated under  Gov.  Miro's  administration.  Power  informed  Carou- 
delet that  the  men  who  had  been  in  secret  correspondence  with 
Miro — Gen.  Wilkinson,  Innis,  Murray,  Sebastian,  Nicholas,  and 
others — were  inclined  to  resume  their  friendly  relations  with  Spain, 
and  that  some  of  them  would  meet,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Ohio  river, 
any  Spanish  officer  the  governor  might  designate.  Caroudelet  se- 
lected Gayoso  de  Lemos,  then  governor  of  Natchez,  who  went  up 
the  river  to  New  Madrid,  from  which  point  he  sent  Power  to  com- 
plete the  arrangements  for  the  interview.  While  Power  was  absent 
on  his  mission,  Gayoso  employed  the  men  of  his  escort  in  the  erec- 
tion of  a  small  stockade  fort  opposite  the  mouth  of  the  Ohio,  to 
create  the  impression  that  this  had  been  the  object  of  his  expedi- 
tion up  the  river.  At  a  place  called  Red  Bauks,  Power  met  Judge 
Sebastian,  who  was  the  only  one  of  the  Keutuckians  to  put  in  an 
appearance,  though  he  gave  a  plausible  reason  for  the  failure  of 
the  others  to  keep  the  appointment.  Power  was  disappointed,  but 
Seliastian  explained  that  Iiis  colleagues  had  deputed  him  to  go 
down  and  meet  Ga.yoso,  and  that  they  would  in  all  probability  give 
their  consent  to  any  agreement  that  might  be  made.  Acordingly 
Power  and  Sebastian  went  down  to  New  Madrid,  where  Gayoso 
was  waiting  for  them.  It  is  not  probable  that  Sebastian  could  have 
given  the  Spanish  officer  much  honest  encouragement  for  the  sep- 
aration of  Kentucky  from  the  Union,  as  the  decided  victory  of  Gen. 
WajTie  over  the  Indians  the  previous  year  had  certainly  demon- 
strated the  ability  of  the  United  States  to  hold  the  territory.  How- 
ever, negotiations  were  entered  into  for  a  comercial  treaty,  Sebas- 
tian contending  for  the  admission  of  western  products  into  New 
Orleans  via  the  Mississippi,  free  of  duty,  while  Gayoso,  accord- 
ing to  the  account  afterward  given  by  Judge  Innis,  held  out  for  a 
duty  of  4  per  cent.  Upon  the  suggestion  of  Gayoso,  Sebastian 
agreed  to  go  to  New  Orleans  and  meet  Gov.  Caroudelet.  Power, 
Sebastian  and  Gayoso  arrived  in  New  Orleans  early  in  Jan.,  1796, 
and  the  commercial  treaty  was  again  considered.  Sebastiaia  seemed 
about  to  gain  the  main  point  for  which  he  was  contending — the 
free  navigation  of  the  Mississippi — when  Caroudelet  informed  him 
that  a  courier  had  just  arrived  from  Havana  with  the  information 
that  a  treaty  had  been  concluded  between  Spain  and  the  United 
States,  which  put  an  end  to  their  negotiations.  (See  Treaty  of 
Madrid.)     Sebastian  insisted  that  the  governor  close  the  deal  in 


166  LOUISIANA 

hand,  in  the  hope  that  the  treaty  between  the  two  nations  might 
not  be  ratified,  but  without  avail.  He  then  left  for  Philadelphia, 
in  company  with  Power,  "no  doubt  on  a  mission  from  the  Spanish 
governor. ' ' 

Not  long  afterAvard  Power  again  appeared  in  Kentucky  and  pre- 
sented to  those  whom  he  was  trying  to  induce  to  espouse  the  cause 
of  Spain,  the  following  document : 

"His  Excellency,  the  Baron  de  Carondelet,  etc.,  commander-in- 
chief  and  governor  of  His  Catholic  Majesty's  provinces  of  West 
Florida  and  Louisiana_,  having  communications  of  importance  em- 
bracing the  interests  of  said  provinces,  and  at  the  same  time  deeply 
affecting  those  of  Kentucky  and  of  the  western  country  in  general, 
to  make  to  its  inhabitants,  through  the  medium  of  the  intiuential 
characters  in  this  country,  and  judging  it,  in  the  present  \mcertain 
and  critical  attitude  of  politics,  highly  imprudent  and  dangerous  to 
lay  them  on  paper,  has  expressly  commissioned  and  authorized  ine 
to  submit  the  following  proposals  to  the  consideration  of  Messrs. 
Sebastian,  Nicholas,  Innis  and  Murray,  and  also  of  such  other  gen- 
tlemen as  may  be  pointed  out  by  them,  and  to  receive  from  them 
their  sentiments  and  determination  on  the  subject. 

"First — The  above  mentioned  gentlemen  are  to  exert  all  their 
influence  in  impressing  on  the  minds  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
western  country,  a  conviction  of  the  necessity  of  their  withdrawing 
and  separating  themselves  from  the  Federal  Union,  and  forming 
an  independent  government  whoU.y  unconnected  with  that  of  the 
Atlantic  States.  To  prepare  and  dispose  the  people  for  such  an 
event,  it  will  be  necessary  that  the  most  popular  and  eloquent 
writers  in  this  state  shoiild,  in  well-timed  publications,  expose,  in 
the  most  striking  point  of  view,  the  inconveniences  and  disadvan- 
tages that  a  longer  connection  with  and  dependence  on  the  Atlantic 
States,  must  inevitably  draw  upon  them,  and  the  great  and  innu- 
merable difficulties  in  which  they  will  probably  be  entangled,  if 
they  do  not  speedily  recede  from  the  Union :  the  benefits  they  will 
certainly  reap  from  a  secession  ought  to  be  pointed  out  in  the  most 
forcible  and  powerful  manner;  and  the  danger  of  permitting  Fed- 
eral troops  to  take  possession  of  the  posts  on  the  Mississippi,  and 
thus  forming  a  cordon  of  fortified  places  around  them,  must  be 
particularly  expatiated  upon.  In  consideration  of  gentlemen  de- 
voting their  time  and  talents  to  this  object,  his  Excellency,  the 
Baron  de  Carondelet,  will  appropriate  the  sum  of  $100,000  to  their 
\ise,  which  shall  be  paid  in  drafts  on  the  royal  treasiiry  at  New 
Orleans,  or,  if  more  convenient,  shall  be  conveyed  at  the  expense 
of  His  Catholic  Majesty  into  this  country  and  held  at  their  disposal. 
Moreover,  should  such  persons  as  shall  be  instrumental  in  pro- 
moting the  views  of  His  Catholic  Majesty  hold  any  public  employ- 
ment, and  in  consequence  of  taking  an  active  part  in  endeavoring 
to  effect  a  secession  shall  lose  their  employment,  a  compensation, 
equal  at  least  to  the  emoluments  of  their  respective  offices,  shall 
be  made  to  them  by  His  Catholic  Majesty,  let  their  efforts  be 
crowned  with  success,  or  terminate  in  disappointment. 


LOUISIANA  167 

"Second — Immediately  after  the  declaration  of  independence, 
Fort  Massac  shall  be  taken  possession  of  by  the  troops  of  the  new 
government,  which  shall  be  furnished  by  His  Catholic  Majesty, 
without  loss  of  time,  with  20  field  pieces,  with  their  carriages  and 
every  necessary  appendage,  including  powder,  balls,  etc.,  together 
with  a  number  of  small  arms  and  ammunition  sufficient  to  equip  the 
troops  that  it  shall  be  necessary  to  raise.  The  whole  to  be  trans- 
ported at  his  expense  to  the  already  mentioned  Fort  jMassac.  His 
Catholic  Majesty  will  further  supply  the  sum  of  $100,000  for  the 
raising  and  maintaining  of  said  troops,  which  sum  shall  also  be 
conveyed  to  and  delivered  at  Fort  Massac. 

"Third — The  northern  boundary  of  His  Catholic  Majesty's  prov- 
inces of  East  and  West  Florida  shall  be  designated  by  a  line  com- 
mencing on  the  Mississippi,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Yazoo,  extending 
due  east  of  the  river  Confederation  or  Tombigbee;  provided,  how- 
ever, that  all  His  Catholic  Majesty's  forts,  posts  or  settlements  on 
the  Confederation  or  Tombigbee,  are  included  on  the  south  of  such 
a  line;  but  should  any  of  his  Majesty's  forts,  posts  or  settlements 
fall  to  the  north  of  said  line,  then  the  northern  boundary  .of  his 
Majesty's  provinces  of  East  and  "West  Florida  shall  be  designated 
by  a  line  beginning  at  the  same  point  on  the  Mississippi,  and  drawn 
in  such  a  direction  as  to  meet  the  river  Confederation  or  Tombigbee, 
six  miles  to  the  north  of  the  most  northern  Spanish  fort,  post  or 
settlement,  on  said  river.  All  the  lands  to  the  north  of  that  line 
shall  be  considered  as  constituting  a  part  of  the  territory  of  the 
new  government,  saving  that  a  small  tract  of  land  at  the  Chickasaw 
bluffs,  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Mississippi,  ceded  to  his  Majesty 
by  the  Chickasaw  nation  in  a  formal  treaty  concluded  on  the  spot 
in  the  year  1795,  between  liis  Excellency,  Don  Manuel  Gayoso  de 
Lemos,  governor  of  Natchez,  and  Augliakabee  and  some  other 
Chickasaw  chiefs;  which  tract  of  land  his  Majesty  reserves  for 
himself.  The  eastern  boundary  of  the  Floridas  shall  be  hereafter 
regulated. 

"Fourth — His  Catholic  Majesty  will,  in  case  the  Indian  nations 
south  of  the  Ohio  should  declare  war"  or  commence  hostilities 
against  the  new  government,  not  only  join  and  assist  it  in  repelling 
its  enemies,  but  also,  if  said  government  shall  at  any  future  period 
deem  it  necessary  to  reduce  said  Indian  nations,  extend  its  domina- 
tion over  them,  and  compel  them  to  submit  themselves  to  its  con- 
stitution and  laws,  his  Majesty  will  heartily  concur  and  co-operate 
with  the  new  government  in  the  most  effectual  manner  in  attaining 
this  desirable  end. 

"Fifth — His  Catholic  Majesty  will  not,  either  directly  or  indi- 
rectly, interfere  in  the  framing  of  the  constitution  or  laws  which 
the  new  government  shall  think  fit  to  adopt,  nor  will  he,  at  any 
time,  by  any  means  whatever,  attempt  to  lessen  the  independence 
of  the  said  government,  or  endeavor  to  acquire  an  undue  influence 
in  it,  but  will,  in  the  manner  that  shall  hereinafter  be  stipulated 
by  treaty,  defend  and  support  it  in  preserving  its  independence. 

"Sixth — The  preceding  proposals  are  outlines  of  a  provisional 


168  LOUISIANA 

treaty  which  his  ExceUeney,  the  Bai-ou  de  Carondelet,  is  desirous 
of  entering  into  with  the  inhabitants  of  the  western  comitry,  the 
moment  they  shall  be  in  a  situation  to  treat  for  themselves.  Should 
they  not  meet  entirely  with  your  approbation,  and  should  you  wish 
to  make  any  alterations  in,  or  additions  to  them,  I  shall,  on  my 
return,  if  you  think  proper  to  communicate  them  to  me,  lay  them 
before  his  Excellency,  who  is  animated  with  a  sincere  and  ardent 
desire  to  foster  this  promising  and  rising-  iufant  country,  and  at  the 
same  time  promote  and  fortify  the  interests  of  his  beneficent  royal 
master,  in  securing,  by  a  generous  and  disinterested  conduct,  the 
gratitude  and  affections  of  a  jiist,  sensible  and  enlightened  people. 

"The  important  and  unexpected  events  that  have  taken  place  in 
Europe  since  the  ratification  of  the  treaty  concluded  on  the  27th 
of  October,  1795,  between  His  Catholic  JIajesty  and  the  United 
States  of  America,  having  convulsed  the  general  system  of  politics 
in  that  quarter  of  the  globe,  and,  wherever  its  influence  is  extended, 
causing  a  collision  of  interests  between  nations  formerly  living  in 
the  most  perfect  union  and  harmony,  and  directing  the  political 
views  of  some  states  towards  the  most  remote  from  their  former 
pursuits,  but  none  being  so  completely  unhinged  and  disjointed  as 
the  cabinet  of  Spain,  it  may  be  confidently  asserted,  without  incur- 
ring the  reproach  of  presumption,  that  His  Catholic  ilajesty  will 
not  carry  the  above  mentioned  treaty  into  execution :  nevertheless, 
the  thorough  knowledge  I  have  of  the  disposition  of  the  Spanish 
government  justifies  me  in  saying  that,  so  far  from  its  being  his 
Slajesty's  wish  to  exclude  the  inhabitants  of  this  western  country 
from  the  free  navigation  of  the  Mississippi,  or  withhold  from  them 
any  of  the  benefits  stipulated  for  them  in  the  treaty,  it  is  posi- 
tively his  intention,  as  soon  as  they  shall  put  it  in  his  power  to 
treat  with  them,  by  declaring  themselves  independent  of  the  Fed- 
eral government  and  establishing  one  of  their  own,  to  grant  them 
privileges  far  more  extensive,  eive  them  a  decided  preference  over 
the  Atlantic  States  in  his  commercial  connections  with  them,  and 
place  them  in  a  situation  infinitely  more  advantageous,  in  every 
point  of  view,  than  that  in  which  they  would  find  themselves,  were 
the  treaty  to  be  carried  into  effect." 

Following  the  submission  of  this  document — a  strange  medley 
of  threats  and  cajoleries — Carondelet  sent  to  Power  about  $10,000, 
concealed  in  bags  of  coffee  and  barrels  of  sugar,  to  be  delivered  to 
Gen.  Wilkinson,  who  was  then  in  command  of  the  western  army. 
Wilkinson  directed  Power  to  take  the  money  to  Louisville  and 
turn  it  over  to  Philip  Nolan.  Power  was  instructed  to  make  a 
strong  appeal  to  Wilkinson's  ambition,  and  also  "to  ascertain  the 
force,  discipline,  and  temper  of  the  army  imder  his  command." 
But  the  hour  of  separation  had  passed.  The  firmness  of  Washing- 
ton, a  train  of  fortunate  events,  foremost  of  which  wore  the  admis- 
sion of  Kentucky  in  1702  and  the  treaty  of  ]Ma(lrid.  liad  appeased 
the  western  people,'  who  were  now  satisfied  with  their  own  govern- 
ment. Power,  therefore,  returned  to  New  Orleans  and  made  an 
unfavorable  report,  after  carrying  out  his  instructions  as  best  he 


LOUISIANA  169 

could,  and  again  the  attempts  of  Spain  to  dismember  the  Union 
ended  in  failure. 

Carpet-Baggers. — Immediately  after  the  war  a  large  number  of 
Northern  men,  many  of  them  ex-Federal  soldiers,  were  attracted 
to  the  South  by  the  inordinately  high  price  of  cotton  and  the  low 
price  of  lands,  as  advertised  in  the  newspapers.  Some,  too  poor  to 
purchase  lands  of  their  own,  became  renters,  and  others  worked  as 
ordinary  laborers.  All  believed  that  by  the  application  of  the  ad- 
vanced agricultural  methods  with  which  they  were  acquainted  they 
could  increase  t,he  production  of  cotton,  and  that  they  could  get 
along  better  with  the  negroes  than  could  their  former  masters. 
Garner,  in  his  work  on  "Reconstruction  in  Mississippi,"  says:  "It 
is  not  too  much  to  say  that  a  majority  of  the  Northern  planters 
were  unsuccessful,  and  with  the  inauguration  of  the  reconstn;etion 
policy  in  1867,  they  virtually  abandoned  the  business  and  became 
officeholders.  It  is  incorrect,  therefore,  to  call  them  carpet-baggers. 
They  did  not  go  South  to  get  offices,  for  there  were  no  offices  for 
them  to  fill.  The  causes  which  led  them  to  settle  there  were  purely 
economic  and  not  political.  The  genuine  carpet-baggers,  who  came 
after  the  adoption  of  the  reconstruction  policy,  were  comparatively 
few  in  number." 

What  was  true  of  Mississippi  was  also  true  in  greater  or  less 
degree  of  all  the  Southern  states.  These  men,  having  failed  to  make 
money  as  rapidly  as  they  had  anticipated  by  agricultural  pur- 
suits, found  it  more  remunerative  to  exploit  state  and  municipal 
governments  for  their  private  gain.  They  were  not  Southerners; 
they  had  nothing  in  common  with  the  Southern  people.  Their  sole 
object  was  to  get  rich  at  the  expense  of  the  community,  and  if  the 
name  carpet-bagger  is  one  of  reproach  to  them  they  liave  only 
themselves  and  the  Congress  which  upheld  them,  to  blame.  In 
order  to  intrench  themselves  more  firmly  and  perpetuate  their 
power  they  formed  political  alliances  with  the  ignorant  negroes, 
upon  whom  their  influence  was  bad  and  demoralizing,  inasmuch 
as  they  taught  social  and  political  equality  and  filled  the  minds  of 
the  negroes  with  hatred  for  their  former  masters.  Under  the  ad- 
ministration of  these  carpet-bag  governments  the  burden  of  taxa- 
tion became  onerous  and  the  dispensation  a  farce.  Naturally,  such 
conditions  produced  frequent  riots,  in  which  many  lives  were  lost. 
The  Southern  people  saw  their  birthright  taken  from  them  by  men 
who  cared  nothing  for  the  permanent  welfare  or  prosperity  of  the 
state,  and  in  their  resentment  resorted  to  means  which  oftentimes 
their  own  judgment  did  not  approve.  An  instance  of  this  kind  was 
seen  in  the  affair  at  Coushatta.  Red  River  parish,  in  Aug.,  1S74, 
in  which  six  Republican  ofRcials  were  killed.  After  the  tragedy 
the  white  people  of  the  parish  issued  an  address  to  the  public  con- 
taining the  following  warning  to  the  negroes:  "To  the  colored 
people  we  have  to  say  that  our  action  in  the  present  instance  must 
fully  convince  you  of  the  sincerity  of  our  repeated  declarations  to 
you  that  oiir  war  was  against  only  such  of  yon  as  are  .silly  and 
vicious  enough  to  combine  with  the  horde  of  scalawags  and  carpet- 


170  .  LOUISIANA 

bagtrers,  "who,  like  vultures,  have  been  preying  upon  our  people 
for  eight  long  years."  The  Committee  of  70  passed  resolutions  de- 
ploring the  conditions,  in  one  of  -vvhicli  appeared  the  following: 
"That  in  our  opinion  the  immediate  restoration  of  the  state  gov- 
ernment to  the  hands  of  its  legally  elected  officers,  from  which  it 
was  arrested  by  Federal  power,  is  the  true  remedy  and  would 
quickly  compose  all  our  difficulties  and  restore  peace  and  good 
orer."     (See  also  Kellogg 's  Administration.) 

Among  the  members  of  Congress  who  were  zealous  in  their  sup- 
port of  the  reconstruction  laws  and  vindictive  in  their  attitude 
toward  the  Southern  people,  was  Senator  Oliver  P.  IMorton,  of 
Indiana.  This  fact  doubtless  led  Judge  W.  P.  Harris  of  Missis- 
sippi to  say  in  a  public  speech  in  1S75:  "If  any  200  Southern  men, 
backed  by  a  Federal  administration,  shoi;ld  go  to  Indianapolis, 
turn  out  the  Indiana  people,  take  possession  of  all  seats  of  power, 
honor  and  profit,  denounce  the  people  at  large  as  assassins  and  bar- 
barians, introduce  corruption  in  all  branches  of  the  piiblie  adminis- 
tration, make  government  a  curse  instead  of  a  blessing,  league 
with  the  most  ignorant  class  of  society  to  make  war  on  the  en- 
lightened, intelligent  and  virtuous,  what  kind  of  social  relations 
would  such  a  state  of  things  beget  between  I\Ir.  Morton  and  his 
fellow  citizens  and  the  intruders?  "When  these  people  first  flocked 
into  the  state  they  thought  or  assumed  that  they  represented  the 
majesty_of  an  offended  nation,  and  like  the  order  of  men  to  which 
they  belong  expected  to  act  the  part  of  public  patrons,  to  be  sur- 
rounded by  clients  and  to  pass  amongst  us  amid  salaams  and 
genuflections :  but  they  were  instantly  luideceived.  "We  have,  ever 
since  the  war,  prayed  earnestly  that  the  true  representatives  of  the 
Northern  people  might  come  among  \is:  their  merchants,  their  far- 
mers, their  professional  men,  the  representatives  of  their  industries. 
"We  got  only  the  chevalier  d'industrie,  and  we  know  him  at  sight." 
Such  was  the  opinion  of  representative  Southern  men  in  all  states 
of  the  carpet-bagger.    It  tells  the  whole  story. 

Carroll,  a  post-hamlet  of  Bed  River  parish,  sitx;ated  on  the  line 
of  the  Louisiana  Railway  &  Navigation  Company,  in  the  western 
part  of  the  parish,  is  about  a  mile  east  of  the  Red  river  and  6  miles 
north  of  Coushatta,  the  parish  seat  and  nearest  banking  town. 

Carroll  Parish,  was  created  by  an  act  of  the  state  legislature  in 
1832,  during  the  administration  of  Gov.  Andre  Bienvenu  Roman, 
from  parts  of  Ouachita  and  Concordia  parishes.  It  was  located  in 
the  extreme  northeast  corner  of  the  state  on  the  border  of  Arkan- 
sas and  I\rississippi:  its  original  boundaries  wore  as  follows:  Ar- 
kansas on  tlie  north :  ^lississippi  territory-  on  the  east,  from  which 
it  was  separated  by  the  -Mississippi  river:  Concordia  and  Ouachita 
parishes  on  the  south,  and  Ouachita  parish  on  the  west.  Carroll 
parish  was  settled  almost  entirely  by  English,  Scotch  and  Irish 
immigrants  from  the  older  states,  many  coming  from  Virginia,  the 
Carolinas  and  Oeorgia.  some  from  Tennessee,  and  a  large  number 
from  the  ad.iaeent  territory-  of  Ifississippi.  !Most  of  the  early  settle- 
ments were  made  along  the  Mississippi  river,  near  Lake  Providence, 


LOUISIANA  171 

at  the  time  called  Stock  Island  lake,  during  the  first  years  of  the 
19th  century.  On  March  16,  1S70,  the  seat  of  justice  was  removed 
from  Floyd  to  Lake  Providence,  and  by  an  act  of  March  27,  1877, 
Carroll  parish  was  divided  into  two  parishes,  to  be  known  as  East 
and  West  Carroll  parishes.  May  11,  of  the  same  year,  fixed  Bayou 
Macon  as  the  boundary  between  the  two  parishes.  (See  East  and 
West  Carroll  parishes.) 

Carroll,  William,  soldier  and  statesman,  was  born  near  Pittsburg, 
Pa.,  March  3,  1788.  He  received  a  limited  education  and  in  1810 
removed  to  Nashville,  Tenn.,  where  he  opened  a  nail  store — the 
first  in  the  state.  He  joined  the  state  militia,  of  which  Gen.  Andrew 
Jackson  was  coumiander-in-chief,  and  in  1812  was  elected  captain 
of  the  Nashville  Volunteers.  Jackson  soon  after  appointed  him 
brigadier-inspector  and  a  little  later  major.  When  Jackson  was 
appointed  major-general  in  the  regular  army  in  1814,  Maj.  Carroll 
was  appointed  major-general  of  militia  to  succeed  him.  On  Dec. 
19,  1814,  he  arrived  at  New  Orleans  with  2,500  men,  and  in  the 
battle  of  Jan.  8,  1815,  repelled  two  attacks,  intiicting  severe  punish- 
ment upon  the  British.  For  his  gallantly  on  this  occasion  the 
Louisiana  legislature  gave  him  a  vote  of  thanks  on  Feb.  2.  After 
the  war  he  returned  to  Nashville  and  became  the  owner  of  the 
first  steamboat  registered  at  that  port.  This  boat  he  named  the 
Andrew  Jackson,  in  honor  of  his  old  friend  and  commander.  In 
1821  he  was  elected  govenior  of  Tennessee,  was  reelected  in  1823, 
and  again  in  1825.  While  serving  his  second  term  as  governor  he 
visited  New  Orleans  (Jan.  22,  1825),  and  was  warmly  received  by 
the  people  of  that  city,  a  committee  of  citizens  being  chosen  to  pro- 
vide for  his  entertainment.  To  the  expression  of  thanks  of  this 
committee  he  made  a  modest  but  appropriate  repl.y.  He  was  again 
elected  governor  in  1831  and  1833,  but  was  defeated  in  1835.  He 
died  on  March  22,  1844,  and  his  tombstone  bears  the  following 
inscription,  which  is  indicative  of  his  character:  "As  a  gentleman 
he  was  modest,  intelligent,  accomplished;  as  an  oiScer  he  was 
energetic,  gallant,  daring;  as  a  statesman  he  was  wise  and  just." 

Carson,  a  village  in  Beauregard  parish,  is  a  station  on  the  Kansas 
City  Southern  R.  R.,  about  5  miles  south  of  De  Ridder.  It  has  an 
internationar money  order  postofifiee,  an  express  ofRce,  telegi-aph  and 
telephone  facilities,  and  is  the  eastern  terminus  of  a  short  line  of 
railroad  called  the  Missouri  &  Louisiana,  which  runs  west  to  "Carson 
Mill."    Population,  500. 

Carter,  George  W.,  politician,  was  somewhat  active  in  Louisiana 
affaii'S  during  a  portion  of  the  reconstruction  era.  In  1871  he  was 
a  member  of  the  legislature,  and  when  Mortimer  Carr  resigned  the 
speakership  of  the  house,  Mr.  Carter  was  elected  to  the  vacancy. 
Soon  after  his  election  to  this  position  he  aligned  himself  with 
S.  B.  Packard  as  a  leader  of  a  faction  of  the  Republican  party  op- 
posed to  the  policies  of  Gov.  Warmoth.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the 
Custom  House  convention  on  Aug.  10,  1871,  which  convention  was 
denounced  by  Gov.  Warmoth  as  "a  company  of  Federal  office- 
holders."    The  contest  was  renewed  in  the  session  of  the  legisla- 


172  LOUISIANA 

ture  which  met  ou  Jan.  2,  1S72,  but  he  Avas  tiually  ousted  as  speaker 
aud  expelled  from  the  legislature.  (See  Warraoth's  Administra- 
tiou.) 

Carterville,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  northeastern  part  of  Bossier 
parish,  is  near  the  Webster  parish  boundary,  and  about  8  miles 
northeast  of  Redland,  the  nearest  railroad  station. 

Casa  Calvo,  Marquis  de,  8th  Spanish  governor  of  Louisiana,  came 
to  the  province  with  Gov.  O'Reilly  in  1769,  being  at  the  time  only 
IS  years  of  age.  He  was  a  close  friend  of  O'Reilly,  whose  son  mar- 
ried a  niece  of  Casa  Calvo.  His  full  uame  and  title  was  Sebastian 
de  la  Puerta  y  OTarril  ^larquis  de  Casa  Calvo.  lu  1793  he  was  in 
command  of  Port  Dauphin,  St.  Domingo,  when  77  Frenchmen  were 
brutally  murdered  by  negroes,  an  outrage  the  marquis  permitted 
without  offering  any  assistance  to  the  unfortunate  Pi-euohmen. 
Shortlj'  after  the  death  of  Gov.  Gayoso,  the  JIarquis  de  Someruelos, 
captain-general  of  Cuba  and  Louisiana,  appointed  Casa  Calvo  to 
be  governor  ad  interim,  and  on  Sept.  13,  1799,  he  took  possession  of 
the  military  government  of  Louisiana.  One  of  his  first  acts  was  to 
transmit  to  the  captain-general  the  petition  of  the  planters,  asking 
the  removal  of  the  restrictions  ou  the  importation  of  negroes,  so 
that  they  might  be  brought  to  the  colony  in  unlimited  numbei-s, 
or  at  least  enough  of  them  to  supply  all  the  labor  necessary  for  the 
successful  conduct  of  the  plantations.  About  the  middle  of  June, 
ISOl,  he  was  succeeded  by  Gov.  Salcedo  and  immediately  sailed  for 
Havana.  In  the  spring  of  1803  he  turned  to  New  Orleans,  having 
been  appointed  to  act  as  joint  commissioner  with  Salcedo  in  turning 
over  the  province  of  Louisiana  to  France.  Laussat,  the  F^'ench 
commissioner  to  receive  the  colony,  says  that  as  soon  as  he  arrived, 
"he  summoned  all  the  militia  oflfi<>ers  *  *  *  to  come  to  his 
lodging,  aud  declare  by  yea  or  nay  whether  they  intended  to  remain 
in  the  service  of  Spain."  The  transfer  of  the  province  was  formally 
made  on  Nov.  30,  1803,  but  Casa  Calvo  remained  at  New  Orleans, 
where  he  spent  a  considerable  portion  of  his  time  in  encouraging 
the  belief  that  Louisiana  was  to  be  receded  to  Spain.  On  Oct.  15, 
180.5,  in  company  with  ilorales,  the  intendant.  he  left  Xew  Orleans 
for  the  old  post  of  Adaise  (or  Adayes),  near  Xatchitoebes,  and  Gov. 
Claiborne,  fearing  it  was  the  intention  of  the  two  Spaniards  to  stir 
up  dissensions  among  the  people  in  the  western  part  of  the  terri- 
tory, sent  Capt.  Turner  along  with  them  to  keep  an  eye  on  their 
movements  and  report.  Early  in  Jan.,  1806,  the  two  ♦Spaniards 
returned  to  Natchitoches,  and  on  the  25tli  Claiborne  wrote  to 
]\Iorales:  "I  esteem  it  a  duty  to  remind  you  that  the  departure 
from  the  territory  of  yoiirself  and  the  gentleman  attached  to  your 
department  will  be  expected  in  the  course  of  the  present  month." 
Casa  Calvo  came  back  to  New  Orleans  on  Fob.  4.  and  was  almost 
immediately  asked  to  leave  the  territory  by  the  15th.  On  the  12th 
Claiborne  sent  him  a  passport,  with  "best  wishes  for  the  health 
and  happiness  of  the  nobleman  whose  presence  has  become  so 
unacceptable."    Casa  Calvo  was  highly  indignant  at  this  treatment. 


LOUISIANA  173 

though  there  M^as  nothing-  to  do  but  to  accept  the  passport  and 
leave  Louisiana  never  to  return. 

Casa  Capitular. — (See  Cabildo.) 

Casey,  James  F.,  a  native  of  Kentucky,  was  appointed  collector 
of  customs  at  New  Orleans  by  President  Grant  during  the  recon- 
struction era.  In  1872,  while  Pinehback  was  acting  as  governor, 
Casey  sent  to  Washington  a  niamber  of  sensational  telegrams, 
which  doubtless  had  some  influence  in  securing  the  presidential 
recognition  of  the  Republican  state  administration.  One  of  these 
telegrams  sent  on  Dee.  11,  1872,  said:  "Parties  interested  in  the 
success  of  the  Democratic  party,  particularly  the  New  Orleans 
Times,  are  making  desperate  efforts  to  array  the  people  against 
VIS.  Old  citizens  are  dragooned  into  an  opposition  they  do  not  feel, 
and  pressure  is  hourly  growing.  Our  members  (of  the  legislature) 
are  poor  and  our  adversaries  are  rich,  and  offers  are  made  that  are 
difficult  for  them  to  withstand.  There  is  danger  that  they  will 
break  our  quorum,"  etc.  The  next  day  he  sent  another  telegram 
in  which  he  suggested  that,  "If  a  decided  recognition  of  Gov. 
Pinehback  and  the  legal  legislature  were  made,  in  ray  judgment,  it 
would  settle  the  whole  matter."  (See  Returning  Boards.)  After 
the  restoration  of  the  state  government  to  the  people  of  Louisiana, 
Casey  and  others  of  his  class  disappeared  from  the  arena  of  Loui- 
siana polities. 

Casket  Girls. — Among  the  passengers  on  board  a  vessel  which 
arrived  at  New  Orleans  early  in  the  year  1728,  were  a  number  of 
young  women  of  good  character,  each  of  whom  brought  with  her 
a  chest  of  clothing,  linen,  etc.,  from  which  they  received  the  name 
of  "filles  a  la  cassette,"  or  "casket  girls."  They  were  placed  in 
charge  of  the  Ursuline  nuns  until  such  time  as  they  shoiild  be  taken 
in  marriage  by  the  colonists.  Cable,  in  his  "Creoles  of  Louisiana," 
says  there  were  three  score  of  them,  that  their  trunks  were  the  gifts 
of  the  king,  and  after  regretting  that  their  names  have  been  lost, 
adds:  "But  the  Creoles  have  never  been  careful  for  the  authenti- 
cation of  their  traditions,  and  the  only  assurance  left  to  us  so  late 
as  this  is,  that  the  good  blood  of  these  modest  girls  of  long  for- 
gotten names,  and  of  the  brave  soldiers  to  whom  they  gave  their 
hands,  with  the  king's  assent  and  dower,  flows  in  the  veins  of  the 
be.st  Creole  families  of  the  present  day."  (See  also  "Women  Colo- 
ni.sts.) 

Caspiana,  a  post-town  in  the  southern  part  of  Caddo  parish,  is 
situated  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Red  river  and  the  Texas  &  Pacific 
R.  R.,  about  20  miles  southeast  of  Shreveport.  It  has  a  money 
order  postoffiee,  an  express  office,  telegraph  and  telephone  facili- 
ties and  a  population  of  250. 

Castille,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  extreme  eastern  part  of  Acadia 
parish,  is  about  4  miles  southeast  of  Branch,  the  nearest  railroad 
station  and  6  miles  northeast  of  Rayne. 

Castor,  a  village  and  station  in  the  western  part,  of  Bienville 
parish,  is  a  station  on  the  Louisiana  &  Arkansas  R.  R.     It  has  a 


174  LOUISIANA 

mouey  order  postoliice,  an  express  office,  telegraph  aud  telephone 
facilities,  and  is  a  trading  center  for  a  considerable  district. 

Catahoula  Parish  -was  established  in  180S,  during  the  territorial 
administration  of  Gov.  William  C.  (J.  Claiborne,  and  received  its 
name  in  memory  of  the  Catahoula  Indians.  The  parish  has  an 
area  of  1,399  square  miles.  It  is  situated  near  the  center  of  the 
state  and  contained  within  its  original  boundaries  part  of  the 
present  parish  of  Caldwell.  As  now  constituted  it  is  bouuded  on 
the  north  by  Caldwell  aud  Fi-anklin  parishes;  on  the  east  by  Tensas 
and  Concordia  parishes ;  the  Red  and  Little  rivers  form  its  irregular 
southern  boundary,  separating  it  from  Avoyelles  parish ;  Little  river 
separates  it  from  Grant  parish  and  forms  most  of  the  western 
boundary,  which  is  completed  by  Winn  parish.  Settlements  were 
made  in  Catahoula  as  early  as  1796  and  by  ISIO  farms  and  planta- 
tions were  opened  and  under  cultivation  in  nearly  every  part  of 
the  parish.  Edward  Meeks  settled  about  1796;  David  Jones  and 
Richard  Earle  a  year  later,  and  from  that  time  the  settlement  had  a 
steady  growth.  The  bluff  lands  of  Sicily  island  were  settled  up  by 
such  families  as  the  Lovelaces,  Kirklauds,  Holsteins  and  others. 
It  was  here  that  the  powerful  tribe  of  Natchez  Indians  made  their 
last  stand  against  the  French  troops  and  traces  of  their  intrench- 
ments  remained  down  as  late  as  1825.  The  first  store  iu  Catahoula 
parish  was  sitiiated  at  Catahoula  prairie  and  was  kept  by  Oliver  J. 
IMorgan  and  John  Henry.  When  the  parish  was  organized  and  laid 
off  it  contained  a  population  of  about  1,000  souls.  Harrisonburg 
was  made  the  seat  of  justice  and  Benjamin  Tenille  was  appointed 
judge  of  the  court.  Dr.  David  Phelps  of  Kentucky  was  the  first 
physician  in  the  settlement.  Iu  1819  the  first  steam  boat  ascended 
the  Ouachita  river,  from  New  Orleans  to  the  post  of  Ouachita, 
making  the  trip  in  12  days.  During  the  Civil  war  the  only  mili- 
tary operations  in  Catahoiila  were  those  around  Fort  Beauresrard, 
situated  on  high  ground  overlooking  Harrisonburg,  where  Lieiit. 
Georee  W.  Logan  was  in  command  with  a  garrison  of  400  men. 
The  Federals  sent  three  expeditions  ncainst  the  fort.  The  first  two 
were  artillery  fights,  but  the  gunboats  did  not  succeed  in  passing 
the  fort.  The  third  was  a  land  force  which  attacked  the  fort  from 
the  rear  and  Lieutenant  Logan  evacuated  the  fort,  taking  what 
artillery  he  could  and  spiking  the  remainder.  Harrisonlmrg,  on  the 
Ouachita  river,  is  the  parish  seat  and  most  important  town.  Cata- 
houla is  not  thickly  populated,  and  has  no  larere  towns,  but  several 
thriviusr  villaares.  such  as  Eden.  Jena,  Jonesville.  Lelaud.  Manifest, 
OUa.  Sicily  Island,  Rosefi^ld,  Urania  and  Wild  Wood.  The  parish 
lies  in  the  "long  leaf  yellow  pine  region."  The  southeastern  por- 
tion is  flat,  subject  to  overflow  and  swampy  in  places.  The  north- 
ern and  western  piu'tions  are  broken,  with  rollincr  uplands,  broken 
creek  bottoms,  pine  hills  and  bluffs,  "^^auy  different  soils  are 
found,  which  result  in  a  diversity  of  products.  Catahoula  and  Larto 
lakes  lie  within  the  southern  boundaries.  There  are  a  number 
of  mineral  and  sulphur  springs  in  the  parish,  those  most  valuable 
and  noted  for  their  medicinal   properties  are  White  Sulphur  and 


LOUISIANA  175 

Castor  springs.  The  principal  water  courses  are  the  Ouachita, 
Tensas  and  Black  rivers;  Bayous  Louis  and  Saline;  Castor  and 
Casion  fords,  and  many  small  streams,  all  of  which  are  used  in  the 
extensive  lumbering  industry.  The  timber  resources  of  the  parish 
are  enormous,  and  up  to  a  decade  ago  were  practically  untouched, 
the  principal  varieties  are  "long  leaf  yellow  pine,"  oak,  ash,  cypress, 
gum,  hickory,  locust,  sassafras,  maple,  sycamore  beech,  magnolia 
and  persimmon.  Over  the  hill  country  it  is  estimated  that  there 
is  an  average  of  14,000  feet  of  good  marketable  lumber  to  the  acre, 
and.  several  extensive  cypress  swamps  afford  fine  fields  for  the 
lumberman.  The  soil  may  be  divided  into  three  classes,  alluvial, 
sand  and  clay.  The  first  is  best  adapted  to  the  growth  of  cotton, 
which  is  the  great  export  crop.  Oats,  corn,  potatoes,  tobacco  and 
peas  all  yield  abundantly,  while  fruit  trees  of  all  kinds  grow  rap- 
idly. The  parish  is  not  well  supplied  with  the  railroads  necessary 
for  the  development  of  its  great  resources.  A  branch  of  the  St. 
Louis,  Iron  jMountain  &  Southern  R.  R.  crosses  the  northwest  coi'- 
ner;  the  New  Orleans  &  Northwestern  crosses  the  northeast 
corner,  running  through  the  towns  of  Greenville,  Copeland,  Flor- 
ence, Peck  and  Lee  Bayou ;  a  branch  of  the  Louisiana  &  Arkansas 
runs  from  Georgetown  to  Jena,  and  the  Boston  &  Little  River  R.  R. 
runs  westward  from  Eden.  The  following  statistics  concerning 
the  parish  are  taken  from  the  U.  S.  census  for  1910:  Number  of 
farms,  1,450 ;  acreage,  113,16.5 ;  acres  under  cultivation,  48,118 ; 
value  of  laud  and  improvements  exclusive  of  buildings,  $1,510,0.54; 
value  of  farm  buildings,  $475,242;  value  of  live  stock,  $438,374; 
value  of  all  crops,  .$489,065.    The  population  was  10,415. 

Cataro,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  central  part  of  St.  Landry  parish, 
is  situated  on  Bayou  Carron,  about  6  miles  west  of  Begg,  the 
nearest  railroad  station  and  9  miles  northwest  of  Opelousas,  the 
parish  seat. 

Cathedral  of  St.  Louis. — Soon  after  the  founding  of  New  Orleans, 
Bienville  located  the  site  of  the  church  for  the  new  settlement  and 
designated  the  ground  on  the  left  to  be  used  as  a  presbytery.  The 
first  building  was  of  wood  and  adobe,  erected  under  the  auspices 
of  the  Fi'ench  government  and  was  named  in  honor  of  the  King  of 
France  and  the  patron  saint,  St.  Louis,  about  1720,  from  which  time 
date  the  archives  of  the  Catholic  church  of  New  Orleans.    In  Jan., 

1722,  Father  Charlevoix,  a  Jesuit  missionary,  reached  New  Orleans 
from  Canada  and  in  his  letter  describing  the  infant  capital  of  the 
new  province  says  that,  "a  shed  was  used  as  a  chapel."    In  Sept., 

1723,  a  tornado  devastated  the  colony  and  blew  dovoi  the  little 
parish  church,  the  first  place  of  wm-ship  in  Louisiana.  In  1724  or 
1725,  a  much  more  substantial  parish  church  was  built  of  brick, 
which  served  the  community  for  over  60  years.  On  Good  Friday, 
March  21,  1788,  a  great  fire  took  place  in  the  city  of  New  Oi-leans, 
and  the  second  church  was  destroyed  in  the  ten-ible  conflagration. 
Mass  was  celebrated  in  a  temporary  building  for  some  time,  but 
toward  the  close  of  the  year  1788,  Almonester  (q.  v.)  pffered  to  the 
superior  council  or  cabildo,  to  rebuild  the  church  on  a  still  grander 


176  '  LOUISIANA 

aud  more  massive  scale,  at  his  OAvn  expense,  the  governmeut  to  repay 
him  for  his  expenditui-e  when  the  edihee  was  completed.  His  propo- 
sition was  accepted,  the  foundations  of  the  building  were  laid  in 
ilarch,  1789,  and  within  live  years,  notwithstanding  many  obstacles 
that  had  to  be  overcome,  the  building  was  completed.  Hardly  had 
the  new  church  been  built,  when,  on  the  fete  of  the  Immaculate 
Conception,  Dec.  S,  179i,  another  great  conflagration  broke  out  in 
the  city  and  the  newly  built  cathedral  escaped  as  if  by  a  miracle. 
The  church  cost  Almonester  $50,000.  The  original'  design  was  the 
usual  heavy  Spanish  style,  but  about  1814  the  great  round  towers 
were  added  and  the  belfry  in  182i.  In  Feb.  1850,  the  principal 
tower  of  the  cathedral  fell,  injuring  the  roof  and  walls  to  a  great 
extent.  It  is  the  prevalent  but  erroneous  belief  that  the  cathedral 
was  torn  down  and  rebuilt  in  1850,  but  this  is  a  mistake.  "When  the 
wardens  started  to  have  the  building  repaired,  they  concluded  to 
alter  and  enlarge  the  building  to  its  present  dimensions  and  ap- 
pearance. Steeples  were  raised  on  the  old  round  towers,  the  facade 
was  changed  and  made  more  imposing  by  the  addition  of  columns 
and  pilasters.  A  few  years  ago  the  interior  was  decorated  and  fres- 
coed. In  the  center  is  a  fresco  of  the  Transfiguration  and  around 
it  the  four  Evangelists,  the  Holy  Family,  and  scenes  illustrating 
various  passages  of  the  Apocalypse.  The  high  altar  is  comiiosed 
of  various  marbles;  the  reredos  back  of  the  altar,  is  composed  of 
several  columns  supporting  a  cornice,  on  which  are  the  words, 
"Eece  panis  Angel orum"  (Behold  the  bread  of  the  angels) :  on 
the  sides  of  the  altar  are  the  stalls  of  the  canons  of  the  cathedral 
and  those  of  the  wardens :  to  the  left  is  the  throne  of  the  archbishop 
and  his  attendants;  and  above  the  main  altar  is  a  fresco  by  Bum- 
bracht.  representing  St.  Louis,  king  of  France,  presenting  the 
banner  of  the  Cross  to  the  crusaders.  The  remains  of  the  cele- 
brated curate  Father  Antoine  (See  Sedella,  Antonio),  and  several 
of  his  successors  in  office  lie  buried  under  the  floor  of  the  vestry 
in  the  cathedral,  In  front  of  the  high  altar  is  the  grave  of  Almon- 
ester, the  founder  of  the  cathedral,  marked  by  a  marble  slab  in 
the  pavement  bearing  his  coat-of-arms  together  with  the  record 
of  his  life,  title  and  services.  The  carved  letters  are  still  visible, 
though  neai'ly  effaced  by  the  ceaseless  tread  of  several  generations. 
The  church  has  a  tenure,  so  to  speak,  of  every  Saturday  offering 
masses  for  the  soul  of  its  founder,  and  every  evenintr  of  that  day 
as  the  sun  sets,  the  sound  of  the  tolling  bell  recalls  him  to  the 
minds  of  the  priests  of  the  church  and  those  of  the  citizens  who 
remember,  if  they  have  ever  heard  of  him. 

Catholic  Church. — The  first  white  men  to  visit  the  region  now 
inchided  within  the  limits  of  the  State  of  Louisiana  were  Catholics. 
Gayarre,  in  writing  of  the  expedition  of  De  Soto  in  the  16th  cen- 
tury, says:  "Xot  unmindful  he,  the  Christian  knight,  the  hater 
and  conqueror  of  iloorish  infidelity,  of  the  souls  of  his  future  vas- 
sals; for  22  ecclesiastics  accompanied  him  to  preach  the  word  of 
God."  And  the  priests  forming  part  of  this  expedition  celebrated 
in  the  wilds  of  Louisiana  forests  the  holv  ceremonv  of  the  mass 


LOUISIANA  177 

more  than  a  century  and  a  half  before  the  first  permanent  settle- 
ment was  made  upon  her  soil.  The  French  explorers,  Marquette, 
Joliet  and  La  Salle,  were  Catholics,  and  no  sooner  had  the  last 
named  laid  claim  to  the  Mississippi  valley  in  the  name  of  Catholic 
France,  than  the  seminary  of  Quebec,  by  consent  of  Bishop  St. 
Vallier  of  that  diocese,  sent  at  least  three  missionaries  to  the 
natives  in  the  territory  thus  claimed.  Father  Francis  Joliet  de 
Montigny  established  his  mission  among  the  Tensas  Indians, 
where  he  baptized  85  children  the  first  year,  and  when  Iberville 
visited  this  tribe  in  March,  1700,  he  found  this  worthy  priest 
engaged  in  erecting  a  chapel.  Rev.  Anthony  Davion,  the  second 
missionary,  erected  his  chapel  on  a  hill  near  the  village  of  the 
Tonicas  and  planted  a  cross  near  the  foot  of  a  large  rock  which 
for  years  afterward  was  known  as  " Davion 's  Rock."  The  third 
missionary.  Rev.  John  Francis  Buisson  de  St.  Cosme,  did  not  estab- 
lish a  mission,  but  after  visiting  several  localities  returned  back 
up  the  river. 

When  Iberville  founded  the  settlement  at  Biloxi  in  1699  Father 
Bordenave,  a  Catholic  priest,  was  installed  as  chaplain  of  the  post. 
The  same  year  the  seminary  at  Quebec  sent  Fathei's  Bergier, 
Bouteville  and  St.  Cosme  (a  brother  of  the  one  sent  out  the  pre- 
ceding year)  as  missionaries  to  the  lower  Mississippi  valley,  hence 
the  history  of  the  Catholic  church  in  Louisiana  is  coeval  with  that 
of  the  state  itself.  Upon  his  second  voyage  (in  1700)  IberviUe 
was  accompanied  by  Father  Du  Ru,  a  Jesuit  missionary,  who  on 
Feb.  14,  1700,  according  to  Shea,  "erected  a  cross,  offered  the  holy 
sacrifice,  and  blessed  a  cemetery  at  Fort  Mississipi^i,  17  leagues 
from  the  mouth  of  the  great  river."  This  Father  Du  Ru  made 
several  visits  to  the  neighboring  Indian  tribes,  after  which  he  per- 
formed his  clerical  duties  at  Biloxi  and  later  at  Mobile.  The  Jesuit 
Father  Limoges,  who  was  sent  from  Quebec  to  found  a  mission 
among  the  Oumas,  reached  their  village,  where  he  planted  a  cross, 
and  in  ]\Tarch,  1700,  began  the  erection  of  a  chapel  for  the  Ouma.s 
and  Bayagoulas.  At  the  same  time  Father  Nicholas  Foncault, 
another  Jesuit,  was  sent  to  establish  a  mission  among  the  Arkansas 
Indians.  He  was  killed  by  the  Coreas  and  Father  St.  Cosme  by 
the  Chetimachas,  the  latter  tragedy  occurring  near  the  site  of  the 
present  city  of  Donaldsonville,  La. 

As  if  by  mutual  consent,  the  bishop  of  Quebec  exercised  ecclesi- 
astical authority  over  the  province  of  Louisiana,  and  though  the 
settlements  about  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  were  far  removed 
from  his  episcopal  residence,  he  was  thoughtful  for  the  spiritual 
welfare  of  this  distant  portion  of  his  diocese.  In  170.5  he  sent  five 
priests  of  the  foreign  missions  to  Mobile,  and  on  the  same  vessel 
came  two  sisters  of  the  order  known  as  Grey  Nuns — the  first  nuns 
in  Louisiana.  In  Aug.,  1717,  the  Western  Company  received  its 
charter  from  the  French  government,  and  clause  53  of  this  charter 
was  as  follows: 

"As  in  the  settlement  of  the  coimtries  granted  to  the  said  com- 
pany by  these  presents,  we  regai'd  especially  the  glory  of  God  by 
1—12 


178  LOUISIANA 

procuring  the  salvation  of  the  inhabitants,  Indians,  savages  and 
negroes,  whom  we  desire  to  be  instructed  in  the  true  religion,  the 
said  company  shall  be  obliged  to  build  at  its  expense  chiirches  at 
the  places  where  it  forms  settlements;  as  also  to  maintain  there 
the  necessary  number  of  approved  ecclesiastics;  either  with  the 
rank  of  parish  priests,  or  such  others  as  shall  be  suitable,  in  order 
to  preach  the  Holy  Gospel  there,  perform  Divine  serWce,  and  ad- 
minister the  sacraments;  all  under  the  authority  of  the  Bishop  of 
Quebec,  the  said  colony  remaining  in  his  diocese  as  heretofore; 
and  the  parish  priests  and  other  ecclesiastics  which  the  company 
shall  maintain  there,  shall  be  at  his  nomination  and  patronage." 

In  March,  1717,  some  five  months  before  this  charter  was  gi-anted, 
Father  Anthony  Margil,  who  had  for  some  time  been  working  as 
a  missionary  among  the  Indians  in  Texas,  reached  the  Adayes  on 
the  Arroyo  Hondo,  within  the  limits  of  the  present  State  of  Loui- 
siana, where  he  founded  the  mission  of  San  5Iiguel  de  Linares, 
which  he  placed  in  charge  of  Father  Guzman  and  a  lay  brother. 
Learning  that  the  French  at  Natchitoches  were  without  a  priest. 
Father  Margil  made  the  journey  on  foot  from  the  Adayes  mission 
- — a  distance  of  50  miles — to  say  mass  for  them.  Ten  years  later 
Father  Maxim  in,  a  Capuchin,  was  placed  in  charge  of  the  mission 
at  Natchitoches,  where  the  church  has  ever  since  been  well  repre- 
sented, the  city  now  being  the  oiBeial  center  of  a  diocese.  Wlieu 
war  was  declared  between  France  and  Spain  in  1718,  Father  Mar- 
gil's  mission  at  Adayes  was  broken  up  by  a  French  force  under 
St.  Denis. 

In  1720  Rev.  Nicholas  Ignatius  de  Beaubois  was  selected  as 
superior  of  the  Jesuit  missions  in  Louisiana,  with  the  title  of  vicar- 
general.  He  was  born  on  Oct.  15,  1689,  entered  the  order  at  the 
age  of  17  years,  and  prior  to  his  appointment  as  vicar-general  had 
been  working  among  the  Illinois  missions.  It  was  through  his 
influence  that  the  Ursulines  (q.  v.)  were  brought  to  Louisiana  in 
1727.  The  "Western  Company,  by  the  ordinance  of  ^May  16.  1722, 
divided  Louisiana  into  three  ecclesiastical  districts.  North  of  the 
Ohio  and  corresponding  to  it  on  the  west  side  of  the  ^Mississippi 
was  assigned  to  the  Jesuits  and  the  seminaries  of  foreign  missions 
of  Quebec  and  Paris;  the  Discalced  Carmelites  M-ere  given  the  dis- 
trict between  the  Mississippi  and  the  Perdido,  extending  north- 
ward to  the  Ohio;  and  the  rest  of  the  province  was  placed  under 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  Capuchins.  The  last  named  order  first 
appeared  in  Louisiana  in  1721,  and  on  June  27,  1725,  received  from 
the  "Western  Company  a  formal  diploma,  which  was  approved  by 
the  king  on  July  15. 

Father  Charlevoix  arrived  at  New  Orleans  in  Jan.,  1722,  and 
found  there  "about  100  temporary  houses."  Up  to  this  time  no 
chapel  had  been  built  in  the  town,  religious  services  being  held  in 
one-half  of  a  warehouse.  These  quarters  were  soon  afterward  re- 
quired for  commercial  purposes  and  the  services  were  held  in  a 
tent  until  a  rude  chapel  could  be  erected.  This  chapel  was  demol- 
ished by  the  hurricane  of  Sept.   12,  1723,  and  the  faithful  were 


LOUISIANA  179 

again  Avithout  a  liouse  of  worship.  About  the  time  that  Father 
Charlevoix  came  to  New  Orleans  the  first  school  in  Louisiana  was 
established  by  Bienville.  It  was  a  school  for  boys,  \vas  located 
next  to  the  church,  and  was  taught  by  Father  Cecile,  a  Capuchin 
priest. 

The  division  of  the  territory  by  the  ordinance  of  1722  entailed 
considerable  hardship  on  the  Jesuits.  Their  district  was  far  up 
the  river,  that  including  New  Orleans  was  under  the  dominion  of 
the  Capuchins,  and  as  that  town  was  the  seaport  through  which 
all  missionaries  from  the  mother  country  must  enter,  the  Jesuits 
asked  and  obtained  permission  to  have  an  establishment  there.  The 
Western  Company  agreed  to  build  a  residence  and  chapel  for 
Father  Petit,  the  Jesuit  superior,  where  he  might  reside  perma- 
nently with  one  priest  to  receive  the  priests  of  the  order  as  they 
might  arrive.  By  the  convention  of  1726  the  Jesuits  were  granted 
a  tract  of  land  fronting  10  arpents  on  the  Mississippi  and  extending 
back  the  usual  depth.  This  grant  is  now  in  the  business  district 
of  New  Orleans,  beginning  near  Common  street  and  extending  up 
the  river  to  the  vicinity  of  Delord  street.  A  few  years  later  a  con- 
troversy arose  between  the  Capuchins  and  Jesuits  over  the  ques- 
tion of  jurisdiction.  The  trouble  began  when  the  bishop  of  Quebec 
appointed  Father  Baudoin,  the  Jesuit  superior,  as  vicar-general  in 
Louisiana,  which  aroused  the  indignation  of  the  Capuchins,  who 
claimed  that  it  was  a  violation  of  the  provisions  of  the  ordinance 
of  1722,  and  the  superior  council  refused  to  recognize  the  authority 
of  Father  Baudoin  or  make  any  record  of  his  appointment.  In 
1761  the  Jesuit  order  was  placed  under  the  ban ;  on  June  9,  1763, 
the  s^iperior  council  ordered  their  banishment  from  the  colony; 
their  property  was  confiscated,  and  they  were  summoned  to  appear 
before  the  Duke  de  Choiseul.  (See  Jesuits.)  The  expulsion  of 
the  Jesuits  ended  the  dispute,  and  the  bishop  appointed  Father 
Dagobert,  the  Capuchin  superior,  to  the  office  of  vicar-general, 
which  position  he  held  for  several  years  after  the  establishment  of 
the  Spanish  authority  over  the  province. 

Not  long  after  the  beginning  of  the  Spanish  domination  Louisi- 
ana was  detached  from  the  diocese  of  Quebec  and  made  a  part 
of  that  of  Santiago  de  Cuba  imder  Bishop  Echevarria,  who  reap- 
pointed Father  Dagobert  his  vicar-general.  In  1772  the  bishop 
sent  Father  Cirilo,  a  Spanish  Capuchin,  to  investigate  and  report 
upon  the  state  of  the  church  in  Louisiana.  Father  Cirilo  made 
such  serious  charges  against  the  French  Capuchins  that  again  a 
religious  controversy  ensued,  but  fortunately  for  the  welfare  of 
the  church  it  was  of  short  duration,  the  Spanish  government  acting 
as  mediator  and  bringing  about  a  reconciliation  without  discredit 
or  humiliation  to  either  side.  Six  more  Spanish  Capuchins, 
among  whom  was  Father  Antonio  de  Sedella,  arrived  in  1789.  In 
1781  Father  Cij'ilo,  who  had  been  acting  as  vicar-general,  was  made 
auxiliary  bishop  and  directed  to  exercise  his  functions  in  Louisiana. 
The  diocese  of  Santiago  de  Cuba  was  divided  in  1790,  when  the 
southern  part  of  the  island  was  made  an  archbishopric  and  the 


180  LOUISIANA 

northern  portion  was  united  with  the  Floridas  and  Louisiana  to 
form  the  diocese  of  Havana.  This  arrangement  lasted  until  April 
25,  1793,  when  Louisiana  and  the  Floridas  were  organized  into  a 
new  diocese  with  Don  Luis  de  Peiialver-y-Cardenas  as  bishop.  He 
arrived  in  New  Orleans  on  July  17,  1795,  and  entered  at  once  upon 
his  episcopal  duties.  He  continued  as  bishop  until  July  20,  1801, 
when  he  was  appointed  archbishop  of  Guatemala,  leaving  the 
affairs  of  his  diocese  in  the  hands  of  his  two  canons.  Very  Kev 
Thomas  Hasset  and  Very  Kev.  Patrick  Walsh.  Kt.  Eev.  Francis 
Poro  was  appointed  to  succeed  Bishop  Peiialver,  but  he  never 
came  to  Louisiana,  and  the  diocese  was  without  a  bishop  until 
the  papal  bull  of  Sept.  1,  1805,  which  placed  it  for  the  time  being 
under  tlie  care  of  Bishop  Carroll  of  Baltimore.  Father  Hasset 
died  in  April,  1801.  and  Father  Walsh  in  Aug.,  1806,  and  soon  after 
the  latter 's  death  Bishop  Carroll  appointed  a.s  vicar  Very  Rev. 
Jean  Olivier,  who  remained  in  charge  until  in  1813,  when  Very 
TJev.  Louis  W.  Dubourg,  who  had  been  appointed  administrator 
apostolic  the  preceding  year,  arrived  in  New  Orleans. 

The  period  from  1805  to  1820  was  marked  by  the  troubles  with 
Father  Sedella.  Father  Walsh,  while  acting  as  vicar-general, 
claimed  that  Sedella  was  in  unlawful  possession  of  the  cathedral 
and  undertook  to  remove  him.  The  latter  refused  to  obey  the  order 
of  the  vicar-general,  and,  instead  of  appealing  to  the  bishop,  adopted 
a  reA'olutionary  coiarse,  claiming  that  the  cathedral  was  the  property 
of  the  Catholic  people  of  New  Orleans  and  appealing  directly  to 
them.  For  this  purpose  he  called  a  meeting  of  the  parishioners, 
who  elected  him  parish  priest  in  the  face  of  the  vicar-general's 
dismissal.  On  ^larch  27,  1805,  Father  Walsh  desisnated  the 
Ursulines'  chapel  as  the  parish  church,  with  Father  Olivier  as 
priest.  Wlien  the  latter  was  appointed  vicar-general  he  inherited 
the  troubles  and  in  turn  handed  them  down  to  his  successor.  Father 
Dubourg.  The  dispute  was  finally  settled  in  the  civil  courts,  which 
sustained  Father  Sedella.  Tn  1815  Abbe  Duboure  went  to  Rome  to 
explain  the  rebellioiis  conduct  of  Father  Sedella  to  the  pope,  who 
appointed  Father  Dubourg  bishop  of  the  diocese.  Father  Sedella 
wa.s  still  defiant,  however,  and  the  new  bishop  asked  the  Propa- 
ganda to  permit  him  to  remove  his  residence  to  St.  Louis,  which 
permission  was  granted  and  he  took  up  his  residence  in  that  city 
in  Jan.,  1818.  Late  in  the  year  1820  he  visited  New  Orleans  and 
on  Christmas  day  "celebrated  pontifically  in  the  cathedral." 

On  Aug.  13,  1822,  Pope  Pius  VTI  formed  IMississippi  and.  Ala- 
bama into  a  vicariate  apostolic  and  appointed  as  vicar  Rev.  Joseph 
Eosati,  a  native  of  Sora,  Italy,  and  a  member  of  the  order  of 
Lazarists.  On  ^Vlarch  25.  1824.  Father  Rosati  was  consecrated 
bishop  of  Tenagre  and  made  coadjutor  to  Bishop  Dubourg.  A  few 
months  later  Bishop  Dubourg  resigned,  leaving  his  coad.iutor  to 
administer  the  affairs  of  the  diocese,  which  was  divided  by  the 
pope  on  July  18,  1827.  when  the  see  of  New  Orleans  was  estab- 
lished with  Father  Rosati  as  bishop.  He  declined  the  honor,  how- 
ever, and  on  IMarch  20.  1827.  was   transferred   to   the   new   see   of 


LOUISIANA  181 

St.  Louis  as  bishop,  holding  at  the  same  time  the  ])ositiou  of 
administrator  apostolic  of  the  newly  created  diocese  of  New 
Orleans. 

When  Bishop  Eosati  declined  the  see  of  New  Orleans  he  recom- 
mended for  the  place  Eev.  Leo  Raymond  Neckere,  who  was  ap- 
pointed bishop  on  Aug.  4,  1829,  and  consecrated  on  June  24,  1830. 
He  Avas  a  Lazarist,  a  native  of  Belgium,  and  was  only  30  years  of 
age  at  the  time  of  his  consecration.  His  administration  lasted  only 
a  little  over  three  years,  as  he  died  of  yellow  fever  on  Sept.  5,  1S3.3. 
Over  two  years  elapsed  before  a  successor  to  Bishop  Neckere  was 
appointed.  During  this  time  the  business  of  the  diocese  was 
cared  for  by  Kev.  Anthony  Blanc  and  Father  Ladaviere.  On  Nov. 
27,  1835,  the  former  was  consecrated  as  the  second  bishop  _of 
New  Orleans,  the  ceremony  being  performed  in  the  cathedral  of 
that  city.  Bishop  Blanc  was  a  native  of  France,  and  at  the  time 
of  his  consecration  was  a  little  over  43  years  old.  In  1836  he  went 
to  Europe  and  brought  back  with  him  eight  Jesuits  for  the  purpose 
of  establishing  a  college  at  Grand  Coteau. 

After  the  death  of  Father  Sedella  in  Jan.,  1827,  the  wardens  or 
trustees  continued  to  collect  the  revenues  of  the  cathedral,  and 
out  of  the  funds  thus  acquired  they  paid  the  ordinary  of  the  diocese 
such  a  salary  as  they  pleased.  In  Jan.,  1842,  Bishop  Blanc  de- 
manded all  his  episcopal  rights  as  accorded  by  the  laws  of  the 
church,  but  the  wardens  ignored  the  demand.  The  situation  was 
further  aggravated  when  Father  Moni,  the  curate  of  the  cathedral, 
died  and  the  bishop  appointed  Abbe  Rousillion  as  his  successor. 
The  wardens,  claiming  the  right  to  select  their  own  pastor,  under- 
took to  reject  the  nomination.  Bishop  Blanc  wrote  a  pastoral 
letter,  in  which  he  pointed  out  to  the  wardens  that  they  were  laying 
themselves  liable  to  censure  and  even  excommunication,  but  in  the 
interests  of  peace  he  withdrew  the  appointment  of  Abbe  Rousillion 
and  named  instead  Father  Maenhaut,  who  was  accepted  by  the 
wardens.  In  a  little  while  a  difference  arose  between  the  wardens 
and  Father  Maenhaut,  and  this  disagreement  increased  until  the 
curate  abandoned  his  position  and  took  up  his  residence  with  the 
bishop,  who  on  Nov.  2,  1842,  witlidrew  all  the  priests  from  the 
cathedral,  leaving  that  church  withoiit  religious  service.  Through 
the  influence  of  some  prominent  Catholic  laymen,  a  peace  was 
patched  up  and  in  Jan.,  1843,  the  bishop  appointed  Father  Bach. 
Again  the  trouble  broke  out,  but  Fatlier  Bach  held  possession  until 
his  death  the  following  September,  at  a  time  when  the  bishop  was 
temporarily  absent  from  the  diocese.  Upon  his  return  he  notified 
the  wardens  that  he  would  withhold  the  name  of  his  appointee  for 
the  vacancy  until  he  had  assurances  that  the  new  pastor  would 
be  permitted  to  discharge  his  duties  without  opjiosition.  As  the 
wardens  would  not  give  the  assurances  required,  the  bishop,  in  a 
second  letter,  warned  them  that  if  they  persisted  in  their  course 
all  connection  between  them  and  him  must  cease.  This  left  the 
cathedral  without  a  curate,  and  the  wardens  resorted  to  the  courts, 
instituting  a  suit  for  damages  in  the  sum  of  ,$20,000.    Their  demand 


182  LOUISIANA 

was  dismissed  in  the  parish  court,  and  au  appeal  -was  immediately 
taken  to  the  supreme  court,  which  tribunal  sustained  the  opinion 
of  the  lower  court.    Peace  was  restored. 

On  April  21,  1S4-1,  the  second  synod  of  the  diocese  was  convened. 
In  view  of  tlie  previous  troubles  with  the  wardens  it  was  ordei-ed 
by  the  s.^Tiod  that  no  church  should  be  erected  until  a  deed  was 
made  to  the  bishop,  aud  trustees  or  wardens  were  prohibited  from 
fixing  fees  for  burial,  etc. 

Pope  Pius  IX,  on  July  19,  1850,  made  New  Orleans  an  arch- 
diocese with  Bishop  Blanc  as  the  first  archbishop,  and  he  was  in- 
vested with  the  pallium  on  Feb.  16,  1851.  In  1852  the  Plenary 
Council  met  at  Baltimore  and  recommended  the  division  of  the 
diocese  of  New  Orleans.  Pursuant  to  this  recommendation,  all  that 
portion  of  the  diocese  lying  north  of  the  31st  parallel  was  cut  off 
and  erected  into  the  diocese  of  Natchitoches  on  July  29,  1853,  with 
Rt.  Rev.  Augustus  M.  Martin  as  bishop.  At  the  time  of  its  estab- 
lishment the  new  diocese  had  a  Catholic  population  of  about  25,000, 
though  it  had  but  seven  churches  and  five  priests.  Under  the 
labors  and  influence  of  Bishop  IMartin  the  church  experienced  a 
revival  of  interest,  and  at  the  beginning  of  the  Civil  war  was  in  an 
encouraging  condition. 

Archbishop  Blanc  died  on  June  20,  1S60,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Rt.  Eev.  John  Mary  Odin,  bishop  of  Galveston,  who  continued  as 
archbishop  until  his  death  in  France  on  ]\Iay  25,  1870.  During  his 
administration  the  Civil  war  and  the  era  of  reconstruction  detracted 
very  much  from  the  interest  in  church  work,  but  Ai'chbishop  Odin 
labored  faithfully  for  the  people  under  his  care,  and  his  death  was 
deeply  mourned.  Some  time  before  his  death  he  had  asked  for 
a  coadjutor  and  Rev.  Napoleon  Joseph  Perche  had  been  appointed 
and  assigned  to  the  see  of  New  Orleans  with  the  right  of  succes- 
sion. Accordingly,  upon  the  death  of  Archbishop  Odin  he  assumed 
the  duties  of  the  high  office  and  was  duly  consecrated  in  December 
following.  In  1871  the  wardens  gave  up  all  control  of  the  cathedral 
to  Archbishop  Perche  by  a  lease  for  ten  years,  the  archbishop  to 
receive  all  revenues  and  meet  all  expenditures.  In  1878  tlie  arch- 
bishop demanded  possession  of  all  the  property  belonging  to  the 
cathedral,  but  as  some  of  this  property  was  involved  the  demand 
was  not  at  once  complied  with,  though  soon  afterward  the  board  of 
wardens  went  into  liquidation,  and  the  entire  property  was  deeded 
to  the  archbishop  "for  the  benefit  and  use  of  the  Catholic 
population." 

The  advanced  age  of  Archbishop  Perche,  and  the  fact  that  the 
finances  of  the  see  had  become  involved,  made  necessary  the  ap- 
pointment of  a  coadjutor.  On  Oct.  23,  1879,  Rt.  Rev.  Francis  X. 
Leray,  bishop  of  Natchitoches,  was  appointed  coadjutor  and  apos- 
tolic administrator  of  temporal  affairs,  with  the  right  of  succession, 
and  when  Archbishop  Perche  died  on  Dec.  27,  1883,  he  became 
archbishop.  After  his  death  Very  Rev.  Gustav  A.  Rouxel  served 
as  temporary  administrator  until  Aug.  7,  1888,  when  Rt,  Rev. 
Francis  Janssens,  bishop   of  Natchez,  was  made  archbishop.     He 


LOUISIANA  183 

served  until  his  death  in  1897,  and  on  Dee.  1  of  that  year  Rt.  Rev. 
Plaeide  Lonis  Chapelle  became  his  successor.  He  died  in  1905 
and  was  succeeded  by  Most  Rev.  James  Hubert  Blenk,  the  present 
archbishop,  who  was  invested  with  the  pallium  in  the  cathedral 
in  New  Orleans  on  April  24,  1907. 

According  to  Wiltzius'  Catholic  Directory  for  1909,  the  Catholic 
population  of  the  see  of  New  Orleans  was  525,000;  the  number  of 
secular  priests^  157;  priests  belonging-  to  religious  orders,  124; 
churches  with  resident  priests,  130;  missions,  85;  stations,  35; 
preparatory  seminaries,  1;  colleges  for  boys,  7;  number  of  stu- 
dents, 1,918;  academies  for  young  ladies,  17;  students,  3,219; 
parochial  schools,  95;  attendance,  14,572;  total  number  of  young 
people  under  Catholic  care,  21,689. 

As  above  stated,  the  first  bishop  of  the  diocese  of  Natchitoches 
was  Rt.  Rev.  Augustus  Mary  Martin,  who  was  consecrated  in  the 
St.  Loi^is  cathedral  at  New  Orleans  by  Archbishop  Blanc  on  De" 
31,  1853.  He  was  a  native  of  Brittany,  France,  Avhere  he  was  born 
in  1801 ;  oame  to  America  in  1840  at  the  solicitation  of  Bishop 
Hailandiere  of  Vincennes,  Ind. ;  visited  his  native  land  in  1846,  after 
which  he  served  as  priest  at  various  points  in  Louisiana  until  his 
elevation  to  the  see  of  Natchitoches.  His  death  occurred  on  Sept. 
29,  1875.  During  his  22  years  as  bishop  the  number  of  churches  in 
the  diocese  increased  from  7  to  13  regular  parishes  and  nearly  50 
chapels  and  missions;  the  5  priests  increased  to  24,  and  the  one 
corivent  at  the  time  the  diocese  was  created  had  grown  to  10. 
Bishop  ilartin  was  succeeded  by  Rt.  Rev.  Francis  Xavier  Leray, 
who  was  consecrated  on  April  22,  1877.  After  his  promotion  to  the 
high  office  of  archbishop  of  New  Orleans,  he  was  succeeded  by 
Rt.  Rev.  Anthony  Durier,  whose  consecration  took  place  on  March 
19,  1885.  He  continued  to  serve  as  bishop  luitil  his  death,  which 
occurred  on  Feb.  28,  1904,  and  on  Nov.  30«  of  that  year  the  present 
bishop  of  the  diocese,  Rt.  Rev.  Cornelius  Van  De  Ven,  was  conse- 
crated and  entered  upon  his  episcopal  duties. 

According  to  the  Catholic  Directory,  the  Catholic  population 
of  this  diocese  at  the  close  of  the  year  1908  was  31,431 ;  the  niimber 
of  seci;lar  priests,  24;  priests  belonging  to  religious  ordei'S,  8; 
churches  with  resident  priests,  22 ;  missions,  34 ;  stations,  16 ;  col- 
leges for  boys,  4;  attendance  at  these  collegres,  335;  academies  for 
young'  ladies,  6;  parochial  schools,  16;  sisters  ensraged  in  educa- 
tional and  charitable  Avork,  102.  The  directory  does  not  give  the 
number  of  students  in  attendance  at  the  young  ladies'  academies 
and  boarding  schools,  nor  the  number  of  pupils  enrolled  in  the 
parochial  schools.  (See  also  biographical  sketches  of  the  several 
bishops  and  archbishops.) 

Catholic  Societies. — In  connection  with  the  benevolent  and  chari- 
table work  of  the  Catholic  church,  or  for  purposes  of  mutual  pro- 
tection, numeroiTS  societies  have  been  organized  at  various  periods 
of  church  liistory.  Among  the  oldest  of  these  is  the  Ancient  Order 
of  Hibernians,  an  Irish  Catholic  societ.y,  which  some  writers  claim 
was  organized  in  1652.     Others  sav  it  orisinated  in  1651,  when 


184  louisl\:n:a 

Cromwell  proclaimed  nearly  all  the  native  population  of  the  Emer- 
ald Isle  outlawed,  placed  a  price  on  the  head  of  almost  every  Cath- 
olic priest  in  Ireland,  and  declared  the  penalty  of  death  on  all  those 
who  might  have  the  temerity  to  attend  the  services  of  the  Catholic 
church.  It  is  agreed,  however,  that  the  founder  of  the  society  was 
Kory  Og  0"Moo,  and  that  it  was  called  into  existence  for  the  pur- 
pose of  protecting  the  Irish  priests  and  the  Catholic  religion.  The 
name  first  adopted  was  that  of  "Defenders,"  but  when  the  church 
was  emancipated  in  1829  the  present  name  was  taken  and  the 
object  of  the  society  stated  to  be  "the  advancement  of  the  princi- 
ples of  Irish  nationality."  Membei-ship  is  limited  to  Catholics  of 
Irish  extraction.  In  1836  the  order  was  introduced  into  the  United 
States  and  now  numbers  in  this  country  about  220,000  members. 
It  has  endowed  a  chapel  in  the  Catholic  universitj'  of  America  and 
disburses  about  .$1,000,000  annually  in  benefits.  In  the  city  of  New 
Orleans  there  are  five  branches  of  the  order,  which  is  also  repre- 
sented in  most  of  the  larger  cities  of  the  State  of  Louisiana. 

The  Catholic  Knights  of  America,  founded  in  1877,  now  has  700 
subordinate  councils  and  over  20,000  members  in  the  United 
States.  The  purposes  of  this  society,  as  stated  by  a  prominent 
official,  are:  "To  iinite  fraternallj'  practical  Catholics,  male  and 
female,  of  every  honorable  occupation,  of  good  moral  character 
and  soimd  bodily  health ;  to  give  moral  and  material  aid  to  its  mem- 
bere  by  encouraging  one  another  in  busines.s  and  by  assisting  one 
another  in  obtaining  employment :  to  establish  a  benefit  fund,  from 
which,  on  e^^dence  of  the  death  of  a  member,  shall  be  paid  a  sum 
not  exceeding  .$2,000  to  the  beneficiaries  of  the  deceased,  if  a  male, 
or  not  exceeding  $1,000  if  a  female :  to  establish  a  fund  for  the 
relief  of  sick  and  distressed  members  if  the  branches  shall  deem  it 
proper  to  do  so:  and  to  establish  and  maintain  a  circulating  library 
for  the  use  of  the  members."  The  first  branch  of  the  order  in 
Louisiana  was  organized  at  ^Monroe  on  Aug.  7,  1881.  In  June, 
1909,  there  were  in  the  state  33  branches  with  a  total  membership 
of  1,243.  James  L.  Higgins,  of  Algiers,  was  then  state  president, 
and  Thomas  A.  Badeaux,  of  Thibodaux,  state  secretary.  Since  its 
organization  in  1877  the  society  has  disbui-sed  in  benefits  to  its 
members  in  the  United  States  about  $l.'i,000.000. 

The  society  known  as  the  Knights  of  Columbus  was  founded  in 
1882.  It  now  has  in  the  United  States  over  1,300  subordinate  coun- 
cils, all  working  under  the  direction  of  a  national  council,  and 
about  170,000  members.  The  aims  of  the  society  are  similar  to 
those  of  the  Catholic  Knights  of  America,  and  since  its  orioin  it 
has  expended  about  $3,000,000  in  carrying  out  its  benevolence. 
The  society  is  now  represented  in  all  parts  of  the  United  States, 
one  of  the  largest  councils  in  the  country — Orleans,  Xo.  714 — 
being  located  in  the  city  of  Xew  Orleans.  Councils  are  also  main- 
tained in  most  of  the  principal  cities  and  towns  of  the  state. 

The  Society  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  was  founded  in  Paris.  France, 
where  the  head  office  is  still  located,  thoush  branchgs  have  been 
established  in  all  parts  of  the  civilized  world.     "Its  principal  mis- 


LOUISIANA  185 

sion  is  the  care  of  the  poor  in  their  homes  to  the  eud  that  the  unity 
of  the  family  may  be  preserved,  but  it  conducts  many  other  works 
of  charity,  such  as  free  employment  bureaus,  summer  homes,  boys' 
clubs,  hospital  and  prison  visitation  committees,  etc."  The  local 
or  parish  branches  are  known  as  "conferences,"  which  are  grouped 
in  sections  under  the  jurisdiction  of  particular  and  central  councils, 
the  latter  being  under  the  direction  of  a  Superior  Council,  which 
in  the  United  States  is  located  in  New  York  city.  The  society 
was  introduced  in  Louisiana  at  an  early  date  and  it  is  still  a  potent 
factor  in  earing  for  the  worthy  poor.  The  New  Orleans  Morning 
Star,  a  Catholic  publication,  of  April  24,  1907,  in  reviewing-  the 
Catholic  societies  of  that  city,  says:  "In  this  parish  there  is  a 
variety  of  well-organized  and  prosperous  societies.  There  are  in- 
surance orders,  mutual  benevolent  organizations,  social  clubs  and 
purely  religious  societies.  First  in  the  order  of  charity  comes  the 
St.  Vincent  de  Paul  conference,  whose  secret  and  therefore  inof- 
fensive charitable  work  effects  untold  good  to  the  poor  and  needy 
of  the  parish."  As  early  as  March  1.5,  1855,  the  Louisiana  legis- 
lature passed  an  act  incorporating  a  "Society  of  the  Daughters  of 
Chai-ity  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  in  order  that  Sisters  of  Charity 
can  more  widely  diffuse  charity  to  the  sick,  poor  and  fatherless 
of  the  state."  The  act  further  provided  that  the  superior  of  the 
mother  house  of  the  society,  located  at  Emmitsburg,  Md.,  should 
be  permitted  to  erect  buildings  in  the  state  for  the  care  of  orphans, 
destitute  females,  etc. 

Just  a  year  before  the  passage  of  this  act,  that  is  on  March  15, 
1854,  the  "Benevolent  Association  of  Roman  Catholic  Ladies  of 
Baton  Rouge"  was  incorporated  by  act  of  the  legislature  "for  the 
relief  of  the  poor  and  indigent  of  the  parish  of  East  Baton  Rouge," 
and  at  different  times  in  the  history  of  Louisiana  other  societies 
have  been  authorized  by  legislative  enactment,  some  of  which  have 
been  granted  state  aid  in  furthering  their  charitable  undertakings. 
A  notable  instance  of  this  character  was  under  the  act  of  ^larch  12, 
1836,  incorporating  the  "New  Orleans  Association  for  the  relief 
of  Male  Orphans,"  and  authorizing  the  state  treasurer  to  pay  to 
the  directors  the  sum  of  $1,000  as  a  donation  on  the  part  of  the 
state. 

Other  Catholic  societies  of  a  national  character  are  the  Catholic 
Total  Abstinence  Union,  founded  in  1872;  the  Catholic  IMutual 
Benefit  Association,  founded  in  1876,  and  the  Catholic  Benevolent 
Legion,  founded  in  1881.  All  tliese  are  represented  to  a  greater 
or  less  extent  in  the  Catholic  centers  of  Louisiana.  In  almost 
every  city  or  large  town  of  the  state  are  maintained  one  or  more 
societies  of  a  local  nature,  the  principal  objects  of  which  are  to 
foster  a  fraternal  spirit  among  the  members,  promote  charitable 
undertakings,  and  work  together  for  the  upbuilding  of  the  church. 
Among  the  societies  of  this  class  in  New  Orleans  may  be  mentioned 
the  Society  of  the  Holy  Name  of  Jesus,  organized  in  1906  under 
the  auspices  of  the  Panlist  fathers,  for  the  "increase  of  Holy  com- 
munions among  men,  greater  veneration  and  respect  for  the  Sacred 


1S6  LOUISIANA 

Xaiue,  and  consequeutly  better  observance  of  the  second  com- 
mandment;" the  Young  Ladies  Sodality:  the  Children  of  ilary, 
for  Catholic  girls;  the  Holy  Angels'  Sodality,  for  little  girls  too 
young  to  belong  to  the  Children  of  Mary;  the  Ladies'  Catholic 
Benevolent  association,  and  the  St.  John  Berchman's  altar  boys' 
society. 

Cat  Island. — -This  island,  irregular  in  shape,  lies  off  the  coast  of 
Mississippi,  to  which  state  it  now  belongs,  about  10  miles  from 
the  mainland  and  some  25  miles  from  the  most  eastern  point  of 
the  mainland  of  Louisiana.  It  is  said  to  have  received  its  name 
from  the  fact  that  during  the  short  stay  of  d  "Iberville  and  his  men 
on  the  island  in  1699  they  killed  several  wild  cats  there.  Another 
version  is  that  when  the  French  first  landed  upon  the  island  they 
found  there  large  numbers  of  a  small  animal,  which  looked  some- 
thing like  a  cat.  This  led  one  of  the  Frenchmen  to  exclaim:  "Why, 
this  must  be  the  kingdom  of  cats!"  whereiipon  the  name  of  Cat 
Island  was  at  once  bestowed  upon  it,  a  name  that  it  has  ever 
since  retained.  According  to  this  version,  the  little  animal  that 
occasioned  the  astonishment  was  the  common  raccoon. 

Wlien  Kerlerec  became  governor  the  English  were  threatening 
all  the  French  settlements  in  America.  He  therefore  established  on 
Cat  Island  a  small  garrison  consisting  of  detachments  of  marines 
and  the  Swiss  regiment.  In  17.57  this  garrison  was  commanded  by 
an  officer  named  Duroux,  a  man  noted  for  his  cruel  and  tyrannical 
treatment  of  his  men,  compelling  them,  among  other  things,  to 
cultivate  his  private  garden,  to  fell  trees  and  burn  charcoal,  which 
he  sold  for  his  own  benefit.  He  furnished  his  soldiers  with  bread 
made  from  flour  taken  from  the  wreck  of  a  Spanish  ship,  wliile  he 
sold  the  floxir  sent  by  the  government  and  pocketed  the  proceeds. 
If  any  of  the  men  protested  or  refused  to  obey  his  imreasonable 
orders,  they  were  stripped  naked  and  tied  to  trees  where  they  were 
exposed  to  the  mosquitos.  The  men  complained  to  Gov.  Kerlerec, 
but  withoTit  avail.  Finally  forbearance  ceased  to  be  a  virtue,  and 
one  day  as  Duroux  was  landing"  on  his  retiirn  from  a  hunting  trip 
to  the  mainland,  he  was  shot  to  death  and  his  body  thrown  into 
the  sea.  On  the  island  lived  a  planter  named  Beaudreau  for  Beau- 
drofi  a  famous  hunter  and  courier,  who  had  refused  to  share  with 
Duroux  some  goods  taken  from  the  wreck  of  the  Spanish  ship 
above  mentioned,  and  for  his  refusal  had  been  placed  in  irons  by 
the  commandant.  He  was  released  by  the  mutineers  and  com- 
pelled to  show  them  the  route  to  the  Carolinas,  hwt  not  until  after 
they  had  sacked  the  stores  on  Ship  Island.  A  few  succeeded  in 
reaching  the  English  settlements,  but  the  ma.iority  of  them  were 
captured  by  the  Choctow  Indians  and  taken  to  New  Orleans,  where 
they  were  turned  over  to  Kerlerec.  Two  of  the  ringleaders  were 
broken  on  the  wheel,  one  was  nailed  in  a  wooden  box  and  sawed  in 
twain  with  a  wliip-saw  by  two  subaltern  officers,  and  others  were 
punislied  in  various  ways.  Notwithstanding  Beaudreau  bore  a 
written  statement  that  he  had  been  compelled  to  act  as  guide  to 
the  rebellious  soldiers,  the  governor  ordered  him  to  be  broken  on 


LOUISIANA  187 

the  wheel  and  his  bodj-,  with  that  of  one  of  the  mutineers,  thrown 
into  the  river  as  unworthy  of  Christian  burial. 

There  is  now  a  postoifice  in  West  Feliciana  parish  called  Cat 
Island.  It  is  located  on  the  Mississippi  river  a  short  distance  above 
the  town  of  Bayou  Sara. 

Causey,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  northern  part  of  Morehouse  parish, 
about  2  miles  north  of  Bartholomew  bayou,  and  6  miles  east  of 
Vaughn,  the  nearest  railroad  station. 

Cavelier,  Jean,  a  brother  of  La  Salle,  was  one  of  the  latter 's  ill- 
fated  party  that  in  1685  attempted  to  found  a  settlement  at  or  near 
the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  river.  In  Jan.,  1687,  Jean  Cavelier 
was  one  of  the  16  persons  that  started  overland  with  La  Salle  for 
the  Illinois  country  in  the  hope  of  obtaining  aid  from  the  post  that 
La  Salle  had  established  at  Starved  Rock  in  1682,  or  of  finding  the 
Mississippi  river  some  distance  above  its  mouth.  He  was  present 
at  the  time  La  Salle  was  shot  and  killed  by  Duhaut,  and  shortly 
after  that  sad  event,  in  company  with  Joutel,  Father  Douay  and  3 
others,  with  6  horses,  and  3  Indians  for  guides,  he  set  out  in  a 
northeast  direction  for  the  Mississippi.  After  severe  hardships  they 
finally  reached  the  Illinois  country,  where  they  met  Tonti,  and  later 
went  on  to  Canada. 

Cavelier,  Robert  (See  La  Salle). 

Cavelier,  Zenon,  was  colonel  commanding  the  2nd  regiment  of 
Louisiana  militia  at  the  time  of  the  attempted  invasion  by  the 
British  in  the  winter  of  1814-15.  On  Jan.  4,  1815,  he  was  sent  with 
his  regiment  to  reinforce  Gen.  Morgan  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Mississippi,  and  his  command  formed  part  of  the  force  that  re- 
treated so  ignominiously  before  a  detachment  of  British  soldiery 
under  Col.  Thornton  on  the  8th.  A  court  of  inquiry  presided  over 
by  Gen.  William  Carroll,  held  the  conduct  of  Col.  Cavelier,  with 
that  of  Cols.  Dejean  and  Davis,  respectively  commanding  the  1st 
Louisiana  militia  and  a  detachment  of  Kentucky  riflemen,  not  rep- 
rehensible, as  the  responsibility  for  the  defeat  fell  on  Gen.  Morgan, 
who  gave  the  order  to  retreat.  Col.  Cavelier 's  regiment  was  com- 
mended in  the  resolutions  passed  by  the  legislature  for  its  "zeal 
and  courage"  in  repelling  the  invaders. 

Cecil,  a  post-hamlet  and  station  in  the  northeastern  part  of 
Union  parish,  is  on  the  Farmersville  &  Southern  R.  R.,  about  15 
miles  northeast  of  Farmersville,  the  parish  seat. 

Cecile,  Father,  a  Capuchin  friar,  is  mentioned  in  Louisiana  his- 
tory as  conducting  a  school  in  New  Orleans  in  1727.  Aside  from 
this  little  can  be  learned  concerning  him.  His  school  was  probably 
for  boys,  and  was  one  of  the  earliest,  if  not  the  first,  in  the  province 
of  Louisiana. 

Celeron,  Captain,  was  a  French  officer  on  duty  in  America  in 
the  first  half  of  the  18th  century.  Dumont  says  that  he  reinforced 
Fort  Chartres  in  1739  with  30  cadets  and  a  number  of  Indians  from 
Canada.  The  cadets  were  all  "of  gentle  birth  and  the  sons  of 
officers."  The  following  spring  Celoron  led  an  expedition  against 
the  Chickasaws,  with  whom  he  negotiated  a  treaty  of  peace  that 


188  LOUISIANA 

■\vas  ratified  by  Bieuville  iu  April.  Gayarre  says:  "'Celoron  was 
the  only  officer  Avho  gained  any  reputation  in  that  expedition." 
(See  also  Fort  Chartres.) 

Cemeteries,  National. — There  are  four  national  cemeteries  in 
Louisiana,  located  at  Alexandria,  Baton  Rouge,  Chalmette  and 
Port  Hudson.  Jurisdiction  over  these  cemeteries  was  ceded  to  the 
United  States  by  the  following  act  of  the  state  legislature,  approved 
Sept.  Ifci,  IStiS:  ""Whereas,  the  United  States  of  America  have  pur- 
chased, or  are  about  to  purchase  and  set  apart  certain  tracts  of  land 
in  the  state  of  Louisiana,  hereinafter  described,  to  be  used  and 
maintained  at  their  own  expense,  in  perpetua,  as  National  Ceme- 
teries for  the  interment  of  the  remains  of  United  States  soldiers, 
deceased;  and  whereas,  the  laws  of  said  United  States  provide  that 
no  public  money  shall  be  expended  for  the  purchase  of  any  land 
within  any  state  of  the  tjuited  States  until  a  cession  of  the  juris- 
diction by  the  legislature  of  the  state;  and  whereas,  a  formal  appli- 
cation has  been  tiled  by  the  said  United  States,  through  their  prop- 
erly accredited  representative,  for  the  aforesaid  cession,  so  far  as 
relates  to  the  lauds  hereinafter  described;  now,  therefore  (Be  it 
resolved,  etc.)  That  the  state  of  Louisiana  relinquish  all  jurisdic- 
tion over  the  hereinafter  described  lands  and  premises  in  said  state 
purchased  or  to  be  purchased  and  set  apart  for  the  purposes  afore- 
said, and  that  such  jurisdiction  be,  and  the  same  is  hereby  ceded  to 

and  forever  vested  in  the  United  States All  that  certain 

tract,  piece  or  parcel  of  land,  situated,  lying,  and  being  in  the  city 
of  Baton  Rouge  and  designated  on  a  ma]3  of  survey  of  said  city 
made  by  Henry  and  Wm.  G.  "Waller,  city  surveyors,  as  squares 

numbers  nineteen   (19),  twenty  (20),  and  twenty-one  (21) 

Also  all  that  certain  other  tract  of  land,  situate,  lying  and  being  at 
Chalmette,  in  the  Parish  of  St.  Bernard,  and  state  of  Louisiana, 
about  4  miles  below  the  city  of  New  Orleans,  and  on  the  easterly 
bank  of  the  Mississippi  river,  and  designated  by  the  letters  A.  B,  C, 
D,  E  and  F,  on  a  map  or  plan  drawn  by  Louis  H.  Pilie,  late  city 

surveyor,  dated  Jan.   29,  1867,  etc Also,  all  that   certain 

other  tract  of  land  situate  in  the  ]iarish  of  East  Baton  Rouge,  in 

said  state  of  Louisiana aboiit  1  mile  below  Port  Hudson 

,,....  containing  about  eight  acres ,  Also,  all  that  cer- 
tain other  tract  of  land  situated  at  Pineville  in  said  state."  Juris- 
diction over  national  cemeteries  w^as  further  ceded  to  the  United 
States  by  a  general  act  of  cession,  approved  July  6,  1882.  which 
enacted:  "That  the  United  States  shall  have  power  to  purchase 
or  condemn  in  the  manner  prescribed  by  law,  upon  making  just 
compensation  therefor,  any  land  in  the  state  of  Louisiana  not 
already  in  use  for  public  purposes,  required  for  custom-houses, 
court-houses,  arsenals,  national  cemeteries,  or  for  other  purposes 
of  the  government  of  the  United  Statees.  That  the  United  States 
may  enter  upon  and  occupy  any  land  which  may  have  been  or  may 
be  purchased  or  condemned,  or  otherwise  acquired,  and  shall  have 
the  right  of  exclusive  legislation,  and  concurrent  jurisdiction,  to- 
gether with  the  state  of  Louisiana,  over  such  land  and  the  struc- 


LOUISIANA  189 

tures  thereou,  and  shall  hold  the  same  exempt  from  all  state, 
parochial,  municipal,  or  other  taxation." 

The  Alexandria  National  cemetery  contains  an  area  of  8.24  acres, 
which,  with  the  roadway  belonging  tliereto,  is  situated  at  Pineville, 
in  the  parish  of  Rapides;  the  Baton  Rouge  cenieteiy  contains  an 
area  of  7.50  acres;  the  Chalmette  cemetery  contains  an  area  of 
13.60  acres,  and  the  Port  Hudson  cemetery  contains  8  acres. 

Centenary  College. — The  early  history  of  this  institution,  when 
it  was  supported  by  the  state  and  was  known  as  the  College  of 
Louisiana,  has  been  elsewhere  given.  The  name  of  the  college  is 
due  to  the  date  of  its  origin,  in  1839,  100  years  after  the  foundation 
of  the  first  Methodist  society  by  Jolin  Wesley.  The  original  idea 
of  the  college  was  that  of  the  Rev.  H.  ^I.  Drake,  to  whose  efforts, 
supplemented  by  those  of  the  Rev.  John  Lane  of  Vicksburg,  Miss., 
Rev.  C.  K.  Marshal  and  Elias  R  Porter  of  tlie  same  state,  the 
institution  owes  its  beginning.  Clinton,  Hinds  county,  Miss.,  was 
the  site  first  chosen  by  tlie  trustees,  but  the  location  was  soon 
after  changed  to  Brandon  Springs,  Miss.,  where  it  went  into  opera- 
tion in  the  fall  of  1841.  The  first  president  was  Rev.  Thomas  C. 
Thornton.  The  college  had  two  departments,  a  collegiate  depart- 
ment, including  law  and  medicine,  and  a  preparatory  department. 
It  started  its  woi-k  under  prosperous  auspices  and  in  1842  had  175 
students.  Neverthless,  after  the  lapse  of  a  few  years,  the  location 
was  found  to  be  an  unfortunate  one,  and  the  trustees  decided  to 
move  to  Jackson,  La.,  where  the  property  of  the  defunct  College 
of  Louisiana  was  purchased  in  1845,  Judge  Edward  McGehee,  of 
Wilkinson  county,  Miss.,  and  Capt.  David  Tliomas  nnd  John  jMc- 
KoAven,  of  East  Feliciana,  La.,  giving  their  bond  for  the  amount 
of  the  purchase  price,  $10,000.  The  words  "of  Louisiana"  were 
added  to  the  name,  and  the  trustees  adopted  the  alumni  of  the 
College  of  Louisiana.  In  1848  the  legislature  passed  an  act  reliev- 
ing the  purchasers  from  the  payment  of  the  purchase  price,  but 
exacting  certain  conditions  therefor,  among  which  were  the  right 
of  visitation  by  a  commission  from  the  legislature,  the  main- 
tenance of  the  buildings  in  good  repair  liy  the  trustees,  the  employ- 
ment of  a  regular  faculty  of  arts,  numbering  not  less  than  4  pro- 
fessors besides  the  president,  and  the  admission  of  10  indigent 
young  men,  to  be  designated  by  the  governor,  to  be  kept  and  edu- 
cated gratuitously  in  the  instituion ;  nor  was  a  chair  of  theology 
to  be  established,  or  sectarian  dogmas  taught.  The  institution  now 
entered  on  its  new  career  under  the  patronage  of  the  Mississippi 
and  Louisiana  Couferences  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church, 
South,  and  when  it  encountered  financial  difficulties,  as  it  some- 
times did,  private  munificenee  came  to  its  relief,  Judge  McGehee 
being  especially  liberal  in  his  gifts.  The  first  president  of  the  col- 
lege after  its  removal  to  Jackson  was  Hon.  D.  0.  Shattuck,  and 
the  successive  heads  of  the  institiition,  besides  performing  the 
duties  incident  to  their  office,  have  filled  the  chairs  of  mental  and 
moral  science,  political  economy,  and  international  law.  The  col- 
lege was  at  the  height  of  its  prosperity  just  before  the  war,  when  it 


190  LOUISIANA 

matriculated  260  studeuts — its  maximum  number.  It  suffered 
severely  during  the  war  in  common  with  the  other  colleges  of  the 
South,  being  alternately  used  as  a  hospital  by  the  Confederates, 
and  as  temporary  barracks  by  the  Federals.  And  since  the  war  it 
has  iindergone  tlie  usual  struggle  to  regain  its  former  prosperity 
and  prestige.  Up  to  June,  1886,  the  graduates  of  the  college  num- 
bered 259,  among  whom  are  found  many  of  the  foremost  citizens 
of  the  state,  who  have  taken  high  rank  in  the  learned  professions.  By 
act  of  the  legislature,  Feb.  21,  1871,  the  trustees  were  relieved  from 
any  liabilities  to  the  state  by  reason  of  the  eouditons  embodied  in 
the  above  act  of  1848,  and  all  former  laws  were  repealed.  On  June 
29,  1888,  an  act  was  passed  inhibiting  the  sale  of  intoxicating  liquors 
within  5  miles  of  the  college.  Since  this  it  has  been  moved  to 
Shreveport. 

There  are  offered  by  the  institution  two  wdl  rounded  courses  of 
4  years,  the  classical  and  scientific,  and  the  college  jjossesses  a  valu- 
able equipment  of  needful  apparatus,  raineralogical  and  geological 
cabinets,  etc.  There  is  a  well  selected  library  of  over  3.000  bound 
volumes,  embracing  both  ancient  and  modern  literature.  The 
buildings  embrace  a  steward's  hall,  2  brick  dormitories,  and  a 
splendid  center  building,  erected  at  a  cost  of  over  $60,000,  and  con- 
taining a  fine  audience  hall  with  a  capacity  of  over  2,000,  library 
rooms,  society  halls,  recitation  rooms,  etc. 

Centennial  Celebration,  1903. — This  celebration  was  held  to  com- 
memorate the  100th  anniversary  of  the  transfer  of  the  Province 
of  Louisiana  from  France  to  the  United  States  on  Dec.  20,  1803. 
The  legislature  of  Louisiana  in  1900  passed  an  act  directing  the 
Louisiana  State  Historical  society  to  prepare  a  suitable  programme 
to  celebrate  this  historical  event.  On  Dec.  11,  Gov.  Heard  issued 
a  proclamation  recommending  the  citizens  of  the  state  to  make  a 
proper  observance  of  the  centennial  event.  He  invited  the  citizens 
of  each  parish  to  assemble  at  their  respective  court  houses  on  Sat- 
urday, Dec.  19,  1903,  and  commemorate  the  anniversary  with  appro- 
priate ceremonies  and  bj'  hoisting  the  American  flag.  Orders  were 
issued  by  the  adjutant-general  calling  out  the  troops  of  the  1st 
military  district  to  take  part  in  the  celebration  on  Dec.  19th,  and 
the  mayor  of  New  Orleans,  Paul  Capdevielle,  issued  a  ]U'oclamation 
on  Dec.  15  in  memory  of  the  transfer  in  1803,  requesting  that  the 
public  and  private  schools  of  the  city  be  closed  at  12  o'clock  the  18th, 
and  that  he  citizens  of  the  city  show  their  sympathy  with  the 
exercises  by  displaying  the  national  colors.  A  three  days'  pro- 
gramme was  prepared,  extending  over  the  18th,  19th  and  20th  of 
December.  On  the  last  or  centennial  day,  it  was  planned  to  have 
the  ceremonial  a  repetition  of  the  ceremony  of  the  transfer  of  1803. 
The  persons  taking  part  in  these  ceremonies  wove  to  be  represented 
by  the  descendants  of  the  men  who  took  part  in  the  transfer  100 
years  before.  Invitations  were  issued  by  the  Historical  society  and 
sent  to  France,  Spain  and  the  United  States — the  three  powers 
represented  at  the  different  transfers  of  the  Province  of  Louisiana 
— to  send  representatives  to  the  celebration.     M.  Jusserand,  the 


LOUISIANA  191 

American  ambassadoi",  represented  Prance;  J.  Tuero  y  O'Donnell, 
Spanish  consul,  was  specially  delegated  to  represent  his  govern- 
ment, and  Adm.  Wise,  of  the  U.  S.  navy,  was  designated  by  Presi- 
dent Roosevelt,  to  represent  the  United  States.  On  the  first  day 
of  the  celebration,  Dec.  18,  an  international  naval  review  was  held. 
The  governor  boarded  the  flagship,  the  U.  S.  steamer  Stranger, 
at  1  p.  m.,  accompanied  by  the  foreign  representatives  and  other 
distinguished  guests,  and  the  vessel  steamed  down  the  river.  As 
she  did  so  all  the  vessels  in  port  saluted,  and  the  flags  of  the  United 
States,  Prance  and  Spain  were  displayed  upon  the  rigging.  After 
a  trip  of  a  mile  or  so  the  Stranger  turned  and  passed  in  review,  all 
the  men-of-war,  both  foreign  and  United  States,  that  were  anchored 
in  mid-stream.  The  Minneapolis,  the  flagship  of  Adm.  Wise,  was 
the  first  passed,  the  band  of  the  Stranger  played  the  "Star  Spangled 
Banner"  and  the  Minneapolis  saluted  with  17  guns.  Gov.  Heard, 
Ambassador  Jusserand  and  the  consul,  O'Donnell,  together  with 
the  captain  and  commander  of  the  Stranger,  stood  on  the  bridge 
as  the  vessel  passed  and  saluted.  Every  man-of-war,  from  the 
Minneapolis  to  the  Yankee,  was  decorated  from  stem  to  stern 
with  signal  flags  and  those  of  the  three  nations  represented.  After 
all  the  vessels  had  been  passed,  the  Stranger  proceeded  up  the  river 
and  anchored  to  receive  the  commanders  of  the  other  vessels. 
M.  Lemogne,  Adm.  Wise  of  the  Minneapolis,  Commander  Heilner 
of  the  Yankee,  and  Commander  Veeder  of  the  Hartford  called  upon 
the  governor.  As  Adm.  Wise  left  the  Stranger  an  admiral's  salute 
of  17  guns  was  fired,  and  When  the  Prench  ambassador  and  the 
Spanish  representative  left  the  Stranger  fired  a  salute  of  19  guns. 
The  governor,  the  Prench  ambassador,  and  the  Spanish  consul 
then  started  in  a  launch  to  return  the  call  of  Adm.  Wise,  the 
Prench  am'bassador  leaving  for  the  Prench  ship  to  receive  the 
governor,  amid  a  salute  of  tlie  guns  from  the  Minneapolis.  Visits 
were  made  to  the  French  cruiser,  the  Yankee,  the  Topeka  and  to 
the  historic  old  Hartford ;  salutes  were  fired  to  each  of  the  depart- 
ing guests,  in  accordance  with  their  rank,  and  as  the  governor 
left  the  Hartford  to  return  to  the  Stranger,  one  of  the  most  notable 
reviews  ever  seen  on  the  Mississippi  river  came  to  a  close.  In  the 
evening  a  historical  ball  was  given  at  the  Prench  opera  house.  The 
ladies  wore  the  costume  of  1803.  The  first  number  on  the  pro- 
gramme was  a  march,  in  which  the  distinguished  visitors  took  part. 
Gov.  Heard,  and  Ambassador  Jusserand,  Mayor  Capdevielle  and 
Consul  O'Donnell  led  and  were  followed  by  other  guests.  The 
music  during  the  march  was  from  the  old  masters.  At  the  close 
of  Ihe  promenade  the  guests  Avere  received  by  the  ladies  of  the 
Historical  society,  who  had  the  ball  in  charge.  A  minuet  and 
gavotte — dances  of  the  last  century — were  danced  by  52  couples, 
the  ladies  wearing  the  costume  of  a  century  ago.  As  an  honor  to 
the  Spanish  representative,  a  Spanish  waltz  was  played  during  the 
evening. 

On  the  second   day  a  reception  was  given  by  the   mayor,   city 
council  and  executive  officers  of  the  city  of  New  Orleans  to  the 


192  LOUISIANA 

governor  and  distinguished  guests,  in  the  mayor's  pai-lor  at  the 
city  hall.  At  the  close  of  the  reception  the  visitors  and  officials, 
escorted  by  the  1st  troop  of  cavalry,  visited  the  archbishop's  palace, 
where  the  mayor  delivered  an  address  of  welcome  from  the  porch 
and  introduced  Prof.  Alcee  Fortier,  president  of  the  Historical 
society,  who  made  a  speech  sketching  the  memorable  events  of 
the  last  century  and  related  many  facts  concerning  the  history  of 
Louisiana  and  the  city  of  New  Orleans.  The  historical  museum, 
which  is  located  in  the  palace,  was  inspected  and  declared  formally 
open  by  the  governor.  The  visitors  inspected  the  museum  and 
palace  and  returned  to  the  cabildo,  where  addresses  were  gifen  by 
the  French  and  Spanish  representatives,  Adm.  "Wise,  who  repre- 
sented tlie  United  States;  and  by  ex-Gov.  David  R.  Fi-aneis  of 
Missouri.  Luncheon  was  served  and  at  3  o'clock  the  troops  were 
reviewed  by  the  governor,  representatives  and  guests  from  a  plat- 
form in  front  of  the  cabildo.  In  the  evening  the  opera  "Carmen" 
was  given  at  the  French  opera  house. 

On  Sunday,  the  centennial  day,  high  mass  was  held  at  the  cathe- 
dral, M-hich  was  decorated  with  the  flags  of  the  three  dominations, 
which  Louisiana  has  successivel.v  known  and  recognized — France, 
Spain  and  the  United  States — the  latter  the  highest  of  all,  marking 
the  event  roxmd  which  the  day's  celebration  revolved.  Arch- 
bishop Chapelle  officiated.  At  12  o'clock  the  centennial  ceremonies 
began,  a  signal  gun  announced  the  departure  from  Decatur  and  St. 
Peter  .streets  of  Charles  F.  Claiborne  and  Theodore  S.  Wilkinson, 
whose  grandfathers  were  the  American  commissioners  at  the  trans- 
fer of  180.3.  They  were  accompanied  by  James  S.  Zacharie,  who 
represented  the  American  secretary,  Wadsworth,  and  were  escorted 
to  the  cabildo  by  the  Continental  Guards,  who  represented  the 
LT.  S.  army  of  that  pei-iod.  Upon  reaching  the  cabildo  they  were 
met  at  the  head  of  the  stairs  by  the  mayor,  city  council,  and  Pres. 
Alcee  Fortier,  who  represented  the  French  commissioner,  Laussat, 
who  had  no  descendants  in  Louisiana,  and  were  escorted  to  the 
siipreme  court  room.  Gov.  Heard  presided  and  explained  that  the 
ob.iect  of  the  meeting  was  to  be  a  repetition  of  the  transfer  of  180.1. 
Charles  T.  Soniat  took  the  part  of  the  Fi-ench  secretarv.  Daugerot, 
the  French  and  Spanish  representatives,  justices  of  the  supreme 
court  in  their  robes  of  office,  the  Ignited  States  representative,  the 
commanders  of  the  men-of-war  and  other  guests  assembled  in  the 
court  room.  In  front  of  the  platform  were  three  seats,  for  the 
men  who  took  the  parts  of  the  commissioners. 

Prof.  Fortier,  as  Laussat,  had  the  middle  seat,  with  the  other 
commissioners  on  either  hand,  and  the  secretaries  standing,  behind. 
The  governor  called  the  meeting  to  order  and  renuested  Prof. 
Fortier  to  preside.  The  latter  as  Laiissat,  requested  IMr.  Zacharie, 
as  Wadsworth.  to  read  the  commission  of  President  JeflFerson  to 
the  American  commissioners:  Chai-les  Soniat,  as  Dauserot,  then 
read  the  power  of  Laussat  to  receive  Louisiana  from  Spain :  ^Ir. 
Zacharie  read  five  sections  of  the  treaty  of  cession,  and  ^Mr.  Soniat 
read  the  same  in  Fi-ench,  after  which  he  read  the  power  of  Laussat 


LOUISIANA  193 

to  deliver  the  province  of  Louisiana  to  the  United  States.  Prot 
Fortier,  as  Laussat,  then  delivered  possession  of  Louisiana  to  the 
American  commissioners.  Charles  Claiborne  then  took  the  chair 
and  delivered  the  address  which  his  grandfather,  Gov.  W.  C.  C. 
Claiborne,  had  given  when  he  took  possession  of  the  territory  100 
years  before.  After  the  address  Prof.  Fortier  called  upon  Mr. 
Zacharie  to  read  the  proces  verbal  of  the  delivery  of  Louisiana,  and 
announced  that  at  the  original  transfer,  after  the  proces  verbal  was 
read.  Gov.  Claiborne  and  Laussat  had  gone  out  on  the  balcony,  ac- 
companied by  Mayor  Bore,  and  addressed  the  citizens.  He  there- 
fore sugested  that,  in  imitation,  the  governor  and  mayor  address 
the  citizens.  Mayor  Capdevielle  then  read  the  proclamation  of 
Gov.  Claiborne,  and  declared  the  celebration  at  an  end.  At  a  signal 
the  American  flag  was  raised  on  the  staff  in  Jackson  Square;  the 
artillery  gave  a  salute,  and  the  men-of-war  taking  it  up  each  fired 
21  guns.  The  official  I'epresentatives  then  entered  the  justices' 
room  to  sign  the  process  verbal. 

Centerpoint,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  extreme  northwestern  part  of 
Avoyelles  parish,  is  about  5  miles  south  of  Kees,  the  nearest  railroad 
station. 

Centerville,  a  town  in  the  central  part  of  St.  Mary  parish,  is  on 
the  navigable  Bayou  Teche,  5  miles  below  Franklin,  the  parish  seat, 
and  about  2  miles  northeast  of  Bayou  Sale,  the  nearest  railroad 
town.  It  is  situated  in  the  center  of  a  rich  sugar  district,  has  large 
sugar  industries,  a  money  order  postoffice,  one  bank,  several  mer- 
cantile establishments,  and  a  population  of  450. 

Central,  a  village  in  the  northwestern  part  of  St.  James  parish, 
is  situated  on  the  east  .bank  of  the  Mississippi  river  and  the  Yazoo 
&  Mississippi  Valley  R.  R.,  about  7  miles  above  Convent,  the  parish 
seat.  It  has  a  money  order  postoffice,  telegraph  and  telephone 
facilities,  and  a  population  over  150. 

Centennial  Exposition. — (See  Expositions.) 

Cessions. —  (See  Treaties,  Military  Reservations,  National  Ceme- 
teries and  Transfer  of  Louisiana.) 

Cevallos,  Pedro,  a  Spanish  statesman  and  politician,  was  born  at 
Santander,  Spain,  in  1764.  In  1802-03,  as  minister  of  foreign  affairs 
under  Charles  IV,  he  conducted  an  interesting  diplomatic  corres- 
pondence with  Charles  Pinckney,  the  American  minister  to  Spairu 
relative  to  the  establishment  of  a  resident  \J.  S.  mercantile  agent 
at  New  Orleans  and  the  cession  of  the  Floridas  to  the  United  States. 
On  July  19,  1803,  just  after  France  had  sold  Louisiana  to  the  United 
States,  he  wrote  a  letter  to  Mr.  Pinckney,  in  which  he  said:  "His 
Majesty  the  king  having  given  orders  to  his  ministers  near  the 
United  States  of  America  to  make  known  the  absolute  nullity  of 
the  proceedings  of  France  in  disposing  of  Louisiana,  which  he  had 
formally  and  positively  engaged  not  to  sell,  I  now  communicate  the 
same  to  you,  in  order  that  you  may  submit  it  to  your  government, 
which  will  thus  receive  it  by  distinct  channels.  At  the  same  time, 
I  must  inform  you  in  reply  to  the  assurance  given  me  by  you  at  our 
last  conference  that  France  had  also  ceded  West  Florida,  that  the 
1—13 


194  LOUISIANA 

said  province  never  has  at  any  time  or  by  any  title  belonErod  to  the 
French."  The  Sjtanish  opposition  to  the  transfer  was  witlulrawn 
early  the  following  year  and  on  Fell.  10,  ISO-l,  Cevallos  wrote  again 
to  yir.  Pinckney  notifying-  him  of  the  fact.  Judging:  from  his  cor 
respondence,  there  is  little  room  for  doubt  that  the  ojiposition  of 
Spain  to  the  cession  was  instigated,  or  at  least  increased  by  Cevallos. 
In  1808  he  was  sent  to  London  on  a  political  mission  by  the  Junta, 
and  while  there  pul)lished  a  work  which  is  said  to  have  had  a  great 
deal  to  do  in  inciting  the  Spaniards  against  Bonaparte.  Between 
1814  and  1820  he  served  as  secretary  of  state  and  minister  to 
Austria.    He  died  about  1838. 

Chacahoula,  a  village  in  the  northern  jiart  of  Terrebonne  parish, 
is  a  station  on  the  Southern  Pacific  R.  R..  about  6  miles  southwest 
of  Schriever.  It  is  the  supply  point  for  a  considerable  district,  has 
a  money  order  postoffice,  an  express  office,  telegraph  and  telephone 
facilities,  and  a  jiopnlation  of  124. 

Chaise,  De  la,  who  came  in  Louisiana  in  1723,  and  with  Du  Saunoy 
was  empowered  "to  exercise  inciuisitorial  powers  over  the  affairs  of 
Louisiana,  to  take  information  on  the  conduct  of  all  the  officers 
and  administrators  of  the  colony,  and  to  rejiort  thereon  to  the  gov- 
ernment,"' exercised  his  important  fiuictions  as  kings  commissary 
alone  until  his  death  in  1730,  as  Dn  Sauno.v  died  shortl.v  after  his 
arrival.  He  was  a  nephew  of  the  Jesnit  Father  de  la  Chaise,  con- 
fessor of  Loi;is  XIV,  and  was  of  noble  and  distinguished  ancestry. 
Gayarre  characterizes  him  as  one  "not  gifted  with  a  superior  intel- 
lect :  but  he  was  a  solid  square  block  of  honest.v,  who  neither  de- 
viated to  the  right  nor  to  the  left  from  the  path  of  duty,  and  who, 
possessing  a  considerable  share  of  energy,  moved  stoutly  onward  to 
the  accomplishment  of  his  mission,  regardless  of  persons  and  of  con- 
sequences. *  *  *  Boisbriant,  the  governor  ad  interim,  Perraidt,  Perry, 
the  engineer  Paiiger,  the  attorney-general  Fleuriau,  all  members  of 
the  superior  eonucil,  were  censured  with  severity  by  the  government. 
Moreover,  Acting  Gov.  Boisbriant,  Bienville's  cousin,  was  summoned 
to  France  to  .justify  his  acts:  Perrault,  Fazende  and  Perry,  members 
of  the  council,  were  dismissed  from  office;  Fleuriau,  the  attorney- 
general,  was  invited  to  throw  np  his  commission,  and  the  office  itself 
was  suppressed  for  the  moment."  De  la  Chaise  was  the  direct  cause 
of  the  downfall  and  recall  of  Boisbriant,  and  bitter  enmit.v  existed 
between  the  two  men  until  the  latter  was  smnraoned  to  France.  On 
the  arrival  of  Gov.  Perier  in  the  fall  of  1726,  he  was  informed  by 
the  company  that  he  must  maintain  the  most  cordial  relations  and 
nndei-standing  with  the  connnissary,  de  la  Chaise,  in  whose  zeal  and 
integrity  the  company  reposed  the  most  imjilicit  confidence.  These 
two  men  now  exercised  the  supreme  power  in  the  colony,  and  each 
was  independent  of  the  other  within  his  respective  department; 
Perier  was  chief  executive  and  commandant-general,  while  de  la 
Chaise  had  supervision  of  its  police,  connnerce  and  .indieial  admin- 
istration. As  a  result  of  their  harmonius  relations,  a  period  of  tran- 
quillit,v  in  the  colony  ensued  nntil  the  outbreak  of  the  Natchez  at 
the  end  of  1729,  and  for  the  fii'st  time  there  was  a  complete  absence 


LOUISIANA  -  195 

of  the  evils  produced  by  the  jealousies  aud  quarrels  between  the 
g-overuor  and  the  king's  commissaries.  When  the  wretclied  sur- 
vivors of  the  Natchez  massacre  arived  at  New  Orleans,  de  la  Chaise 
made  generous  use  of  his  extensive  authority  to  satisfy  all  their 
wants.  His  sudden  death  in  1730  led  to  rumors  that  he  had  been 
poisoned  by  those  who  had  cause  to  fear  his  impartial  investigations. 
Le  Page  du  Pratz  has  written  in  glowing  terms  of  his  many  virtues, 
and  ended  with  the  statement,  "Those  orphans  and  widows  who 
escaped  from  the  Natchez  massacre,  would  be  extremely  ungrate- 
ful if  they  did  not,  during  all  theii'  life,  pray  for  the  soul  of  that 
good  and  charitable  man."  De  la  Chaise  had  succeeded  Duvergier 
as  commissary,  and  was  followed  in  the  same  office  by  Salmon. 

Chalmette,  a  village  in  the  western  part  of  St.  Bernard  parish,  is 
situated  on  the  east  bank  of  the  ^Mississippi  river,  the  Louisiana 
Southern  R.  R.,  and  the  New  Orleans  Terminal  R.  R.,  about  10 
miles  southeast  of  New  Orleans,  in  one  of  the  rich  agricultural 
districts  that  supplies  the  market  of  that  city  with  vegetables  and 
fruits.  It  is  a  considerable  town,  having  a  money  order  postoffice, 
express  offices,  telephone  and  telegraph  facilities,  and  a  population 
of  110. 

Chalmette  Plantation,  or  Chalmette  Plain,  is  situated  in  St.  Ber- 
nard parish,  a  few  miles  southeast  of  the  city  of  New  Orleans,  and 
is  the  place  where  the  American  forces  under  Gen.  Jackson  won 
the  decisive  victory  over  the  British  army  commanded  by  Gen. 
Pakenham  on  Jan.  8,  1815.  The  first  step  toward  the  erection  of  a 
monument  on  this  historic  plain  was  in  1840,  when  Gen.  Jackson 
visited  New  Orleans  and  assisted  in  laying  the  cornerstone  of  the 
equestrian  statue  erected  in  his  honor  in  Jackson  square.  On  that 
occasion  some  patriotic  gentlemen  chartered  a  steamboat  to  convey 
a  block  of  granite  bearing  the  inscription  "January  8,  1815,"  to  the 
old  battlefield,  where  it  was  placed  in  position  as  the  cornerstone  of 
the  future  monument.  Nothing  fui'ther  was  done  until  Jan.  11, 
1851,  when  a  public  meeting  was  held  at  the  St.  Louis  exchange. 
Mayor  A.  D.  Grossman  presiding,  the  object  of  whch  was  to  erect 
a  suitable  monTiment  to  Jackson,  whose  death  had  occurred  on  June 
8,  1845.  At  this  meeting  it  was  decided  to  erect  two  monument.s — 
one  to  Gen.  Jackson  in  Jackson  square,  and  the  other  on  the  site  of 
his  celebrated  victory.  A  commission  was  appointed  consisting  of 
Gov.  Joseph  Walker,  Lieut-Gov.  Jean  B.  Plauche,  flavor  A.  T). 
Grossman,  James  H.  Caldwell,  Joseph  Genpis,  P.  Seuzeneau.  with 
Charles  Gayarre  as  secretary.  Th(>  commissioners  organized  as  the 
"Jackson  Monument  Association,"  which  was  incorporated  as- a 
permanent  board  by  the  legislature  of  1852.  The  same  session  ap- 
propriated $10,000  for  the  equestrian  statue  and  .'fsS.OOO  for  the  Chal- 
mette monument.  By  the  act  of  March  18,  1852,  the  governor  was 
authorized  to  purchase  from  the  owners  of  the  land  a  tract  one 
arpent  s(|uare  on  the  line  of  the  intrenchnients  occupied  by  Jackson's 
men  on  Jan.  8,  1815,  as  a  site  for  the  monument.  Pursuant  to  this 
act,  on  Feb.  If),  1855,  the  State  of  Louisiana  purchased  from  Pierre 
Bachelot,  for  $5,000,  "  a  certain  tract  of  land  known  as  Chalmette 


196  LOUISIANA 

Plain  iu  the  pai-ish  of  St.  Bernard  and  set  apart  said  property  for 
the  erection  of  a  mouuiuent, "  etc. 

The  contract  for  the  erection  of  the  momiment  ivas  awarded  to 
Newton  Richards,  wlio  pushed  forward  the  work  until  the  shaft 
reached  a  height  of  56  feet,  when  the  work  was  suspended  for 
want  of  funds.  Before  any  further  action  was  taken  the  great 
Civil  war  came  on  and  as  a  result  Chalmette  was  neglected.  At 
the  close  of  the  war  the  old  battlefield  was  practically  a  wilderness 
and  the  unfinished  inonuuient,  surrounded  by  a  tangled  mass  of 
shrubbery,  reminded  one  more  of  a  ruin  than  a  work  commemo- 
rative of  a  great  historic  battle.  Some  years  after  the  Avar  an  or- 
ganization of  women  known  as  the  "United  States  Daughters  of 
1776  and  1812"  was  effected  in  New  Orleans  and  incorporated 
imder  the  laws  of  the  State  of  Louisiana.  On  April  17,  1894,  the 
"care  and  keeping  of  the  monument  and  grounds  at  Chalmette," 
was  entrusted  to  these  patriotic  women  by  resolution  of  tlie  general 
assembly,  and  through  their  labors  and  influence  interest  in  the 
original  inidertaking  was  revived.  The  legislature  appropriated 
$2,000  for  the  erection  of  a  lodge  and  employment  of  a  caretaker 
to  look  after  the  grounds  and  protect  the  monument  from  acts  of 
vandalism.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  the  states  resources  were  limited, 
the  "Daughters"  decided  to  appeal  to  the  national  government 
for  the  means  to  complete  the  monument.  Accordingly,  on  June 
30,  1898,  the  general  assembly  of  the  state  adopted  a  resolution  re- 
questing Congress  to  establish  and  maintain  a  national  park  on 
the  scene  of  the  battle  of  Jan.  8,  1815.  Then  it  was  ascertained  that 
it  was  contrary  to  the  policy  of  the  national  government  to  build 
or  maintain  monuments  or  memorials  on  state  property,  and  Hon. 
Eobert  F.  Broussard,  member  of  Congress  from  the  3d  Louisiana 
district,  suggested  that  the  legislature  pass  an  act  ceding  the 
grounds  to  the  United  States.  The  act  of  cession  was  passed  by 
the  legislature  and  on  June  19,  1902,  was  approved  by  Gov.  Heard. 
Briefly  described,  the  tract  thus  ceded  has  a  frontage  of  about  92 
feet  on  the  IMississippi  river  and  runs  back  a  distance  of  80  arpents, 
the  end  farthest  from  the  river  beinc'  4r)3  feet  in  width.  Congress 
took  no  action  on  the  matter  until  March  4,  1907,  when  the  Chal- 
mette monument  bill  was  passed,  and  on  June  5,  1907,  the  deed 
of  transfer  from  the  State  of  Louisiana  to  the  TTnited  States  was 
delivered  to  the  secretary  of  war  by  W.  0.  Hart,  having  been 
previously  signed  by  Gov.  Newton  C.  Blanchard  and  Secretary  o*' 
State  John  T.  IMiehel.  'Mr.  Hart  suggested  that  it  would  add  dignity 
to  the  transaction  to  have  the  deed  accepted  by  the  president,  which 
was  done,  after  which  the  document  was  returned  to  St.  Bernard 
parish  to  be  entered  upon  the  records. 

Congress  appropriated  $25,000  for  the  completion  of  the  monii- 
ment,  which  was  begun  more  than  half  a  century  ago.  A.  F. 
Theard  of  New  Orleans  made  plans  for  the  United  States  Daugh- 
ters for  the  Avork,  and  soon  after  the  deed  Avas  accepted  the  plans 
were  approA-ed  by  the  secretary  of  war,  who  appointed  Capt.  J.  F. 
I\IeTndoe  of  the  engineer  corps,  TT.  S.  A.,  to  superintend  the  con- 


LOUISIANA  197 

sti-uctiou  of  the  monument  and  the  disbursement  of  the  funds. 
The  secretary  of  war  also  sugjiested  the  aijpomtment  of  an  advis- 
ory committee  on  the  part  of  the  "Daughters,"  and  Ueu.  Adolph 
Meyer,  Uen.  Albert  Estopinal  and  W.  O.  Hart  were  selected,  lu 
this  way  the  Chalmette  i'laiu  becomes  a  national  institution.  Future 
generations  of  Americans  may  look  upon  the  monument  and  call 
to  mind  how  a  mere  handful  of  undisciplined  but  brave  and  patriotic 
men,  under  the  leadership  of  a  man  who  never  knew  defeat,  over- 
came the  dower  of  the  British  army  and  closed  the  War  of  1812. 
By  Act.  No.  29,  legislative  session  of  1902,  the  governor  was  au- 
thorized to  sell  a  portion  of  the  original  Bachelot  tract,  which  was 
done  for  the  sum  of  $3,(Jti5.11,  and  on  July  2,  1908,  Gov.  Sanders 
approved  an  act  directing  that  tlii.s  sum  be  turned  over  to  the 
United  States  Daughters  to  be  applied  to  "the  care  and  keeping  of 
said  monument  and  grounds." 

Chamberlin,  a  village  and  station  in  the  northern  part  of  East 
Baton  Rouge  parish,  is  a  short  distance  west  of  the  ]\Iississippi  river 
on  the  Texas  &  Pacific  R.  R.,  about  10  miles  northwest  of  Port 
xVUen,  the  parish  seat.  It  has  a  moi,iey  order  postoffiee,  an  express 
office,  telegraph  and  telephone  facilities,  and  some  retail  trade. 

Charapigny,  Jean  de,  a  French  scholar  and  writer,  was  a  resident 
of  Louisiana  at  the  time  Spanish  authority  was  established  in  the 
province  by  O'Reilly.  He  wrote  a  "Memoir  of  Louisiana,"  cover- 
ing the  principal  events  from  the  time  of  Iberville  down  to  the  be- 
ginning of  the  Spanish  domination.  The  closing  paragraphs  of  this 
memoir  are  as  follows:  "The  world  has  beheld  with  surprise  the 
silence  of  the  French  ministry  as  to  O'Reilly's  conduct,  its  neglect 
to  exact  reparation  for  his  inhumanity,  its  silence  as  to  the  violation 
of  the  law  of  nations  in  pronouncing  sentence  on  French  subjects. 
Still  more  is  Europe  surprised  to  learn  that  the  remnants  of  those 
wretched  families,  stripped  of  everything  they  possess,  languish  in 
silence  and  misery. 

"Is  there  then  no  beneficence,  no  humanity  on  earth?  Assured 
of  the  contrary,  let  us  say  that  till  now  the  truth  was  unknown,  the 
French  ministry  was  deceived.  May  the  faithful  narrative  which  I 
now  present  to  faithful  souls,  excite  in  them  those  feelings  which 
honor  humanity. 

*  *  *  "0,  Heavenly  Power!  send  forth  the  light  of  truth  into 
the  hearts  of  those  raised  up  to  protect  it.  Unveil  iniquity  to  their 
eyes,  unmask  imposture.  Let  it  tremble  on  the  very  steps  of  the 
throne,  where  it  seeks  to  escape  thy  avenging  hand,  and  let  me 
in  transports  at  the  sight  of  thy  justice  exclaim:  'There  is  then 
on  earth  an  asylum  for  virtue,  a  support  for  that  innocence,  and  no 
place  where  iniquity  and  crime  can  find  a  shelter.'  " 

M.  de  Champigny  was  also  the  author  of  a  History  of  England, 
which  was  published  in  1777,  as  well  as  of  several  other  works,  and 
translated  Sehlecel's  "Historv  of  the  Danish  Kings."  He  died 
about  1787. 

Chandeleur  Islands  are  a  sroup  of  islands  lying  in  a  crescent 
shape  east  nf  St.  Bernard  parish,  from  which  they  are  separated  by 


198  LOUISIANA 

Chandeleur  sound.  They  were  visited  by  Iberville  in  1699  before 
his  rieet  came  to  anchor  in  the  roadstead  between  Cat  and  Ship 
islands.  Gayarre  says:  "This  name  proceeds  from  the  circum- 
stance of  their  having  been  discovered  on  the  day  when  the  Cath- 
olic church  celebrates  the  feast  of  the  presentation  of  Christ  in  the 
temple,  and  of  the  puiification  of  the  virgin.  They  are  tlat,  sandy 
islands,  which  look  as  if  they  wish  to  sink  back  into  the  sea,  from 
shame  of  having  come  into  the  world  prematurely,  and  before  hav- 
ing been  shaped  and  licked  by  nature  into  proper  objects  of  exist- 
ence." The  distance  from  the  most  northern  to  the  most  southern 
point  of  the  group  is  about  40  miles,  and  from  the  mainland  on  the 
west  about  20  miles.  On  the  northernmost  point  a  lighthouse  is 
maintained. 

Chantilly,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  eastern  part  of  Catahoula  parish, 
is  situated  on  a  branch  of  the  Black  river,  about  8  miles  north  of 
Athlone,  the  nearest  railroad  town,  and  6  miles  southeast  of  Har- 
risonburg, the  parish  seat. 

Chapeile,  Placide  Louis,  Koman  Catholic  archbishop  of  New  Or- 
leans from  1897  to  1905,  was  born  in  the  diocese  of  ]\Iende,  France, 
Aug.  28,  18-42.  At  the  age  of  17  years  he  came  to  the  United  States 
and  took  complete  courses  in  theology  and  philosophy  in  St.  Clary's 
college.  Fi'O'n  1863  to  1865  he  taught  in  St.  Charles  college  and 
in  the  latter  year  was  ordained  priest.  The  next  five  years  were 
spent  in  missionary  work;  became  assi.stant  pastor  of  St.  John's 
chiirch,  Baltimore,  Md.,  in  1870,  and  later  pastor;  was  also  pastor 
of  St.  Joseph's,  Baltimore,  and  in  1882  became  pastor  of  St.  ]\[at- 
thew's,  Washington,  D.  C.  About  this  time  he  came  into  promi- 
nence as  a  theologian  and  acted  as  president  of  the  theological  con- 
ferences nt  Baltimore  and  Washington.  In  1891  he  was  appointed 
coadjutor  bishop  to  Archbishop  Salpointe  of  Sante  Fe,  New  ]\Iex., 
with  right  of  succession,  and  consecrated  titular  bishop  of  Arabissus. 
In  Jan.,  1894,  upon  the  resignation  of  Archbishop  Salpointe,  he  be- 
came archbishop  of  Saute  Fe,  where  he  served  with  distinction 
until  in  Nov.,  1897,  when  he  was  appointed  archbishop  of  New  Or- 
leans to  succeed  I\Iost  Rev.  Francis  Janssens,  whose  death  had  oc- 
curred the  preceding  June.  On  Sept.  16,  1898,  Archbishop  Chapeile 
was  appointed  by  the  Pope,  apostolic  delegate  of  Cuba  and  Porto 
Rico,  and  about  a  year  later  he  received  a  similar  appointment 
to  the  Philippine  islands.  Owing  to  his  frequent  absences  from  New 
Orleans  on  account  of  his  duties  as  apostolic  delegate.  Father 
Gustav  A.  Rouxel  was  appointed  aiixiliarv  archbishop.  On  Aug.  9, 
1905,  Archbishop  Chapeile  died  in  New  Orleans,  a  victim  of  the  yel- 
low fever  epidemic  of  that  year.  Forty  of  the  63  years  of  his  life 
had  been  spent  in  the  service  of  the  blaster,  and  the  fact  that  he 
rose  from  an  humble  priest  to  be  archbishop  of  New  Orleans  is  evi- 
dence that  his  ecclesiastical  duties  were  always  discharged  with 
conscientious  devotion  to  the  cause  to  which  he  had  consecrated  his 
life. 

Charenton,  a  village  in  the  northeastern  part  of  St.  IMary  parish, 
is  situated  on  the  Bayou  Teche,  about  3  miles  northeast  of  Baldwin, 


LOUISIANA  199 

the  nearest  railroad  station  and  6  miles  north  of  Franlvlin,  the  parish 
seat,  in  a  rich  sugar  district.  It  has  sugar  industries,  a  money  order 
postoffice,  and  a  population  of  300. 

Charities  and  Corrections. — The  state  board  of  charities. and  cor- 
rections was  created  by  act  of  the  legislature,  approved  by  Gov. 
Blanehard  on  July  5,  1904.  (See  Blanehard's  Administration.) 
Although  invested  with  no  authority  beyond  ithat  of  visiting  the 
penal  and  charitable  institutions  of  the  state  and  making  recom- 
mendations regarding  their  management,  the  board  has  accom- 
plished a  great  deal  in  the  way  of  improving  the  character  and  con- 
trol of  these  institutions.  The  last  report  of  the  board  was  to  the 
general  assembly  of  1908.  Concerning  the  old  penitentiary  at  Baton 
Rouge,  this  report  says:  "The  kitchen  was  in  a  most  disorderly 
and  uncleanly  condition.  *  *  *  From  information  gathered  else- 
where, it  was  also  ascertained  that  the  food  furnished  the  men  from 
this  kitchen  was  not  satisfactory,  consisting  in  a  large  ,part  of  salt 
meats  and  very  few  vegetables,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  on  the  farm 
at  Angola  vegetables  are  grown  in  such  abundance  that  in  some 
seasons  they  are  allowed  to  rot  because  there  is  no  one  to  eat  them. 
*  *  *  The  hospital  at  the  walls  is, by  no  means  all  that  it  should  be. 
The  sleeping  quarters  are  clean  and  the  beds  well  supplied  with 
bed  clothing,  but  the  bathing  and  sanitary  arrangements  were  in  a 
very  dilapidated  condition  at  the  time  of  our  visit.  We  have  been 
informed,  however,  that  improvements  are  now  under  way  in  this 
regard.  *  *  *  We  most  earnestly  recommend  that,  at  the  earliest  pos- 
sible date,  this  old  building  be  abandoned  entirely  and  the  receiving 
staton  be  established  at  Angola,  with  at  least  one  member  of  the 
board  of  control  resident  there." 

The  report  of  the  board  on  the  condition  of  the  colored  camp  at 
Angola  sets  forth  the  fact  that  it  is  constructed  "entirely  of  wooden 
buildings  with  shingle  roofs.  The  sleeping  quarters  at  this  camp, 
although  very  well  ventilated  are,  in  our  opinion,  entirely  too  small 
for  the  number  of  men  (juartered  there.  In  a  room  30  by  130,  131 
men  sleep  every  night.  The  sanitary  arrangements  are  primitive. 
The  dining  room  at  this  camp,  though  large  and  well  ventilated, 
is  extremely  crude,  and  the  floor  is  covered  with  sawdust,  evidently 
for  the  jmrpose  of  avoiding  scrubbing.  The  kitchen,  although  large 
and  well  ventilated,  is  not  as  clean  and  orderly  as  it  should  be.  The 
clothing  of  a  great  many  of  the  men  here  was  not  clean,  in  spite 
of  the  fact  that  it  was  Sunday,  and  our  visit  was  expected.  The 
board  most  earnestly  recommends  that,  as  soon  as  possible,  brick 
buildings  be  constructed  at  this  camp,  like  those  at  Camp  E,  occu- 
pied by  white  men." 

At  the  camp  for  white  men  at  Angola  the  board  found  conditions 
ideal  in  every  way,  but  its  report  with  regard  to  the  women's  camp 
there,  says :  "There  is  nothing  at  this  camp  that  we  can  recommend, 
and  we  suggest  its  immediate  and  entire  reconstruction  in  brick." 

The  Orleans  parish  prison,  the  Jackson  insane  asylum,  the  deaf 
and  dumb  institute  and  the  state  institute  for  the  blind  were  found 
on  good  condition  and  well  managed,  though  the  board  recommended 


200  LOUISIANA 

fire  escapes  on  the  aimex  occupied  by  ijirls  at  the  blind  asylum,  aud 
some  of  the  institutions  mentioned  were  somewhat  crowded.  The 
board  sugested  legislation  establishing  juvenile  courts;  that  the 
board  of  control  of  the  state  penitentiary  be  required  to  furnish  dis- 
cliarged  prisoners  with  transportation  by  railroad  or  steamboat  from 
the  place  of  discharge  to  the  prisoner's  home,  provided  saitl  home  is 
within  the  state;  and  that  the  members  of  the  board  of  charities 
and  corrections  be  allowed  their  traveling  expenses  and  a  paid  secre- 
tary, not  a  member  of  the  board,  the  salary  of  such  secretary  not 
to  exceed  $1,500  per  annum.  The  report  was  signed  by  Michel 
Heymann,  as  vice-president ;  F.  S.  Weis,  as  secretary ;  and  T.  P. 
Thompson,  E.  B.  Herndon  and  R.  McG.  Carruth,  as  members 

Charity  Hospital. — This  splendid  eleemosynary  institution  is  sit- 
uated in  the  city  of  New  Orleans,  where  it  was  fir.st  established 
soon  after  the  founding  of  the  city,  beintr  one  of  the  first  free  hospi- 
tals ever  established  in  the  United  States.  Gradually,  since  that 
time,  through  the  bounty  of  the  state  and  with  the  assistance  of  im- 
portant donations  from  philanthropic  citizens,  modern  new  buildings 
and  equipments  have  been  added,  until  the  institution  has  grown 
into  one  of  the  largest  and  best  hospitals  in  the  country.  The 
hos]iital  grounds  embrace  two  squares,  with  am  ambulance  hou.se 
situated  in  a  third  square.  Its  energetic  board  of  administrators 
and  officers,  its  skilled  and  experienced  surgeons  and  physicians 
have,  for  many  years  past,  mantained  its  well-established  reputa- 
tion, and  no  other  charitable  institution  in  the  state  is  more  affec- 
tionately regarded  by  the  people  as  a  whole.  The  great  hospital, 
with  its  .52  wards,  containing  900  beds,  is  annually  occuiiied  by 
from  9,000  to  10,000  patients.  "Of  the  52  wards  there  are  2.3  medical, 
14  surgical,  2  obstetrical,  2  gynecological,  2  for  children,  4  for 
diseases  of  the  nervous  system,  2  for  venereal  diseases,  2  for  dis- 
eases of  the  eye  and  ear,  and  1  for  skin  diseases.  In  addition  to  the 
indoor  patients,  the  hospital  treats  annually  some  20.000  outdoor 
patients.  These  are  provided  for  in  2  clinical  buildings,  each  of 
which  is  subdivided  into  8  different  services,  7  of  which  are  alike  in 
both  buildings,  namely:  for  medical  cases:  for  nervous  diseases; 
for  .surgical  cases;  ^'or  venereal  and  skin  diseases;  for  diseases  of 
the  eye,  ear,  nose  .nnd  throat ;  and  for  cases  of  dentistry.  Besides 
these  7  S(>rvices,  the  men  and  boys'  clinic  has  a  surgical  service  for 
boys,  and  the  women  and  children's  clinic  has  a  gynecological 
service. 

The  advantages  of  the  Charity  Hospital  were  further  increased 
in  1899  by  the  addition  of  the  Richard  Jlilliken  memorial  annex,  a 
model  building  for  the  accommodation  of  200  sick  children.  The 
Pasteur  department,  which  is  also  free,  was  added  in  1903.  The 
Delgado  memorial  for  surgical  eases  was  oiiened  in  1908.  It  is 
also  a  model  building. 

The  splendid  work  being  done  by  the  lios]iital  is  elo{iucntly  at- 
tested by  the  following  records.  Dni'ing  the  year  1904,  there  were 
8,816  indoor  patients  treated  in  the  hospital ;  19,302  outdoor  patients, 
to  whom  73,071  free  consultations  were  given,  and  the  ambulance 


LOUISIANA  201 

service  responded  to  1,596  calls.  Showing  the  record  a  little  more 
in  detail  lor  1905,  there  were  9.071  cases  treated  in  the  wards  of 
the  hospital;  19,129  outdoor  patients,  to  whom  68,458  consultations 
were  given;  and  in  addition,  there  were  5,699  accident  cases  attended 
in  tlie  surgical  amphitheatre.  Of  the  outdoor  patients,  4,314  were 
medical  cases;  6,172  surgical;  186,  nervous;  1,925,  venereal  and 
dermatological ;  2,478,  diseases  of  children ;  1,339,  gynecological ; 
2,794,  eye,  ear,  nose  and  throat;  and  321,  dentistry.  The  sum  total 
of  all  cases  treated  in  1905  was  34,202.  There  were  1,191  deaths, 
269  births,  and  a  daily  average  of  644  indoor  patients. 

The  excellent  medical  department  of  the  Tulane  university  makes 
constant  and  extensive  use  of  the  great  liospital  for  prosecuting 
the  study  of  medicine  in  all  its  branches,  being  located  only  two 
squares  distant  on  Canal  street.  Ever  since  1847  the  law  of  Louisi- 
ana has  provided  that  "the  medical  department  of  the  university 
shall  at  all  times  have  free  access  to  the  Charity  Hospital  of  New 
Orleans,  for  the  purpose  of  affording  their  students  practical  illus- 
trations of  the  subjects  they  teach."  The  professors  and  clinical 
instructors  of  the  depai'tment  are  attending  physicians  or  surgeons 
of  the  hospital  and  visit  their  wards  daily.  They  perform  surgical 
operations  and  deliver  lectures  in  the  spacious  amphitlu>atre  of 
the  hospital,  wliich  will  accommodate  an  audience  of  about  400. 

Charles  III,  king  of  Spain,  second  son  of  Philip  V  and  Elizabeth 
Farnese,  was  born  in  Jan.,  1716.  In  1731  he  took  possession  of  the 
two  duchies  of  Parma  and  Placentia,  on  the  extinction  of  his 
mother's  family,  and  in  1734  his  father  ceded  to  him  the  crown  of 
the  Two  Sicilies,  of  which  he  was  recognized  king  by  the  treaty 
of  Vienna,  in  1738.  He  married  Maria  Amelia,  a  princess  of  Saxony, 
and  by  the  death  of  his  elder  brother,  Ferdinand  VI,  in  Aug..  1759, 
he  became  king  of  Spain.  In  1762,  in  accordance  witli  the  family 
compact  previously  formed  by  the  branches  of  the  house  of  Bour- 
bon, he  became  the  ally  of  France  in  the  war  against  England, 
which  resulted  in  Louisiana  being  ceded  to  Spain  by  the  secret 
treaty  of  Fontainebleau,  Nov.  3,  1762.  Portier  says:  "Had  it  not 
been  that  they  were  handed  over  like  cattle  by  one  master  to  an- 
other, the  Louisianians  .should  have  felt  relieved  to  be  no  longer 
the  si;b,jects  of  the  infamous  king  who  had  been  the  cause  of  the 
disasters  of  his  country."  As  it  was.  they  opposed  the  cession,  and 
the  aiithority  of  Spain  was  not  established  in  the  colony  until  an 
army  was  sent  there  to  awe  the  people  into  submission.  Charles 
restricted  the  povver  of  the  Inquisition  and  expelled  the  Jesuits  from 
Spain  and  all  her  colonies  in  1767.  In  May,  1779,  he  declared  war 
against  England,  which  led  to  the  conquests  of  Gov.  Galvez  in  West 
Florida.  He  died  in  1788  after  a  reign  that  was  beneficial  to  Spain, 
and  he  has  been  referred  to  by  historians  as  "a  man  who  possessed 
a  good  disposition  and  sound  judgment." 

Charles  IV,  second  son  of  Charles  III  and  I\Taria  Amelia,  was 
born  in  Naples,  Italy,  in  Nov.,  1748,  and  became  king  of  Spain  upon 
the  death  of  his  father  in  Dec,  1788.  Prior  to  that  time  he  had 
received  the  title  of  Prince  of  the  Astrurias  (1759),  and  in  1765 


202  LOUISIANA 

had  married  his  cousin,  JIaria  Louisa  Theresa  of  Pariiia,  wlio  luis 
been  described  as  "woman  of  very  vicious  morals."  In  1792  she 
succeeded  in  bringing'  disgrace  upon  Florida  Blanca,  the  prime 
minister,  and  the  appointment  to  his  place  of  her  favorite,  Godoy. 
The  following  year  the  French  republic  declared  war  against  Charles 
for  expelling  French  residents  from  Spain.  After  being  defeated 
in  a  number  of  battles,  Charles  was  compelled  to  sue  for  peace, 
which  Avas  concluded  in  1795,  when  the  French  conquests  in  Spain 
wei-e  restored  and  the  king:  evinced  his  satisfaction  by  creating 
Godoy  "i)rince  of  peace,  generalissimo,  etc."  In  1796,  through  the 
instigation  of  French  diplomacy,  the  court  of  Spain  declared  war 
against  England  and  Charles  relinquished  the  direction  of  the  gov- 
ernment to  Godoy  and  the  ciueen,  though  he  retained  the  throne 
until  ilareh,  1808,  when  he  abdicated  in  favor  of  his  son  Ferdinand. 
It  was  during  this  period  that  the  aggressiveness  of  Fi'ance,  under 
Napoleon,  secured  the  retrocession  of  Louisiana  to  France  by  the 
treat}'  of  St.  Ildefonso,  Oct.  1,  1800.  After  Charles  resigned  the 
throne  to  his  son,  Napoleon  procured  an  interview  with  them  at 
Bayonne  and  extorted  from  both  of  them  an  abjuration  of  the 
Spanish  crown.  Charles  was  granted  a  liberal  pension,  took  up  his 
residence  in  Rome,  and  died  there  in  1S19. 

Charlevoix,  Pierre  Francois  Xaxier  de,  a  Jesuit  priest  and  dis- 
tinguished traveler  and  writer,  was  born  at  St.  Quentin,  France, 
Oct.  24,  1682.  lie  entered  the  Jesuit  society  in  1698,  was  sent  to 
Quebec  in  1705,  and  later  taught  both  there  and  in  France.  In  July, 
1720,  he  embarked  for  Canada  on  a  visit  to  the  mission  and  arrived 
there  in  September.  After  a  stay  of  some  time  at  Sault  St.  Louis, 
he  ascended  the  St.  Lawrence  to  the  lakes,  Avhence  he  descended 
by  the  Illinois  to  the  Mississippi  and  journeyed  down  that  stream 
to  the  mouth,  touching  at  the  various  French  posts  and  establi.sh- 
ments  on  the  river,  including  New  Orleans,  which  had  just  been  se- 
lected for  the  capital  of  the  colony.  After  an  absence  of  two  years, 
he  returned  to  France  bj^  way  of  San  Domingo.  He  is  the  author 
of  several  important  historical  works.  In  1744  appeared  his  His- 
toire  de  la  Nouvelle  France,  which  had  been  withheld  for  some  20 
years  for  political  and  commercial  reasons,  and  at  the  same  time 
appeared  his  Historical  Journal,  made  up  of  letters  addressed  to  the 
Duchess  of  Lesdigiiieres,  written  during  his  voyage  down  the  IMis- 
sissippi.  His  liistory  of  Japan  was  also  popular.  Father  Charlevoix 
has  given  in  his  journal  a  most  accurate  and  vivid  description  of 
French  Louisiana,  the  Mississippi  and  its  tributaries,  the  topography 
of  the  country,  the  manners  and  customs  of  the  Indian  tribes  and 
their  villages,  the  missionary  establishments  and  colonial  posts,  and 
of  the  people  and  things  as  they  existed  at  that  time.  After  a  some- 
what protracted  stay  at  the  Natchez  in  Dec,  1721,  he  continued  his 
voyage  clown  the  river  to  New  Orleans,  and  under  date  of  Jan.  10, 
1722,  writes  most  entertainingly  as  follows:  "I  am  at  length  ar- 
rived in  this  famo\is  city,  which  they  have  called  la  Nouvelle  Or- 
leans. Those  who  have  given  it  this  name,  thought  that  Orleans 
was  of  the  feminine  gender;  but  what  signifies  that?     Custom  has 


LOUISIANA  203 

established  it,  and  that  is  above  the  rules  of  grammar.  This  city  is 
the  first,  which  one  of  the  greatest  rivers  in  the  world  lias  seen  raised 
on  its  banks.  .If  the  800  fine  houses,  and  the  five  parishes,  which 
the  newspapers  gave  it  some  two  years  ago,  are  reduced  at  present 
to  a  hundred  barracks,  placed  in  no  very  great  order;  to  a  great 
storehouse,  built  of  wood ;  to  two  or  three  houses,  which  would  be 
no  ornament  to  a  village  of  Prance ;  and  to  the  half  of  a  sorry  store- 
house, which  they  agreed  to  lend  to  the  lord  of  the  place,  and  which 
he  had  no  sooner  taken  possession  of,  but  they  turned  him  out  to 
dwell  under  a  tent ;  what  pleasure,  on  the  other  hand,  to  see  in- 
sensibly increasing  this  future  capital  of  a  fine  and  vast  country, 
and  to  be  able  to  say,  not  with  a  sigh,  like  the  hei-o  of  Virgil, 
speaking  of  his  dear  native  place  consumed  by  the  flames,  and  the 
fields  where  the  city  of  Troy  had  been,  but  full  of  a  well-grounded 
hope,  this  wild  and  desert  place,  which  the  reeds  and  trees  do  yet 
almost  wholly  cover,  will  be  one  day,  and  perhaps  that  day  is  not 
far  off,  an  opulent  city,  and  the  metropolis  of  a  great  and  rich 
colony.  You  will  ask  me,  IMadam,  on  what  I  found  this  hope?  T 
found  it  on  the  situation  of  this  city,  at  33  leagues  from  the  sea, 
and  on  the  side  of  a  navigable  river,  that  one  may  come  up  to  this 
place  in  twenty-four  houi-s ;  on  the  fruitfulness  of  the  soil ;  on  the 
mildness  and  goodness  of  its  climate,  in  thirty  degrees  north  lati- 
tude; on  the  industry  of  its  inhabitants;  on  the  neighborhood  of 
Mexico,  to  which  we  may  go  in  fifteen  days  by  sea ;  on  that  of 
Havana,  which  is  still  nearer;  and  of  the  finest  islands  of  America, 
and  of  the  English  colonies.  Need  there  be  anything  more  to  render 
a  city  flourishing?  Ronu^  .and  Paris  had  not  such  considerable  be- 
ginnings, were  not  built  under  such  happy  auspices,  and  their 
founders  did  not  find  on  the  Seine  and  Tiber  the  advantages  we 
have  found  on  the  Mississippi,  in  comparison  with  which  these 
tM^o  rivers  are  but  little  brooks." 

In  the  light  of  later  developments  the  Jesuit  father  has  here 
displayed  a  most  remarkable  y)roplietic  gift.  On  Jan.  22,  still  in 
company  with  the  engineer  Pauger,  with  whom  he  had  .ioiirney 
down  the  river  from  Natchez,  he  left  New  Orleans  and  set  out  for 
the  colonial  headquarters  at  New  Biloxi.  After  a  comparativel.v 
uneventful  trip  down  the  river,  he  arrived  on  the  night  of  the  24th 
at  the  little  island  of  Balise,  which  he  blessed  the  next  day  and 
renamed  Toulouse.  He  was  delayed  at  the  mouth  by  contrary 
winds  for  a  day,  and  spent  the  interval  with  Pauger  and  the  pilot, 
Kerlasio,  in  sounding  the  passes,  of  which  he  gives  a  most  inter- 
esting description.  He  Ma-ites  that  he  was  detained  at  Biloxi  for 
a  month  by  a  .iaundice.  He  has  little  that  is  complimentary  to  say 
of  Biloxi,  and  even,  writes  in  disparaging  terms  of  the  splendid 
harbor  Ship  I.sland.  He  says:  "All  this  coast  is  extremely  flat; 
merchant  ships  cannot  come  nearer  to  it  than  four  leagues,  and 
the  smallest  brigantine  than  two:  and  even  these  are  obliged  to  go 
further  off  when  the  wind  is  north  or  northwest,  or  else  they  find 
themselves  on  ground.  What  they  call  Biloxi  is  the  coast  of  the 
main  laud,  which  is  to  the  north  of  the  road.     Thev  could  not  have 


204  LOUlSIxVNA 

chosen  a  worse  situation  for  the  general  quarters  of  jhe  colony,  for 
it  can  neither  receive  any  succors  from  the  ships,  nor  give  them 
any,  for  the  reasons  I  have  mentioned.  Besides  this,  the  road  has 
two  great  faults;  the  anchorage  is  not  good  and  it  is  full  of  worms, 
Avhich  damage  all  the  ships ;  the  only  service  it  is  of  use  is  to  shelter 
the  ships  from  a  sudden  gust  of  wind  when  they  come  to  discover 
the  mouth  of  the  i\Iississippi,  which,  having  only  low  lands,  it  would 
be  dangerous  to  approach  in  bad  weather,  without  having  first 
discovered  it.  The  Biloxi  is  not  more  valuable  for  its  land  than 
for  its  sea.  It  is  nothing  but  sand,  and  there  grows  little  besides 
pines  and  cedai-s."  Late  in  llarch  Charlevoix  returned  to  New 
Orleans  by  way  of  the  inside  passage  and  then  took  passage  for 
San  Domingo. 

Charlieville,  a  hamlet  in  the  southern  part  of  Richland  parish,  is 
about  1)  miles  southwest  of  ^langham,  the  nearest  railroad  station. 
It  has  a  money  order  postoffice  and  is  a  trading  center  for  the 
neighborhood. 

Chase,  a  post-hamlet  and  station  in  the  central  part  of  Franklin 
pari.sh,  is  on  the  New  Orleans  &  Northwestern  R.  R.,  about  -3  miles 
south  of  Winusboro,  the  parish  seat. 

Chataignier,  a  post-village  in  Evangeline  parish,  is  on  the  Louisi- 
ana East  &  West  R.  R.,  about  12  miles  west  of  Opelousas.  It  has  a 
population  of  250. 

Chatham,  a  little  post-village  in  the  northwestern  part  of  Cald- 
well parish,  is  about  1.5  miles  northwest  of  Columbia,  the  parish  seat. 
It  is  the  southern  terminus  of  the  ]\Ionroe  &  Southwestern  R.  R., 
and  is  a  trading  and  shipping  point  for  that  section  of  the  parish. 

Chattel  Mortgages. — Instruments  of  this  character  are  unknown 
to  the  laws  of  Louisiana,  but  all  movables,  whether  corporeal  or 
incorporeal,  may  be  pledged  or  pa^vned.  As  against  third  persons, 
the  pawn  or  pledge  must  be  an  act  before  a  notary,  or  under  private 
signature.  It  must  mention  the  amount  of  debt,  the  species  and 
nature  of  the  thing  pledged,  or  have  a  statement  annexed  thereto 
of  its  number,  weight  and  measure.  Promissory  notes,  bills  of  ex- 
change, stocks,  obligations  or  claims  iipon  other  persons  may  be 
pledged  by  simple  delivery  to  the  creditor,  if  made  in  good  faith. 
All  pledges  of  movable  property  must  be  accompanied  by  actual  de- 
livery, either  to  the  pledgees,  or  some  third  party  agreed  upou.  De- 
livery of  property  in  a  warehouse  shall  pass  by  private  assignment 
of  warehouse  receipt  and  be  valid  without  further  formalities. 
Notice  to  the  debtor  must  be  given  in  the  case  of  pledge  of  credits 
not  negotiable,  and  a  copy  of  the  act  of  pledge  served  on  him.  Acts 
of  pledge  in  favor  of  the  banks  of  this  state  .shall  be  considered  as 
forming  authentic  proof,  if  passed  by  the  cashiei-s  and  contain  a 
description  of  the  objects  given  in  pledge.  Unless  it  be  specially 
agreed  in  the  act  of  pledge  as  to  the  mode  of  disposing  of  the  articles 
pledged,  the  creditor  must  first  obtain  a  judgment  against  his  debtor 
before  he  can  have  them  sold. 

Chauvin,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  central  part  of  Terrebonne  parish, 
is  situated  at  the  head  of  Quitman  lake.     It  is  a  station  of  the 


'LOUISIANA  205 

Cumberland  telephone  and  telegraph  company,  and  has  a  popula- 
tion of  200. 

Chenal,  a  village  in  the  eastern  part  of  Pointe  Coupee  parish, 
about  2  miles  southwest  of  Glynn,  the  nearest  railroad  station,  and 
7  miles  south  of  New  Roads,  the  parish  seat.  It  has  a  money  order 
postoffice  and  a  population  of  175. 

Cheneyville,  a  town  in  the  southeastern  part  of  Rapides  parish, 
was  founded  by  the  act  of  March  l^l,  1836,  which  provided  that 
"the  town  laid  off  by  W.  P.  Chenej'  on  the  right  bank  of  Bayou 
Boeuf,  be,  and  the  same  time  is  hereby  created  a  body  politic,  by 
the  name  of  Cheneyville."  It  is  a  station  on  the  Southern  Pacific 
and  Texas  &  Pacific  railroads,  about  22  miles  southeast  of  Alex- 
andria, the  parish  seat,  and  is  one  of  the  oldest  towns  in  the  parish. 
It  has  a  bank,  a  money  order  postoffice,  express  office,  telephone 
and  telegraph  facilities,  and  a  population  of  498. 

Cheniere,  a  post-village  in  the  iiorthwesteni  part  of  Ouachita 
parish,  is  situated  on  the  Vieksburg,  Shreveport  &  Pacific  R.  R., 
about  9  miles  west  of  Monroe,  the  parish  seat.  It  has  an  express 
office,  some  retail  trade,  and  a  population  of  150. 

Cherry  Ridge,  a  hamlet  of  Union  parish,  is  situated  on  the  Ar- 
kansas &  Southeastei-n  R.  R.,  about  12  miles  north  of  Farmerville, 
the  parish  seat.  It  is  the  supply  point  for  a  rich  agricultural  dis- 
trict, and  has  a  money  order  postoffice. 

Chester,  Peter,  an  Englishman  by  birth,  was  appointed  governor 
of  West  Florida  in  1772,  being  the  third  English  governor  of  that 
colony.  It  is  said  that  Tinder  his  administration  Pensacola  made 
■  rapid  progress,  and  that  "the  large  military  establishment,  and  the 
advantages  of  the  port  as  a  headquarters  for  Indian  trade,  attracted 
several  enterprising  merchants."  Chester  was  still  governor  when 
Gov.  Galvez  of  Louisiana  appeared  before  Pensacola  with  his  fleet, 
in  March,  1781,  and  demanded  a  surrender.  He  wrote  to  Galvez, 
offering  to  release  the  Spanish  prisoners  at  Pensacola  if  the  Span- 
ish commander  wonld  promise  they  should  not  take  up  arms  until 
regularly  exchanged.  The  offer  was  ignored  by  Galvez,  who  went 
ahead  with  the  investment  of  the  place.  When  Pensacola  sur- 
rendered on  May  9,  1781,  Chester  also  surrendered  the  whole  of 
West  Florida,  and  agreed  that  all  British  subjects  should  leave  the 
colony  within  eighteen  months.     (See  Spanish  Concjuest.) 

Chestnut,  a  village  in  the  northeastern  part  of  Natchitoches  par- 
ish, is  at  the  junction  of  the  Louisiana  &  Arkansas  and  the  Louisi- 
ana &  Northwest  railroads,  about  20  miles  north  of  Natchitoches, 
the  parish  seat.  It  has  a  money  order  postoffice,  a  telegraph  station, 
and  is  the  shipping  and  supply  town  for  a  large  agTicultural  dis- 
trict, although  the  population  is  small. 

Chickasaw  Bluffs. — The  highlands  on  the  Mississipi  river,  where 
the  city  of  Memphis,  Tenn.,  now  stands,  are  of  considerable  im- 
portance in  the  history  of  Louisiana  down  to  the  beginning  of  the 
19th  century.  Very  early  in  the  French  period  a  stockade,  named 
Fort  Prudhomme,  in  honor  of  one  of  La  Salle's  companions  who 
was  lost  there  for  9  days,  was  built  at  the  mouth  of  Wolf  river, 


206  LOUISIANA 

and  formed  one  of  the  chain  of  posts  to  protect  the  French  claim  to 
the  great  Mississippi  valley.  In  Bienville's  second  campaifrn  against 
the  Chickasaws  (1739-40),  he  assembled  his  army  at  this  point,  in 
Aug.,  1738,  and  to  accommodate  his  men  built  a  spacious  fort  near 
the  mouth  of  the  Wolf  (Spanish  Margot)  river,  a  house  for  Com- 
mandant Ayme  de  Noailles,  barracks  for  the  soldiers,  store-houses 
and  a  bakery.  He  called  it  Fort  Assumption  because  the  French 
army  disembarked  on  the  15th  of  August.  During  their  stay  here 
until  April,  1740,  when  a  treaty_  of  peace  was  concluded  with  the 
Indians,  the  troops  suffered  severely  from  sickness  and  lack  of 
food.  On  the  retirement  of  Bienville's  army  to  New  Orleans,  the 
fort  and  other  Iniildings  were  razed.  During  the  later  English 
control  of  this  region,  the  Chickasaw  bluffs  obtained  an  unenviable 
reputation  as  a  rendezvous  for  Chickasaws  and  renegade  whites, 
who  preyed  upon  the  commerce  of  the  river.  The  whole  region 
about  tlip  blufi's  belonged  to  the  Giickasaw  nation  until  western 
Tennessee  was  finally  ceded  b.v  them  to  the  United  States.  Pending 
the  negotiations  between  Spain  and  the  United  States  regarding  the 
boundary,  after  the  treaty  of  179.5,  tliis  was  one  of  the  posts  which 
Gov.  Carondelet  was  so  reluctant  to  surrender.  Gayoso,  then  gov- 
ernor of  Natchez,  concluded  a  formal  treaty  at  Chickasaw  bluffs  in 
1705,  with  "Augliakabee  and  some  other  Chickasaw  chiefs,"  by 
which  the  Indians  ceded  a  tract  of  land  for  a  military  post.  Gayoso 
hoisted  his  king's  flag  over  the  new  post  i\Iay  30,  1795,  and  named 
it  Fort  Ferdinand  of  the  Bluffs,  in  honor  of  his  prince.  When  the 
Spaniards  finally  saw  that  they  would  be  compelled  to  carry  out  the 
terms  of  the  treaty  of  1795  and  evacuate  their  posts  on  the  eastern 
bank  of  the  Mississippi,  above  the  31st  parallel,  they  razed  the  fort 
and  transported  the  material  and  garrison  across  the  Mississippi 
to  their  po.st  of  Esperanza.  This  was  shortly  after  Ellicott's  arrival 
at  Natchez  in  Feb.,  1797,  and  several  months  before  the  arrival 
of  Capt.  Guion  and  the  U.  S.  troops  at  the  Chickasaw  bluffs  in  July. 
It  was  Guion 's  belief,  expressed  in  a  letter  to  the  secretary  of  war 
soon  after  his  arrival  at  the  Chickasaw  liluffs,  tliat  the  Sitaniards 
intended  to  reoceupy  the  post.  The  time  of  his  arrival  was  most 
opportune,  as  Guion  reported:  "Had  I  halted  at  New  ^Madrid  but 
one  day  with  the  troops,  and  every  means  but  violence  was  used 
to  effect  it,  a  great  point  had  been  gained  by  our  neighbors,  whose 
vessel  from  Natchez,  laden  with  presents  of  blankets,  shirts,  hats, 
muskets,  powder  and  lead,  tomahawks,  saddles  and  bridles,  etc., 
for  the  Chickasaws,  arrived  at  their  garrison  of  Hopefield  opposite 
to  this  place  about  eight  hours  before  our  arrival  here.  Great 
pains  and  much  industry  had  been  used  to  detach  from  the  friend- 
ship of  the  United  States  this  nation  of  Indians,  and  I  fear  they 
have  been  in  a  degree  successful."  He  further  added:  "It  is  cer- 
tain that  the  Spaniards  intended  to  reoceupy  this  post  very  soon." 
A  faction  of  the  Chickasaws,  led  by  Wolf's  Friend,  was  disposed 
to  object  to  the  occupation  of  land  by  the  Americans,  which  had 
already  been  ceded  to  the  Spanish,  but  Chief  Piamingo,  who  ruled 
the  majority,  sided  with  the  Americans.    Capt  Guion  exercised  his 


LOUISIANA  207 

discretion  and  built  a  hexagonal  stockade,  over  which  he  hoisted 
the  Stars  and  Stripes  on  Oct  22,  1797,  and  left  a  garrison  here 
when  he  went  down  the  river  in  November.  He  named  it  Fort 
Adams,  but  when  that  name  was  shortly  after  applied  to  the  post 
at  Loftus  Heights  (q.  v.),  Guion's  stockade  was  rechristened  Port 
Pickering. 

Chickasaws. —  (See  Indians.) 

Chief  Justices. — The  following  is  a  list  of  the  .justices  who  have 
presided  over  the  supreme  court  of  Louisiana  since  its  organiza- 
tion, together  with  the  dates  when  each  entered  upon  and  retired 
from  the  office :  George  Mathews,  1813  to  1835 ;  Francois  Xavier 
Martin,  1836  to  1846;  George  Eustis,  1846  to  1853;  Thomas  Slidell, 
1853  to  1855;  Edwin  T.  Merrick,  1855  to  1865;  William  B.  Hyman, 
1865  to  1868 ;  John  T.  Ludeling,  1868  to  1877 ;  Thomas  C.  Manning, 
1877  to  1880:  Edward  E.  Bermudez,  1881  to  1892;  Francis  T. 
Nieholls,  1892  to  1904 ;  Joseph  A.  Breaux,  1904  to  1914 ;  Prank  A. 
Monroe,  1914-^. 

China,  a  small  hamlet  in  Jeff  Davis  parish,  is  about  5  miles  west 
of  Bayou  Nezpique  and  4  miles  south  of  Elton,  the  nearest  railroad 
.station.    It  has  a  money  order  postoffi.ce. 

Chinchuba,  a  village  of  St.  Tammany  parish,  is  situated  in  the 
S'.nithern  part,  on  a  branch  of  the  New  Orleans  Great  Northern 
R.  R.,  about  3  miles  north  of  Mandeville.  It  has  a  money  order 
postoffioe,  pxjiress  office,  telegTaph  and  telephone  facilities. 

Chinn,  Thomas  W.,  memljer  of  Congress,  was  born  in  Kentucky, 
of  a  prominent  family;  moved  to  Baton  Rouge,  La.,  where  he  held 
a  number  of  public  offices  before  he  was  elected  a  representative 
from  Louisiana  to  the  26th  Congress  as  a  Whig.  President  Tay- 
lor appointed  him  minister  to  the  Two  Sicilies  in  June,  1849,  but 
he  resigned  in  October  of  the  same  year. 

Chipola,  a  village  in  the  northwestern  part  of  St.  Helena  parish, 
is  situated  near  Darlinji's  creek  about  5  miles  north  of  Darlington, 
the  most  convenient  railroad  station,  and  10  miles  northwest  of 
Greenslmrg,  the  parish   seat. 

Choctavrs. — (See  Indians.) 

Cholera. — The  malady  known  as  Asiatic  cholera  is  described  by 
pathologists  as  "a  malignant  disease  due  to  a  specific  poison  which, 
when  received  into  the  human  body  through  the  air,  water,  or  in 
some  other  way,  gives  rise  to  tin;  most  alarming  symptoms  and 
very  frequently  proves  fatal  to  life.  An  attack  of  cholera  is  gener- 
ally marked  by  three  stages,  though  these  often  succeed  each  other 
so  rapidly  as  not  to  be  easily  defined.  There  is  first  a  premonitory 
diarrhoea  stage,  with  occasional  vomiting,  severe  cramps  in  the 
abdomen  and  legs,  and  great  muscular  weakness.  This  condition 
is  succeeded,  and  often  within  a  remarkably  short  period,  by  the 
second  stage,  which  is  one  of  collapse,  and  is  called  the  algid  or 
cold  stage.  This  is  characterized  by  intense  prostration,  great 
thirst,  feebleness  of  circulation  and  respiration,  with  coldness  and 
blueness  of  the  skin,  and  loss  of  voice.  Should  death  not  take 
place  at  this,  the  most  fatal  period,  the  sufl'erer  will  then  pass  into 


208  LOUISIANA 

the  third  or  reaction  sta^e  of  the  disease.  This,  thouarh  very  fre- 
quently marked  by  a  high  state  of  fever,  with  a  tendency  to  con- 
gestion of  internal  organs,  as  the  brain,  lungs,  kidneys,  etc.,  is  a 
much  more  hopeful  stage  than  that  which  has  preceded  it,  and  the 
chances  of  recovery  are  very  much  increased." 

The  disease  is  called  the  Asiatic  cholera  from  the  fact  that  for 
centuries  it  has  had  its  home  in  the  East,  particularly  in  India, 
though  some  medical  writers  assert  that  under  other  names  it  has 
been  epidemic  in  other  portions  of  the  world.  Mill,  in  his  history 
of  India,  says:  "Spasmodic  cholera  had  been  known  in  India  frojp 
the  remotest  periods,  and  had  at  times  committed  fearful  ravages. 
Its  effects,  however,  were  in  general  restricted  to  ]iarticnlar  sea- 
sons and  localities,  and  were  not  so  extensively  diffused  as  to  attract 
notice  or  excite  alarm.  In  the  middle  of  1817,  however,  the  disease 
assumed  a  new  form,  and  became  a  Avidely  spread  and  fatal  epi- 
demic. It  made  its  first  appearance  in  the  eastern  districts  of 
Bengal  in  ]May  and  June  of  that  year,  and  after  extending  itself 
gradually  along  the  north  bank  of  the  Ganges,  through  Tirhiit  to 
Ghazipur.  it  crossed  the  river  and  passing  through  Rewa.  fell  with 
peculiar  virulence  upon  the  center  division  of  the  grand  army  in 
the  first  week  of  November.  «  *  *  During  the  week  of  its 
greatest  malignity  it  was  ascertained  that  764  fighting  men  and 
8,000  followers  perished." 

This  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  wide-spread  cholera  epidemic 
recorded  in  history.  In  1830  it  made  its  appearance  in  Europe, 
where  it  wrought  fearful  havoc  in  a  number  of  cities,  and  it  was 
not  until  1831  that  the  nature  of  the  disease  was  recognized.  In 
1832  it  crossed  the  Atlantic  to  the  United  States.  ^Vfter  ravaging 
the  coast  cities  of  the  Northern  states  it  extended  westward  to  the 
Ohio  valley  and  came  down  the  ^Mississippi  river  until  it  struck 
New  Orleans,  where  it  assumed  the  form  of  a  viriilent  epidemic. 
On  some  days  as  many  as  500  deaths  occurred,  and  the  total  mimber 
of  deaths  in  New  Orleans  and  the  immediate  vicinity  was  above 
6,000.  The  people  became  panic-stricken  and  many  sought  to 
escape  by  water,  but  the  scourge  pursued  them  to  the  steamboats 
where  they  were  probably  in  a  worse  situation  than  they  would 
have  been  had  they  remained  on  shore.  On  one  boat  there  were 
300  deaths;  130  on  each  of  two  others,  and  120  on  another.  The 
prevalence  of  the  disease  and  the  flight  of  so  many  citizens  left 
but  comparatively  few  well  persons  to  care  for  the  sick  and  bury 
the  dead.  IMany  of  the  victims  were  interred  where  they  died, 
and  the  bodies  of  others  were  cast  into  the  ^lississippi,  this  course 
being  made  necessary  throusrh  lack  of  facilities  to  give  them  decent 
burial  in  the  cemeteries.  The  disease  linffered  along  the  river  for 
about  two  vears.  but  the  mortalitv  was  slisht  when  compared  with 
1832. 

In  1848,  starting  again  in  Asia,  the  cholera  spread  to  America, 
reaching  New  Orleans  late  in  the  year,  just  after  a  yellow  fever 
epidemic,  and  within  a  few  weeks  about  4.000  deaths  occurred. 
This  time  the   scourge   spread  westward   and   up   the   ^lississippi 


LOUISIANA  209 

river.  Hundreds  of  gold  seekers  on  their  way  to  California  were 
cut  off,  and  about  one-third  of  the  8th  U.  S.  Infantry  died,  Maj.- 
Gen.  Worth  being  one  of  the  victims.  The  disease  was  especially 
fatal  to  the  negroes  on  the  plantations  along  the  Mississippi,  many 
planters  losing  their  entire  cotton  crop  because  there  were  none 
able  to  take  care  of  it.  In  Nov.,  1849,  cholera  again  appeared  as 
an  epidemic  in  New  Orleans,  following  immediately  after  the  yel- 
low fevei",  as  in  the  preceding  year.  By  the  close  of  1850  its  vic- 
tims numbered  about  1,800,  and  during  the  years  1854-55  about 
1,750  more  names  were  added  to  the  death  roll  in  Louisiana.  This 
was  its  last  appearance  as  a  malignant  epidemic,  though  cholera 
visited  the  United  States  in  1866  and  1873,  and  on  these  occasions 
a  few  deaths  occurred  in  the  lower  Mississippi  valley.  In  the  fall 
of  1886  a  few  cases  reached  New  York  harbor,  but  prompt  and 
effective  quarantine  measures  confined  the  disease  to  the  vessels 
where  it  broke  out. 

Since  that  time  the  investigations  of  such  eminent  physicians  as 
Koch  and  Emmerich  of  Germany,  and  Jenkins  of  New  York,  have 
demonstrated  that  cholera  is  due  to  certain  forms  of  bacilli,  that 
it  is  not  contagious,  and  that  it  can  be  stamped  out  as  an  epidemic 
by  proper  attention  to  sanitation  and  the  prompt  isolation  of  cases. 
This  theory  was  thoroughly  tested  in  1892,  when  the  vessels  Mo- 
ravia, Xormannia,  Rugia  and  Seandia  arrived  in  New  York  harbor, 
each  reporting  several  deaths  from  "cholerine"  during  the  passage. 
The  vessels  were  detained  at  quarantine,  and  on  Sept.  7  President 
Harrison  ordered  a  large  number  of  tents  to  Sandy  Hook  for  the 
aceonunodation  of  the  passengers  until  the  danger  was  past.  For 
a  time  the  epidemic  on  the  ships  and  in  the  isolation  camp  was 
quite  severe  and  was  a  great  menace  to  the  country.  But  the 
quarantine  was  so  rigidly  maintained  that  only  2  deaths  from 
cholera  occurred  in  the  city  of  New  York,  thus  completely  estab- 
lishing the  efficacy  of  the  proposed  methods  of  dealing  with  the 

Chopart,  Sieur,  who  was  in  command  at  Fort  Rosalie  when  the 
dreadful  massacre  of  the  French  by  the  Natchez  Indians  took 
place,  Nov.  28,  1729,  is  credited  by  most  writers  with  being  the 
cause  of  this  disaster,  and  paid  the  penalty  of  his  intolerance  and 
cupidity  Avith  his  ovm  life.  The  first  French  settlers  among  the 
Natchez  had  been  careful  to  buy  their  lands  from  the  Indians,  but 
in  course  of  time  more  or  less  disregard  was  shown  for  Indian 
proprietorship,  and  Chopart  was  the  worst  offender  of  all.  Ac- 
cording to  the  account  of  Dumont,  who  had  been  an  officer  in  the 
fort  garrison  until  shortly  before  the  massacre,  Chopart  had  brought 
some  ne'groes  with  him  from  New  Orleans  and  desired  to  establish 
a  plantation  of  his  own  at  the  Natchez.  He  wanted  to  make  his 
fortune  in  a  short  time,  and  as  this  required  good  land  and  plenty, 
of  it,  and  as  the  best  land  was  already  in  the  possession  of  settlers, 
he  resorted  to  the  unjust  means  of  trying  to  dispossess -the  Indians. 
Not  only  this,  but  he  also  demanded  for  his  use  the  site  of  the 
great  village  of  the  Natchez,  situated  on  a  beautiful  and  fertile 
plain,  some  12  miles  south  of  the  fort,  on  St.  Catharine's  river. 
1—14 


210  LOUISIANA 

His  pretest  to  the  Indians  was  that  "the  great  chief  of  the  French 
at  New  Orleans,  the  Sieiu-  Perier,  had  written  to  him  to  order  the 
Natchez  to  leave  their  great  village,  as  he  needed  it  for  some  large 
buildings."  Chopart  granted  the  Natchez  two  months  in  which 
to  build  another  village  a  league  farther  away  from  the  river,  and 
even  had  the  audacity  to  demand  from  them  a  large  quantity  of 
provisions  as  a  reward  for  granting  the  delay.  Incensed  by  this 
great  wrong,  and  other  real  or  fancied  grievances  against  the 
French,  the  gi'eat  massacre  followed.  Chopart  himself  was  killed 
in  his  ovm.  garden  by  a  club  wielded  by  the  Puant  chief,,  as  he 
was  deemed  unworth.v  of  being  killed  by  a  brave.  (See  Natchez 
Massacre,  Natchez  Indians,  etc.) 

Chopin,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  southeastern  part  of  Natchitoches 
parish,  is  situated  on  the  Cane  river  and  the  Texas  &  Pacific  R.  R., 
about  20  miles  southeast  of  Natchitoches,  the  parish  seat.  It  has 
an  express  office  and  telephone  and  telegraph  facilities,  Chopin  is 
the  shipping  point  for  a  large  area  of  Cane  river  cotton  lands  lying 
west  of  the  village  and  is  the  supply  station  for  this  rich  agricul- 
tural coimtry. 

Choppin,  Samuel,  M.  D.,  an  eminent  New  Orleans  physician  and 
surgeon,  was  a  son  of  Paul  Choppin,  who  was  the  first  captain  of 
the  guard  at  the  Louisiana  state  penitentiary  after  that  institution 
was  located  at  Baton  Rouge.  At  the  beginning  of  the  year  1862, 
Dr.  Choppin  was  surgeon-general  on  the  staflf  of  Gen.  Beauregard, 
and  visited  Louisiana  to  encourage  the  work  of  recruiting  troops 
for  the  Confederate  army.  On  Feb.  27,  1862,  a  few  days  after 
the  fall  of  Fort  Donelson,  he  delivered  the  following  address  to 
the  troops  in  the  Crescent  City: 

"Soldiers  of  New  Orleans:  You  are  aware  of  the  disasters  which 
have  befallen  our  armies  in  the  "West.     Greater  disasters  are  still 
staring  lis  in  the  face.     Gen.  Beauregard — the  man  to  whom  we 
must  look  as  the  savior  of  our  country — sends  me  among  you  to 
summon  you  to  a  great  duty  and  noble  deeds — invoking  and  in- 
spired by  the  sacred  love  of  country  and  of  priceless  liberty,  he 
has  taken  the  deathless  resolution  de  les  venger  ou  de  les  suivre. 
And  with  the  immortal  confidence  and  holy  fervor  of  a  soul  -willing, 
if  need  be,  to  meet  martjTdom,  he  calls  upon  you  to  join  him,  in 
order  that  he  may  restore  to  our  country  what  she  has  lost,  and 
lead  yon  on  to  glory  and  independence.     In  tones  rigid  and  sullen 
as  the  tollings  of  the  funeral  knell,  but  with  clarion  accents  that 
should  send  a  quiver  through  every  heart,  and  string  the  nerves 
of  everj'^  man,  he  cries  out  the  final  refrain  of  that  immortal  hymn : 
'Aux  armes  citoyens!  formez  vos  battalions. 
Marchons ! 
Marchons ! 
Qu'nn  sang  impur  abreuve  nos  sillons.' 
.  Creoles  of  Louisiana,  on  to  the  work!" 

After  the  war  Dr.  Choppin  returned  to  Louisiana,  -where  he  took 
an  active  part  during  the  reconstruction  days  in  restoring  the  state 
government  to  the  white  people,  and  on  the  memorable  Sept.  14, 


LOUISIANA  '        211 

1874,  he  was  one  of  the  committee  sent  to  demand  the  resignation 
of  Gov.  Kellogg. 

Choudrant,  a  village  in  the  southeastern  part  of  Lincoln  parish, 
is  a  station  on  the  Vicksburg,  Shreveport  &  Pacific  R.  R.,  7  miles 
east  of  Ruston,  the  parish  seat.  It  has  a  money  order  postoffice, 
express  office,  telegraph  and  telephone  facilities,  and  is  the  trading 
center  for  a  considerable  district.  Its  population  is  250.  Ruston  is 
the  nearest  banking  town. 

Choupique,  a  postoffice  in  the  southwestern  part  of  Calcasieu 
parish,  is  located  in  a  rich  agricultural  region,  about  12  miles 
southwest  of  Lake  Charles,  and  not  far  from  the  bayou  of  the  same 
name.  Sulphur  and  Viutou,  on  the  Southei'n  Pacific  R.  R.,  are 
the  nearest  railroad  stations. 

Chouteau,  Auguste,  merchant,  fur  trader  and  one  of  the  founders 
of  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  was  bom  in  New  Orleans,  Aug.  14,  1750.  Early 
in  the  year  1764,  though  less  than  14  years  of  age  at  the  time,  he 
was  sent  up  the  Mississippi  river  from  Port  Chartres  by  his  step- 
father, Pierre  Laclede  Liguest,  with  30  men,  to  select  a  spot  for 
a  trading  post  and  begin  the  erection  of  cabins,  etc.  After  the  death 
of  Liguest  he  succeeded  to  the  business  they  had  established; 
made  frequent  visits  to  the  Indian  villages  and  to  New  Orleans; 
formed  a  partnership  with  John  Jacob  Astor,  which  developed  into 
the  Amei'ican  Fur  company,  and  remained  one  of  the  "first  citizens" 
of  St.  Louis  until  his  death.  In  1794  he  built  Fort  Carondelet  in 
the  Osage  country.  It  is  said  that  "at  the  beginning,  his  just 
and  humane  spirit  concurred  with  his  judgment  in  a  gen- 
eral policy  of  treating  the  Indians.  That  policy  was  fairness, 
friendliness  and  confidence,  and  it  saved  him  from  attacks,  disas- 
ters and  losses  and  made  his  trading  experiences  peaceful  and 
successful."  Soon  after  Louisiana  passed  into  the  hands  of  the 
United  States  he  was  made  Revolutionary  pension  agent  and  com- 
missioner to  treat  with  the  Indians.  In  1808  he  was  commissioned 
a  colonel  of  militia,  and  under  the  treaty  of  Ghent  (Dec.  14,  1814), 
he  was  appointed  one  of  the  commissioners  on  the  part  of  the 
United  States,  with  full  power  to  conclude  a  treaty  of  peace  with 
the  Indian  tribes  that  had  been  hostile  during  the  war  of 
1812.  Col.  Chouteau  was  one  of  the  first  trustees  of  the  town  of 
St.  Louis ;  served  as  justice  of  the  peace  and  as  judge  of  the  court 
of  common  pleas,  and  when  the  Bank  of  Missouri  was  organized 
in  1817,  was  made  its  first  president.  When  Lafayette  visited  St. 
Louis  in  1825,  Col.  Chouteau  was  a  member  of  the  committee  on 
arrangements,  and  was  one  of  the  three  distinguished  citizens  who 
rode  in  the  carriage  with  the  illustrious  French  soldier  and  states- 
man. He  died  on  Feb.  24,  1829,  and  was  buried  in  the  Catholic 
cementery,  his  tombstone  bearing  the  simple  but  expressive  epi- 
taph, "Sa  vie  a  ete  un  modele  de  vertus  eivilles  et  Soeiales." 

Chouteau,  Jeatn  Pierre,  a  younger  brother  of  Auguste  Chouteau, 
was  born  at  New  Orleans,  Oct.  10,  1758,  and  when  about  six  years 
of  age  was  taken  by  his  mother  to  St.  Louis.  As  soon  as  he  was 
old  enough  he  engaged  in  the  fur  trade,  establishing  trading-posts 


212  LOUISIANA 

and  forts  at  various  points  in  the  Indiana  country,  one  of  -which  was 
on  the  headwaters  of  the  Osage,  in  what  is  now  southeastern  Mis- 
souri. He  was  well-known  in  New  Orleans,  to  which  city  he  made 
frequent  visits  in  connection  with  his  business.  About  the  time 
Louisiana  was  transferred  to  the  United  States  he  gave  up  the  fur 
trade  and  settled  down  as  a  merchant  in  St.  Loviis.  He  was  made 
a  major  in  the  militia;  was  elected  a  member  of  the  town  council; 
and  was  appointed  a  sub-agent  for  negotiating  treaties  with  the 
several  tribes  of  Indians  whose  confidence  he  had  won  during  his 
fur-trading  days.    He  died  at  St.  Louis,  July  10,  1849. 

Christian  Church. — (See  Protestant  Churches.) 

Christie,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  southern  part  of  Sabine  parish,  is 
a  station  on  the  Kansas  City  Southern  K.  R.,  about  12  miles  south 
of  Many,  the  parish  seat. 

Church  Point,  an  incorporated  town  in  the  northeastern  part  of 
Acadia  parish,  is  a  station  on  the  Opelousas,  Gulf  &  Northeastern 
R.  E.,  about  15  miles  northeast  of  Crowley,  the  parish  seat.  It  is 
situated  in  the  largest  rice  district  of  the  southwest,  has  a  bank, 
several  rice  mills,  a  money  order  postoffice,  telegraph  and  tele- 
phone facilities,  an  express  oiSce,  and  is  a  shipping  point  of  con- 
siderable importance.    Population  481. 

Cinclare,  a  village  in  the  southeastern  part  of  West  Baton  Rouge 
parish,  is  situated  on  the  Mississippi  river  and  the  Texas  &  Pacific 
R.  R.,  about  8  miles  southwest  of  Baton  Rouge.  It  has  important 
sugar  industries  and  is  the  center  of  trade  for  a  rich  agricultural 
district.  Cinclare  has  a  money  order  postoffice,  express  office,  tele- 
graph and  telephone  facilities,  and  a  population  of  400. 

Citizens'  League. — From  1S92  to  1896,  while  John  Fitzpatrick 
was- mayor  of  New  Orleans,  the  city  coinicil  was  aceiised  of  cor- 
ruption in  various  matters,  and  several  of  the  members  were  con- 
victed of  bribery  and  sentenced  to  the  penitentiary.  To  correct  the 
evils  in  the  city  government  the  Citizens'  League  was  organized 
in  the  winter  of  1895-96,  with  Charles  Janvier,  president :  Pearl 
"Wight,  first  vice-president ;  Isidore  Hemsheim,  second  vice-presi- 
dent; Felix  Couturie,  third  vice-president:  TValker  B.  Spencer, 
secretary:  and  George  W.  Tonng,  treasurer.  The  league  was  com- 
posed of  members  of  all  parties — men  who  believed  in  good  gov- 
ernment— a  ticket  was  nominated  headed  by  Walter  C.  Flower 
for  mayor.  Interest  in  the  city  election  on  April  21,  1896,  was 
intense  and  a  large  vote  was  polled.  The  league  ticket  was  elected 
by  a  large  majority,  which  was  the  signal  for  a  great  display  of 
enthusiasm. 

City  Price  (R.  R.  name  Socola~i.  a  post -hamlet  of  Plaquemines 
parish,  is  situated  on  the  west  bank  of  the  IMississippi  river  and  is 
a  station  on  the  New  Orleans,  Fort  Jackson  &  Grand  Isle  R.  R.. 
about  4  miles  south  of  Pointe  a  la  Hache,  the  parish  seat. 

Civil  War.— (See  War  Between  the  States.) 

Claiborne  Parish  was  established  on  ]\rarch  13,  1828,  during  the 
administration  of  Gov.  Pierre  Derbigny.  It  was  the  first  sub- 
division of  Natchitoches  parish,  which  had  formed  a  part  of  the 


LOUISIANA  213 

old  historic  "Natchitoches  District,"  uuder  French  and  Spanish  rule 
of  Louisiana.  From  the  original  bounds  of  Claibornej  Bossier, 
Jackson,  Bienville,  Webster  and  Lincoln  parishes  have  been  carved, 
wholly  or  in  part.  This  parish  is  situated  in  the  northwestern 
part  of  the  state,  on  the  Arkansas  border,  and  as  now  constituted, 
is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Arkansas;  on  the  east  by  Union  and 
Lincoln  parishes ;  on  the  south  by  Bienville  parish  and  on  the  west 
by  Webster  parish.  Claiborne  was  named  in  honor  of  Gov.  Will- 
iam C.  C.  Claiborne,  the  first  territorial  and  state  governor  of 
Louisiana.  In  1811,  the  first  settlement  of  English-speaking  peo- 
ple was  made  near  the  Webster-Claiborne  line.  Among  the 
pioneers  of  this  section  were  Charles  L.  Hay,  Thomas  Leatherman, 
and  the  Crow  and  Butler  families.  The  first  police  .jury  met  and 
organized  at  the  home  of  John  Murrell  in  1828,  and  meetings  were 
regularly  held  here  for  some  time,  until  the  offer  of  Samuel  Russell 
of  a  site  for  the  pari.sh  seat  was  accepted  and  the  place  named 
Russellville ;  in  honor  of  the  donor.  The  first  court  at  the  new 
town  was  presided  over  by  Judge  Overton,  and  Isaac  McMahon  was 
sheriff.  After  the  great  raft  (q.  v.)  was  removed  from  the  Red 
river  in  1835,  navigation  was  extended  to  the  Minden  landing  on. 
Bayou  Dorcheat,  and  with  the  idea  that  it  would  become  an  im- 
portant shipping  point  the  parish  seat  was  moved,  and  the  town 
called  Overton  in  honor  of  Judge  Overton.  For  10  years  the  parish 
courts  were  held  here,  but  as  a  village  in  the  bottoms  Avas  un- 
healthy, and  as  it  was  not  centrally  located,  the  parish  seat  was 
changed  in  1846,  to  Athens.  Two  years  later  the  public  buildings 
and  records  at  Athens  were  destroyed  by  fire,  and  the  same  year 
the  seat  of  parochial  justice  was  established  on  lands  near  the 
center  of  the  parish  that  were  granted  by  Allen  Harris  and  Tilling- 
hast  Vaughn.  A  very  primitive  building  was  erected  for  a  court 
house  and  in  September  Judge  Roland  Jones  opened  court,  with 
Allen  Harris  as  .sheriff  and  W.  C.  Copes,  clerk.  During  the  year 
1849-50  a  good  brick  building  Avas  erected  for  parish  purposes,  and 
in  the  fall  of  1850  the  same  parish  officers  opened  court.  This  ucav 
town  was  named  Homer  by  Frank  Vaughn.  The  oldest  record  of 
the  police  .jury  is  dated  Nov.  12,  1849,  as  the  records  of  the  earlier 
period  were  destroyed  by  the  Athens  fire.  Judge  Wilson  opened 
the  first  district  court  at  Murrell 's  house  in  1828;  the  first  church 
in  the  parish  was  built  in  1830,  and  the  first  camp  meeting  was 
held  in  1832.  The  first  newspaper  issued  within  the  present 
boundaries  of  the  parish,  and  the  second  within  the  old  boundaries, 
was  the  Claiborne  Advocate,  the  Jlinden  Iris  being  the  first.  This 
paper  Avas  established  by  D.  B.  Harrison,  Avho  came  from  Ala- 
bama, and  Frank  Vaughn  Avas  the  first  editor.  Claiborne  is  well 
watered  by  Cypress  bayoii  in  the  northeastern  portion;  by  Bayou 
D'Arbonne  in  the  central  and  southeastern  portion,  and  by  Bayou 
Corny  and  other  small  streams  along  the  western  and  southern 
boundaries.  The  parish  has  an  area  of  764  square  miles.  The 
surface  is  undulating  and  broken,  even  quite  hilly  in  some  parts, 
with  an  extensive  area  of  level  bottom  lands.     The  soil  is  that 


214  LOUISIANA 

common  to  the  long  leaf  yellow  pine  region  of  the  state,  red 
sandy  clay  in  the  hills,  a  little  more  compact  in  the  lower  lands, 
and  fertile  in  the  creek  and  river  bottoms.  A  large  part  of  the 
unimproved  land  is  covered  with  a  heavy  growth  of  timber,  which 
is  a  source  of  pi'esent  and  future  wealth  to  the  parish.  When  the 
lands  are  stripped  of  their  valuable  forest  growths  they  will  yield 
a  full  tide  crop  the  second  year.  It  is  estimated  that  there  are 
1,500,000,000  feet  of  yellow  pine  lumber  and  probabl.y  an  equal 
amount  of  hardwood,  iueluding  cypress,  various  kinds  of  oak, 
hickory,  etc.  There  are  a  large  number  of  saw  mills  in  the  parish, 
and  planing  mills  and  wood  working  shops  are  springing  up  all 
over  this  region.  Cotton  is  the  great  staple  product,  but  corn,  hay, 
oats,  peas,  both  varieties  of  potatoes,  tobacco,  hemp,  wheat,  buck- 
wheat, sugar-cane  and  sorghum  all  yield  good  crops.  The  country 
is  well  adapted  to  dairying  and  stock  raising,  as  the  pasture  is  ex- 
cellent and  can  be  obtained  nearly  the  entire  year.  The  fi'uits 
and  nuts  are  those  native  to  this  latitude  and  region.  In  recent 
years  it  has  been  discovered  that  the  soil  and  climate  of  this  parish 
are  especially  adapted  to  peach  growing,  and  as  the  fniit  is  excel- 
lent in  flavor  and  size,  it  brings  the  best  prices  on  the  market. 
Large  peach  orchards  are  being  set  out,  and  horticulture  is  one  of 
the  rapidly  growing  industries.  Transportation  and  shipping  facil- 
ities are  provided  by  the  Louisiana  &  Northwest  R.  R.,  Avhich 
traverses  the  western  part  of  the  parish,  from  north  to  south,  pass- 
ing through  Homer.  This  road  has  direct  connections  with  the 
Cotton  Belt,  the  Vicksburg,  Shreveport  &  Pacific  R.  R.,  the  Loui- 
siana Railway  &  Navigation  company  and  the  Texas  &  Pacific 
R.  R.,  while  the  Shreveport  &  Northeastern  R.  R.  runs  southwest 
from  Homer  to  Minden,  in  Webster  parish,  connecting  with  the 
Louisiana  &  Ai-kansas  R.  R.  Homer  and  Athens,  the  two  most 
important  to'wns  of  the  parish,  are  located  on  the  Louisiana  & 
Northwest  R.  R.  Some  of  the  other  towns  and  villages  are :  Ari- 
zonia,  Haj-nesville,  LLsbon,  Summerfield,  Dykesville  and  Gordon. 
The  following  statistics,  taken  from  the  U.  S.  census  for  1910; 
Number  of  farms,  3,943;  acreage,  400,715;  acres  under  cultivation, 
215,579 ;  value  of  land  and  improvements  exclusive  of  buildings, 
$2,635,544;  value  of  farm  buildings,  $1,104,545;  value  of  live  stock, 
$999,494;  total  value  of  all  crops,  $1,794,977.  The  population, 
25,050. 

Claiborne,  William  Charles  Cole,  governor  of  the  Territory  of 
Orleans  and  first  g^overnor  of  the  State  of  Louisiana,  was  a  native  of 
Sussex  county,  Va.,  and  a  descendant  of  that  William  Claiborne 
who  came  from  England  as  surveyor  of  the  Yir^inia  plantations 
by  appointment  of  the  London  Company.  He  attended  the  Rich- 
mond academy  and  William  and  Mary  college  until  he  was  fifteen 
years  of  age,  when,  owing  to  the  reverses  that  had  come  to  his 
father  through  the  Revolutionary  war,  he  decided  that  it  was  neces- 
sary for  him  to  support  himself.  Going  to  New  York,  he  found  a 
position  as  enrolling  clerk  in  the  office  of  John  Beckley,  then  clerk 
of  the  lower  house  of  Congress.    In  1790  he  followed  Congress  to 


LOUISIANA  215 

Philadelphia,  where  he  formed  the  acquaintance  of  several  promi- 
nent men,  among  whom  were  Thomas  Jefferson  and  John  Sevier. 
The  latter  advised  the  youth  to  study  law  and  go  to  Tennessee. 
He  took  the  advice,  and  after  reading  law  for  three  months  at 
Richmond,  Va.,  located  in  Sullivan  county,  Tenn.  In  the  first  con- 
stitutional convention  of  Tennessee,  which  met  at  Knosville  in  Jan., 
1796,  he  was  one  of  the  leading  members,  which  drew  from  Gov. 
Blount  the  statement:  "He  is,  taking  into  consideration  his  age, 
the  most  extraordinary  man  of  my  acquaintance."  When  Tennes- 
see was  admitted  into  the  Union,  Claiborne  was  appointed  by  Gov. 
Sevier  one  of  the  judges  of  the  court  of  law  and  equity,  where  he 
served  with  distinction  until  Aug.,  1797,  when  he  was  elected  to 
the  lower  branch  of  Congress  to  fill  the  vacancy  caused  by  the 
election  of  Gen.  Andrew  Jackson  to  the  U.  S.  senate.  He  was 
re-elected  in  1798  to  the  6th  Congress,  and  in  the  Jefferson-Burr 
contest  voted  for  Jefferson  for  president.  In  May,  1801,  Jefi'erson 
appointed  him  governor  of  Mississippi  territory,  and  in  180.3,  he 
and  Gen.  "Wilkinson  were  appointed  commissioners  to  receive  Loui- 
siana from  the  French  government.  When  the  act  creating  the 
Territory  of  Orleans  went  into  effect  on  Oct.  1,  1804,  Claiborne 
became  governor  of  the  new  territory  and  continued  as  such  until 
the  admission  of  the  State  of  Louisiana  into  the  Union  in  1812. 
He  was  then  elected  governor  of  the  state.  On  Jan.  13,  1817, 
shortly  after  retiring  from  the  governor's  ofSce,  he  was  elected  to 
the  U.  S.  senate,  but  did  not  live  to  take  his  seat  in  that  body,  as 
his  death  occurred  on  Nov.  23,  1817.  Gov.  Claiborne  was  married 
three  times.  About  the  time  he  was  appointed  governor  of  Missis- 
sippi territory  he  married  Miss  Eliza  Lewis  of  Nashville,  Tenn. 
She  and  her  infant  child  died  on  Sept.  26,  1804.  After  her  death 
he  married  Miss  Clarissa  Duralde,  a  French  woman,  and  after  her 
death  a  Miss  Bosque,  of  Spanish  descent,  who  survived  him.  On 
Nov.  25,  1817,  two  days  after  his  death,  the  Louisiana  Courier  said : 
"Where  is  the  inhabitant  of  Louisiana  who,  on  reflecting  that  it 
is  to  Mr.  Jefferson  he  owes  the  happiness  of  belonging  to  the 
American  Union,  will  not  weep  over  the  loss  of  the  man  who 
secured  his  election  to  the  presidency?  The  cession  of  this  country 
opened  a  new  career  for  Mr.  Claiborne;  he  left  the  Mississippi 
territory,  of  which  he  was  governor,  to  fill  the  functions  of  com- 
missioner charged  to  administer  Louisiana  and  entrusted  with  all 
the  powers  which  had  been  enjoyed  by  the  governors  and  intend- 
ants  under  the  Spanish  government.  Soon  afterward  Louisiana 
was  formed  into  a  territory,  and  for  ten  years  Mr.  Claiborne  was 
its  governor.  His  remarkable  honesty,  the  softness  of  his  manners, 
and  the  evenness  of  his  temper,  made  him  universally  beloved. 
He  exerted  his  influence  in  propagating  that  inviolable  attachment 
which  he  bore  to  repiiblican  institutions;  and  if  we  now  hold  a 
rank  among  the  most  patriotic  states  of  the  Union,  it  is,  in  a  great 
measure,  owing  to  the  example  and  precepts  of  Mr.  Claiborne. 
The  erection  of  the  Territory  of  Orleans  into  a  state  furnished  to 
the  Louisianians  an  opportunity  of  rewarding  his  services  by  raising 


216  LOUISIANA 

him  to  the  first  magistracy.  His  admiiiistratiou  during:  four  years 
secured  him  new  rights  to  public  love  and  gratitude,  and,  the  con- 
stitution of  the  state  being  opposed  to  his  reelection,  the  general 
assembly  chose  him  as  one  of  ovir  senators  in  Congress.  He  Avas 
on  the  eve  of  rendering  to  his  country  services  no  less  essential 
than  those  which  had  hitherto  marked  his  political  career,  when 
death  deprived  America  of  a  most  virtuous  citizen,  his  family  of  a 
tender  father  and  husband,  and  his  numerous  friends  of  a  good 
and  worthy  man.  Louisiana  will  long  deplore  the  loss  she  has 
sustained,  and  she  will  never  cease  to  cherish  the  remembrance 
of  him  who  so  well  deserved  her  love  and  confidence." 

(Editor's  Note. — Several  a\ithorities  agree  in  giving  the  date  of 
Gov.  Claborne's  birth  as  1775.  If  this  be  correct  he  was  but  22 
5'ears  old  when  he  was  elected  to  Congress.  Clause  2,  Section  2, 
Article  I,  of  the  Federal  constitution  provides  that  "No  person  shall 
be  a  representative  who  shall  not  have  attained  to  the  age  of  twenty- 
five  years."  If  Gov.  Claiborne  was  elected  a  representative  at  the 
age  of  22  years,  he  was  probably  the  onh^  man  who  ever  served  in 
the  national  legislature  before  reaching  the  age  limit  required  by 
the  constitution.) 

Claiborne's  Administration  (Territorial).— On  Oct.  2,  1804,  the 
oath  of  office  was  administered  to  Gov.  Claiborne  by  James  Pitot, 
mayor  of  New  Orleans.  The  legislative  council  met  on  Dee.  4, 
and  organized  by  electing  Julien  Poydras  president.  In  his  message 
the  governor  said:  "When  I  revert  to  the  important  events  that 
produced  our  present  political  connection,  I  look  forward  to  the 
pleasing  prospects  of  permanent  aggrandizement.  *  *  *  The 
satisfaction  with  which  I  contemplate  the  future  destinies  of  this 
territory  is  equaled  only  by  my  admiration  of  the  wisdom  and  virtue 
Avhich  have  diffused  such  political  blessings,  and  promise  (under 
the  favor  of  Heaven)  their  jierpetuity.  «  *  *  Lgt  exertions  be 
made  to  rear  up  our  children  in  the  paths  of  science  and  virtue,  and 
to  impress  upon  their  tender  hearts  a  love  of  civil  and  religious 
liberty.  Every  eonsitiitioual  encouragement  should  be  given  to 
ministers  of  the  Gospel.  Religion  exalts  a  nation,  while  sin  is  the 
reproach  of  any  people.  It  prepares  us  for  those  vicissitudes  which 
so  often  checker  human  life.  It  deprives  even  misfortune  of  her 
victory.  It  invites  harmony  and  good  will  in  this  world,  and 
affords  a  guarantee  for  happiness  hereafter.  Everything  dear  to  a 
free  people  may  be  considered  as  insecure,  unless  they  are  prepared 
to  resist  aggression.  Let  me  advise  a  prudent  economy.  Extrava- 
gance in  a  government  leads  inevitably  to  embarrassments.  Liber- 
ality, but  not  profuseness,  economy,  but  not  parsimony,  should  be 
your  guide." 

At  this  first  session  of  the  council  the  principal  acts  passed  were 
as  follows:  To  incorporate  a  marine  insurance  company  in  New 
Orleans;  dividing  the  territory  into  tw-elve  counties  and  establish- 
ing in  each  a  court  of  inferior  jurisdiction ;  authorizing  the  prepara- 
tion of  a  civil  and  criminal  code ;  providing  for  the  inspection  of 


LOUISIANA  217 

various  food  products ;  granting  a  charter  to  the  city  of  New 
Orleans;  and  creating  an  educational  institution,  to  be  known  as 
the  University  of  Orleans.  A  second  session,  which  met  on  June 
20,  1805,  passed  acts  for  the  improvement  of  the  inland  navigation 
of  the  territory. 

At  the  time  the  Territory  of  Orleans  began  its  existence  as  a 
separate  political  organization  there  existed  some  prejudice  against 
the  Americans  on  the  part  of  those  whom  Claiborne  designated  as 
the  "ancient  inhabitants."  This  class  of  citizens,  who  had  "a  great 
partiality  for  France  as  their  mother  country,"  and  those  whose 
"former  habits  had  attached  many  of  them  to  the  Spanish  system 
of  government,"  began  by  viewing  all  the  acts  of  the  Americans 
with  jealousy  and  suspicion,  and  resented  the  implied  insinuation 
that  they  coiild  not  govei'n  themselves.  It  was  these  "ancient 
inhabitants"  who  sent  the  petition  to  Congress  mentioned  in  the 
article  on  "Orleans  Territoiy. "  For  the  first  few  months  of  the 
administration  severe  strictures  were  published  on  Claiborne's 
official  acts  and  his  public  character.  On  Jan.  19,  1805,  he  wrote 
to  the  president:  "My  accusers  take  great  care  to  impress  the 
public  with  an  opinion  that  my  government  commenced  here  under 
the  most  favorable  auspices — an  assertion  contradicted  by  every  cir- 
cumstance of  the  times.  *  *  *  The  people  were  split  into  parties, 
divided  in  their  affections,  and  the  sport  of  foreign  and  domestic 
intrigiiers.  The  functions  of  government  were  nearly  at  a  stand, 
and  much  was  wanting  to  produce  system  in,  and  restore  order  to, 
the  different  departments.  Great  changes  were  expected  under 
the  new  order  of  things,  and  more  was  required,  to  conciliate  and 
attach  the  general  sentiment  to  the  American  government,  than  my 
resources  permitted,  or  the  energies  of  any  man  could  accomplish. 
*  *  *  That  I  committed  errors  I  readily  admit,  but  I  am  not 
sensible  of  having  been  betrayed  into  any  material  measure  that  I 
can  reflect  on  with  self-accusation.  *  *  *  Xo  what  lengths  the 
opposition  to  me  may  be  carried  T  know  not,  but  I  am  inclined  to 
think  that  nothing  will  be  left  unsaid  which  can  wound  my  feelings, 
and  that  my  public  and  private  character  will  be  cruelly  mis- 
represented." 

As  a  result  of  the  ill-feeling  at  the  beginning  of  the  administration 
several  duels  occurred,  in  one  of  which  Micajah  G.  Lewis,  the  gov- 
ernor's brother-in-law  and  private  secretary,  was  killed.  Notwith- 
standing this  state  of  affairs  Claiborne  kept  on  with  his  work,  doing 
the  best  he  could  to  promote  the  prosperity  and  safety  of  the  terri- 
tory, and  to  bring  peace  between  the  warring  factions.  In  the 
early  part  of  1805  there  were  indications  of  a  rupture  between  Spain 
and  the  United  States,  and  the  governor  took  active  steps  for  the 
organization  of  the  militia.  He  commissioned  Col.  Hopkins  _  to 
organize  the  militia  throughout  the  territory,  and  instructed  him, 
in  the  selection  of  officers,  to  make  an  equal  distribution,  where  the 
circumstances  would  permit,  among  the  ancient  and  modeim  Lou- 
isianians.  On  ]\fay  4  Claiborne  prorogued  the  legislative  council  to 
June  20,  and  in  the  interval  visited  various  parts  of  the  territory. 


218  LOUISIANA 

making  appointments  under  the  new  judiciary  sj'stem.  His  activity 
in  this  direction,  the  wisdom  shown  in  making  the  appointments, 
and  the  instructions  to  Col.  Hopkins,  brought  about  some  degree  of 
harmony,  so  that  on  Nov.  20  he  wrote  to  the  secretary  of  state :  "No 
man  entertains  a  greater  regard  for  the  inhabitants  of  Louisiana 
than  myself,  or  more  appreciates  their  many  private  virtues,  and 
I  entertain  strong  hopes  that,  in  a  few  years,  they  will  become  very 
zealous  members  of  the  American  republic." 

Other  events  this  year  that  had  a  tendency  to  render  the  gov- 
ernor popular  were  his  consent  to  the  leveling  of  the  old  fortifica- 
tions about  the  city  of  New  Orleans,  as  they  were  merely  recepta- 
cles for  the  accumulation  of  stagnant  water  that  endangered  the 
health  of  the  people,  and  his  attitude  toward  the  possession  of  some 
of  the  public  buildings  claimed  by  the  city,  but  held  by  Col.  Free- 
man, commander  of  the  U.  S.  troops.  Claiborne  sided  with  the  city, 
but  Fi-eeoian  refused  to  obey  the  governor's  orders  to  vacate  the 
buildings,  and  the  matter  was  finally  settled  by  the  president. 

The  year  1806  dawned  with  brighter  prospects.  Washington's 
birthday  (Feb.  22)  was  celebrated  with  appropriate  ceremonies. 
Both  ancient  and  modern  Louisianians  "vied  with  each  other  in 
the  discharge  of  their  duty  on  the  parade:"  the  battalion  of  Orleans, 
"composed  of  Americans,  and  of  Creoles  of  Loiiisiana,"  was  rcr 
viewed  by  Gov.  "Williams  of  Mississippi  territory :  the  people,  espe- 
cially the  membei-s  of  the  legislature,  took  advantage  of  the  occa- 
sion to  express  their  sentiments  of  patriotism  and  their  allegiance 
to  the  United  States:  and  the  day  closed  with  a  magnificent  ball. 
When  the  legislature  met  in  March  the  governor's  message  was 
well  received  by  both  branches  and  was  appropriately  answered  by 
Destrehen,  president  of  the  council,  and  Watkins.  speaker  of  the 
house.  It  seemed  as  though  an  era  of  good  feeling  had  come  to 
the  territory,  but  it  was  not  of  long  duration.  On  May  2  the  gov- 
ernor vetoed  a  bill  "to  establish  certain  conditions  necessary  to  be 
a  member  of  either  house  of  the  legislature  of  the  Territory  of 
Orleans."  on  the  grounds  that  any  law  which  "shall  impose  other 
qualifications  than  those  pointed  o\it  in  the  ordinance  cannot  be 
constitutional,  unless  its  operation  shall  be  prospective,  and  not 
permitted  to  affect  the  sitting  members."  About  a  week  later  he 
enclosed  a  copy  of  the  bill  and  his  message  vetoing  it  to  the  presi- 
dent, and  wrote:  "The  ancient  Louisianians  in  the  legislature  are 
impatient  of  control,  and  will  illy  receive  a  check  from  the  exepiitive 
authority,  but  I  miist  do  my  duty,  and  shall,  on  every  occasion,  act 
the  part  which  my  .iulsrment  approves.  By  pursuing  this  course, 
I  may  present  my  enemies  fresh  materials  to  work  upon,  and  render 
myself  unpopular,  but  my  conscience  will  be  tranquil,  and  I  shall 
sleep  the  better  at  nisht."  On  the  26th  Claiborne  sent  in  another 
veto,  expressing  his  disapproval  of  a  bill  entitled  "An  act  declaring 
the  laws  which  continue  to  be  in  force  in  the  Territory  of  Orleans, 
and  the  authors  which  may  be  recurred  to  as  a\ithorities  within 
the  same."    Upon  this  the  council  adopted  the  following  resolution  : 

"Whereas,  The  most  essential   and  salutary  measures  adopted 


LOUISIANA  219 

by  this  legislature  have  been  successively  rejected  by  the  governor 
of  the  teri'itory;  and  whereas,  this  legislature,  the  members  of 
which  had  been  induced  to  accept  their  appointments  only  by  the 
hope  of  being  useful  to  their  fellow-citizens,  must  now  be  con- 
vinced that  they  can  do  nothing  but  cause  them  a  considerable 
expense:  Resolved,  that  the  general  assembly  be  immediately 
dissolved."  The  members  of  the  council  also  prepared  a  long  ex- 
planation of  their  motives,  closing  with  this  statement  of  opinion; 
"If  by  means  of  this  veto  his  will  and  only  his  will,  is  to  be  our 
supreme  law,  let  him  reign  alone  and  without  disguise.  The  legis- 
lative council  should  not  consent  to  serve  as  a  rattle  to  amuse 
the  people.' 

Destrehen,  Sauve  and  Belleehasse  resigned  their  seats  in  the 
council,  but  the  last  named  was  persuaded  by  Claiborne  to  with- 
draw his  resignation.  The  president  of  the  council  and  the  speaker 
of  the  house  waited  on  the  governor  and  informed  him  of  their 
intention  to  adjourn.  Claiborne  freely  consented  to  such  a  proceed- 
ing, and  in  his  reply  to  the  two  officers,  said:  "It  ought  not  to  be 
a  matter  of  surprise  that  a  difference  of  opinion  should  sometimes 
have  arisen  among  the  several  branches  of  the  legislature;  while 
men  are  left  free  to  think  and  act  for  themselves,  an  unison  in  senti- 
ments cannot  always  be  expected ;  nor  ought  it  to  be  supposed  that 
in  a  government  like  ours,  composed  of  departments,  and  each  inde- 
pendent of  the  other,  the  same  political  course  should  meet  the 
sanction  of  all.  If,  therefore,  on  some  occasions,  the  executive 
did  not  approve  the  proceedings  of  the  two  houses,  all  that  can 
with  truth  be  said  is,  that  our  object  was  the  same,  but  we  differed 
as  to  the  means  of  promoting  the  general  welfare.  A  territorial 
governor,  if  faithful  to  himself  and  his  country,  can  alone  be  influ- 
enced by  the  purest  motives  of  honest  patriotism,  and  in  exercising 
the  powers  -with  which  he  is  intrusted  his  own  judgment  is  his  only 
guide." 

This  sincere  and  courageous  reply  of  the  governor  somewhat 
mollified  the  wrath  of  the  members  of  the  house,  who  "departed 
apparently  with  harmony."  The  discordant  situation  between  the 
governor  and  the  legislature  did  not  extend  to  the  people,  who  cele- 
brated the  Fourth  of  July,  1806,  with  patriotic  spirit.  Salutes  were 
fired  from  Port  Charles  at  sunrise  and  noon;  the  Orleans  Ransers 
gave  a  banquet  at  Bayou  St.  John;  the  battalion  was  paraded  on 
the  square  by  Maj.  Dubourg;  high  mass  was  said  and  a  Te  Deum 
sung  at  both  the  convent  and  the  cathedral,  although  there  was 
a  dissension  between  their  respective  clergy;  and  the  governor, 
"always  unwilling  to  give  offense  to  any  party,  politely  held  a 
candle  at  both  ceremonies."  In  the  evening  a  patriotic  play  was 
given  at  the  theatre,  and  a  ball  at  the  city  hall. 

The  year  1806,  in  addition  to  the  events  above  mentioned,  was 
chiefly  noted  for  the  expulsion  of  the  Spanish  officials,  Morales  and 
Casa  Calvo,  the  Sabine  Expedition  and  the  Burr  Conspiracy. 

The  second  session  of  the  first  legislature  began  its  labors  on  Jan. 
12,  1807,  with  Julien  Poydras  as  president  of  the  council  and  John 


220  LOUISIANA 

"Watkins  as  speaker  of  the  house.  Apprehensive  of  dangers  grow- 
ing out  of  the  Burr  movement,  Claiborne  sent  a  message^  to  the 
legislature,  recommending  for  their  consideration  the  advisability 
of  suspending  thy  privileiie  of  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus.  He  ex- 
plained his  reasons  for  this  course  in  a  letter  to  the  secretary  of 
state  as  follows:  "If  I  can  acquire  possession  of  Burr,  Blenner- 
hassett  or  Tyler,  I  shall  take  means  to  convej-  them  to  the  city  of 
"Washington,  for  it  is  there  that  these  great  offenders  will  probably 
meet  the  punishment  they  deserve.  The  trial  of  Burr  at  Natchez 
wiU  determine  in  his  acquittal,  and  I  shall  be  disappointed  if  (as 
was  the  ease  in  Kentucky)  the  .iury  do  not  eulogize  his  conduct." 
The  legislature,  however,  refused  to  suspend  the  writ,  or  to  put  any 
restriction  upon  it,  on  the  ground  that  it  would  be  infringement 
of  the  Federal  constitution.  The  judges  concurred  in  the  opinion 
of  the  legislatiTre,  and  Claiborne  was  particularly  desirous  about 
vindicating  as  a  basis  for  his  asking  for  the  suspension  of  the  ^vrit, 
claiming  as  a  basis  for  his  action  that  clause  of  the  constitiition 
which  says:  "The  privilege  of  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus  shall  not 
be  suspended,  unless  when  in  eases  of  rebellion  or  invasion  the 
public  safety  may  require  it." 

On  July  1,  1807,  Lieut.  Zebulon  M.  Pike,  accompanied  by  Lieut. 
"Wilkinson,  a  son  of  the  general,  arrived  at  Natchitoches  from  his 
exploring  expedition  to  the  west,  having  gone  as  far  as  the  Rocky 
mountains,  when  his  progress  had  been  arrested  by  the  Spaniards. 
This  year  witnessed  the  beginning  of  the  famous  Batture  case 
(q.  v.).  Late  in  the  year  rumors  of  war  became  ciirrent  in  New 
Orleans,  and  a  collision  was  expected  between  the  L'uited  States 
and  England.  Claiborne  wrote  to  ^ladison  approving  the  course 
of  the  national  administration  and  adding:  "I  consider  the  Louisi- 
anians  very  generally  as  being  well  affected  to  the  government,  but, 
in  the  event  of  an  English  war,  they  will  with  enthusiasm  rally 
round  our  standard." 

Early  in  1808  the  Federal  government,  considering  the  probability 
of  a  war  with  England,  consulted  Claiborne  with  regard  to  the  erec- 
tion of  fortifications  to  protect  the  entrance  of  the  ^Mississippi.  In 
his  replj'  he  recommended  a  work  of  some  kind  at  the  English  Turn, 
saying:  "The  fort  at  Plaquemine  may,  with  a  leading  breeze  and 
iinder  cover  of  night,  be  passed.  But,  under  no  circumstances,  could 
a  vessel  evade  a  battery  at  the  English  Turn."  The  militia  had 
fallen  into  a  state  of  indifference,  and  the  prospects  of  trouble  M'ith 
Great  Britain  led  the  governor  to  address  a  circular  to  all  the 
officers  in  command  of  regiments  ursing  them  to  revive  the  interest. 
During  the  summer,  the  governor  visited  the  coiinty  of  Opelousas, 
and  dviring  his  absence  several  riots  occurred  in  New  Orleans  be- 
tween the  American  sailors  on  one  side  and  some  French,  Spanish 
and  Italian  sailors  on  the  other.  Claiborne  hurried  back  to  the  city, 
and  on  Aug.  31  he  wrote  to  the  secretary  of  state:  ""We  have  to 
lament  the  residence  among  us,  and  particularly  in  this  city,  of  a 
number  of  abandoned  individuals  who  render  the  greatest  vigilance 
on  the  part  of  the  police  essential  to  the  general  safety.     Among 


LOUISIANA  221 

those  individuals  are  many  persons  who  have  deserted  the  service 
of  Spain,  or  fled  from  the  punishment  which  awaited  their  crimes." 

Some  trouble  resulted  in  Nov.,  1808,  in  the  parish  of  Pointe 
Coupee,  over  the  governor's  appointment  of  a  Mr.  Petrony  to  the 
office  of  sheriff.  The  appointment  was  unsatisfactory  to  the  "mod- 
ern Louisianians, "  and  the  feeling  between  the  American  and  the 
Creole  inhabitants  became  so  great  that  the  governor  wrote  a  letter 
to  Charles  Morgan,  one  of  the  leading  citizens  of  the  parish,  explain- 
ing his  motives  for  making  the  appointment,  viz.:  "I  have  been 
desirous  to  select  the  most  worthy  and  the  most  capable,  keeping 
in  view  the  expediency  of  dividing  the  offices  as  near  as  may  be 
between  the  ancient  and  modern  Louisianians,  as  one  means  of 
lessening  the  existing  jealousy  and  distrust  between  these  two 
descriptions  of  citizens." 

On  Jan.  14,  1809,  Claiborne  sent  his  annual  message  to  the  legis- 
lature, which  had  just  convened.  In  his  message  he  expressed  his 
regret  that  the  act  passed  at  the  preceding  session,  to  provide  means 
of  establishing  public  schools  in  the  several  parishes,  was  not  likely 
to  be  productive  of  the  desired  results,  Pointe  Coupee  being  the  only 
parish  that  had  made  any  provision  for  the  support  of  such  schools. 
He  recommended  the  revision  of  the  criminal  jurisprudence  and  the 
erection  of  a  penitentiary.  Concerning  the  embargo,  which  was 
then  in  force,  he  said:  "There  seems  to  be  no  alternative  but  war, 
or  a  continuance  of  the  embargo.  *  *  *  The  embargo  imposes 
privations,  which  a  magnanimous  people  will  cheerfully  bear.  It 
may  be  the  means  of  avoiding  still  greater  ills.  But,  however 
things  may  eventuate,  whether  in  inevitable  war,  or  honorable 
peace,  the  good  citizens  of  this  territory  will  unite  liand  and  heart 
in  the  support  of  the  government  and  in  defense  of  their  country." 
At  this  session  of  the  general  assembly  Julien  Poydras  was  elected 
a  delegate  to  Congress  to  .succeed  Daniel  Clark,  who  had  held  the 
office  since  March  4,  1805.  The  legislature  also  adopted  a  memorial 
to  Congress,  asking  for  admission  into  the  Union,  but  Claiborne 
advised  the  secretary  of  state  by  letter  that,  in  his  judgment,  the 
time  had  not  yet  arrived  for  such  action. 

From  the  time  Louisiana  was  ceded  to  the  United  States  the 
planters  in  those  portions  of  the  territory  bordering  on  the  Spanish 
possessions  suffered  sevei'e  losses  on  account  of  their  slaves  running 
away,  crossing  the  border,  and  claiming  the  protection  of  the  Span- 
ish flag.  In  1809  Claiborne  succeeded  in  obtaining  from  Gov. 
Salcedo,  of  Texas,  to  which  province  most  of  the  fugitive  slaves 
had  fled,  the  return  of  a  number  of  the  runaway  negroes,  assuring 
the  Spanish  governor  that  slaves  from  Texas  who  sought  a  refuge 
in  Louisiana  would  be  likewise  returned  to  their  owners.  This 
arrangement  gave  great  satisfaction  to  the  people  of  the  Territory 
of  Orleans  and  increased  the  governor's  growing  popularity. 

The  invasion  of  Spain  by  France  caused  an  exodus  of  the  people 
of  St.  Domingo,  who  sought  an  asylum  in  Louisiana,  and  in  June, 
1809,  many  of  them  arrived  at  New  Orleans,  some  of  whom  brought 
their  slaves  with   them,   notwithstanding  the  law  of  the  United 


222  LOUISLINA 

States  prohibiting  the  importation  of  slaves  from  foreign  countries. 
This  gave  rise  to  a  complex  situation.  On  June  19  the  collector  of 
the  district  asked  the  governor  to  name  some  persons  to  whom  the 
slaves  might  be  delivered  in  conformity  to  the  provisions  of  the  act 
prohibiting  their  importation,  and  Claiborne  directed  the  mayor 
of  New  Orleans  to  receive  them  and  place  them  in  the  hands  of 
their  respective  owners,  who  should  give  bond  to  produce  the  slaves 
on  ten  days'  notice  when  demanded.  By  July  18  over  5,000  of  the 
refugees  had  arrived  in  New  Orleans  and  Claiborne  wrote  to  the 
U.  S.  consul  at  Havana,  advising  him  that  "their  number  is  becom- 
ing so  considerable  as  to  embarrass  our  own  citizens,  and  I  fear 
they  will  not  be  enabled  much  longer  to  supply,  as  fully  as  they 
would  wish,  the  wants  of  these  unfortunate  strangers.  You  will, 
therefore,  render  a  service  to  such  of  the  Fi'ench  as  may  not  have 
departed  from  Cuba,  by  advising  them  to  seek  an  asylum  in  some 
other  district  of  the  United  States."  He  also  advised  him  to  dis- 
courage free  people  of  color  from  coming  to  the  Territory  of 
Orleans,  and  wrote  a  similar  letter  to  the  U.  S.  consul  at  St.  Yago 
de  Cuba.  But  the  colored  people  managed  to  evade  the  order 
and  continued  to  come  to  New  Orleans. 

In  his  message  to  the  legislature  that  met  in  Jan.,  1810,  Claiborne 
congratulated  them  on  the  new-born  interest  manifested  by  the 
people  in  the  recent  elections;  reminded  them  that  the  embarrass- 
ments to  commerce  resulting  from  the  condition  of  foreign  relations 
had  decreased  the  price  of  the  productions  of  the  territory  and 
increased  the  price  of  imported  goods,  and  urged  them  to  encourage 
domestic  manufactures.  The  principal  event  of  this  year  was  the 
West  Florida  revolution,  which  resulted  in  the  annexation  of  that 
part  of  the  present  state  of  LoTiisiana  east  of  the  Mississippi  to 
the  Territory  of  Orleans.  This  was  done  under  a  proclamation  of 
the  president,  which  precipitated  an  animated  debate  in  Congress 
in  the  early  part  of  1811,  but  the  action  of  Mr.  Madison  was  finally 
sustained. 

The  territorial  legislature  met  early  in  Jan.,  1811,  but  was  pro- 
rogued to  the  4th  Monday  of  the  month,  on  account  of  the  negro 
insurrection  (q  v.).  This  was  the  last  session  of  the  territorial 
legislature,  but  before  the  adjournment  information  was  received 
that  Congress  had  passed  a  bill  which  was  approved  by  the  presi- 
dent on  Feb.  20,  1811,  authorizing  the  people  to  form  a  constitution 
and  state  government,  preparatory  to  admission  into  the  Union. 
The  legislature  immediately  made  provision  for  the  election  of 
delegates  to  a  constitutional  convention,  after  which  an  adjourn- 
ment was  taken  until  the  latter  part  of  April.  Among  the  acts 
passed  by  this  last  territorial  legislature  were  those  chartering  the 
Planters'  bank  and  the  Bank  of  New  Orleans,  as  the  charter  of  the 
Bank  of  the  United  States  had  expired.  Another  act  granted  to 
Livingston  and  Fulton  the  "sole  and  exclusive  right  to  build,  con- 
struct, make,  use,  employ  and  navigate  boats,  vessels  and  water- 
crafts,  urged  or  propelled  through  water  by  fire  or  steam,  in  all 
the  creeks,  rivers,  bays  and  waters  whatsoever  within  the  .iurisdic- 


LOUISLA.NA  223 

tion  of  the  territory,  during  eighteen  years  from  the  1st  of  Jan., 
1812." 

According  to  a  census  taken  in  1810,  the  population  of  the  Terri- 
tory of  Orleans  was  76,566,  which  under  the  act  establishing  the 
.territory  entitled  it  to  admission.  Under  the  act  of  Congress  of 
Feb.  20,  1811,  above  referred  to,  delegTates  were  elected  to  a  consti 
tutional  convention  which  assembled  on  Nov.  4,  1811.  Julien  Poy- 
dras  was  elected  president  and  Eligius  Fromentin  secretary.  On 
Jan.  22,  1812,  the  constitution  was  adopted,  and  on  April  8  the 
president  approved  an  act  for  the  admission  of  the  former  territory 
provision  that  the  act  should  not  take  effect  until  April  30,  the  ninth 
anniversary  of  the  treaty  cession.  On  that  date  Gov.  Claiborne's 
territorial  administration  came  to  an  end. 

Claiborne's  Administration  (State). — The  first  officials  of  the 
State  of  Louisiana  were  as  follows:  William  C.  C.  Claiborne, 
governor;  L.  B.  Macarty,  secretary  of  state;  J.  Montegut,  treasurer; 
Thomas  B.  Robertson,  representative  in  Congi-ess;  Allan  B.  Ma- 
gruder  and  Jean  N.  Destrehen,  U.  S.  senators;  Dominick  A.  Hall, 
George  Mathews  and  Pierre  Derbigny,  judges  of  the  supreme  court ; 
Julien  Poydras,  president  of  the  senate;  P.  B.  St.  Martin,  speaker 
of  the  house.  Destrehen  resigned  before  taking  his  seat  in  the 
senate  and  Claiborne  appointed  Thomas  Posey  to  fill  the  vacancy. 
Claiborne  was  elected  governor  on  June  30,  the  first  session  of  the 
first  state  legislature  was  convened  on  July  27,  and  on  the  31st  the 
new  governor  was  inaugurated.  Congress  had  declared  war  against 
Great  Britain  on  June  18,  and  in  his  inaugural  address  Claiborne 
said:  "War  is  not  the  greatest  of  evils — base  submission  to  aggres- 
sion would  have  been  a  greater  curse.  It  would  have  entailed  dis- 
honor, cowardice,  vassalage  upon  our  posterity.  *  *  *  The 
wrongs  of  England  have  been  long  and  seriously  felt ;  they  are  visi- 
ble in  the  decline  of  our  sea  towns,  in  the  ruin  of  our  commerce, 
and  the  languor  of  agriculture.  The  recourse  to  arms  may  increase 
the  pressure;  but  let  it  be  recollected,  that  whatever  sacrifice 
we  make,  is  offered  on  the  altar  of  our  country — a  consideration 
which  will  reconcile  a  faithful  people  to  every  privation.  *  *  • 
Let  every  man  put  himself  in  armor.  Age  itself  should  be  prepared 
to  advance  against  an  invading  foe.  Our  young  men  should  hasten 
to  the  tented  field,  and  tendering  their  services  to  the  government, 
he  in  readiness  to  march  at  a  moment's  warning  to  the  point  of 
attack.  In  such  a  contest,  the  issue  cannot  be  doubtful.  In  such  a 
cause,  every  American  should  bare  his  bosom.  Where  justice  is  the 
standard.  Heaven  is  the  warrior's  shield." 

One  of  the  first  things  to  engross  the  attention  of  the  governor 
after  his  inauguration,  was  the  condition  of  affairs  in  some  of  the 
parishes  that  had  been  created  out  of  the  territory  annexed  to  the 
state  under  the  act  of  Congress  of  April  14,  1812.  In  a  message 
to  the  general  assembly  on  Aug.  14  he  called  attention  to  the  fact 
that  in  the  parishes  of  Feliciana,  Baton  Rouge,  St.  Helena  and  St. 
Tammany  "the  civil  authority  has  become  so  much  weakened  and 
relaxed,  that  the  laws  have  lost  much  of  their  influence,"  and  recom- 


224  LOUISO-NA 

mended  legislation  to  correct  the  abuses  there  existing.  Another 
embarrassment  resulted  from  the  diifieulty  in  finding  suitable  men 
to  accept  public  office.  This  was  especially  true  of  the  judges,  for 
the  reason  that  part  of  their  duty  -vvas  to  collect  the  taxes  of  their 
respective  parishes.  To  remedy  this,  the  governor  suggested  the 
division  of  the  state  into  four  or  more  collection  districts,  with  a  tax 
collector  in  each,  a  system  that  was  subsequently  adopted.  Soon 
after  the  legislature  adjourned  it  was  called  to  met  in  extraor- 
dinary session  on  Nov.  23,  to  provide  some  method  of  choosing 
presidential  electors.  The  electors  were  chosen  by  the  two  branches 
of  the  general  assembly  in  joint  session  on  Nov.  30.  They  were 
Julien  Poydras,  Philemon  Thomas  and  Stephen  A.  Hopkins,  who, 
on  the  1st  Wednesday  in  December,  east  the  first  electoral  vote  of 
the  state  for  James  Madison  for  president  and  Elbridge  Gerry  for 
vice-president. 

Earl}'  in  the  year  1813  the  governor  undertook  the  suspression 
of  the  smugglers  of  Barataria  (See  Smugglers).  Aboiit  the  same 
time  the  Choctaw  Indians  got  into  the  habit  of  visiting  New  Or- 
leans, where  they  could  obtain  liquor,  and  would  then  commit  depre- 
dations in  the  parishes  east  of  the  IMississippi.  ]\Iany  of  the  settlers 
in  that  locality  became  so  alarmed  that  they  abandoned  tlieir  farms 
and  removed  to  the  west  side  of  the  river.  A  great  flood  this  year 
caused  much  damage  to  the  plantations  along  the  river,  and  a  num- 
ber of  incendiarj'  fires  in  New  Orleans  produced  considerable 
alarm  in  that  city.  On  June  26  the  governor  offered  a  reward  of 
$1,000  for  information  that  would  lead  to  the  arrest  and  conviction 
of  the  incendiaries,  and  soon  after  a  negro  girl,  13  years  of  age,  was 
found  guilty  of  arson  and  sentenced  to  death.  Claiborne  granted  a 
reprieve,  but  as  doubts  were  raised  as  to  whether  he  had  authority 
for  such  action,  the  case  was  referred  to  the  attorney-general,  F.  X. 
IMartin,  who  replied  that  lie  "could  not  find  anything  in  the  consti- 
tution or  laws  of  the  state  which  authorized  the  governor  to  com- 
mute the  punishment  of  any  person,  free  or  slave,  and  did  not 
believe  that  such  a  power  was  impliedly  vested  in  the  governor  by 
virtue  of  his  office."  The  opinion  further  stated  that  "the  governor 
might  reprive  any  person,  bond  or  free,  after  conviction,  till  he 
should  have  an  opportunty  of  consialting  the  senate.  The  power 
of  reprieving  is  expressly  given  by  the  constitution  in  eases  of 
high  treason.  Hence  a  plausible  argument  might  be  drawn  that  he 
may  in  lesser  offenses.  But  the  power  of  pardoning  must  include 
that  of  reprieving:  for,  during  the  greatest  part  of  the  year,  the 
senate  being  in  session,  if  the  governor  cannot  reprieve  alone,  cul- 
prits must  undergo  punishment  before  the  senate  may  be  consulted, 
unless  the  court  will  po.stpone  the  execution  of  their  sentence  till 
the  meeting  of  the  senate."  This  was  one  of  the  numerous  ques- 
tions that  arose  during  the  early  days  of  statehood  on  the  con- 
struction of  the  constitution. 

In  September  news  of  the  Creek  war  reached  New  Orleans.  As 
some  signs  of  hostilitj'  were  to  be  seen  among  the  Choctaws,  Clai- 
borne sent  a  circular  to  all  militia  colonels,  admonishing  them  to  be 


LOUISIANA  225 

ready  for  any  emergency,  and  then  made  a  tour  of  the  state  to  make 
such  preparations  as  he  could  for  defense.  From  Natchitoches,  on 
Oct.  18,  sent  a  "talk"  to  the  chief  of  the  Caddoes.  After  com- 
paring the  English  with  the  Osage  Indians,  with  whom  the  Caddoes 
were  then  at  war,  the  Kovernor  said:  "Brother,  the  English,  un- 
willing to  fight  as  man  to  man,  have  called  upon  the  red  people  to 
assist  them.  With  tongues  as  forked  and  poisonous  as  snakes', 
they  have  told  the  Indians  many  lies,  and  made  fair  promises  which 
they  will  not  and  cannot  fulfill.  Thus  it  is  that  many  of  the  red  men 
have  been  prevailed  upon  to  throw  away  the  peace-talks  of  their 
father,  the  president.  But  the  Americans  have  the  power  and  the 
will  to  punish  all  their  enemies.  *  *  *  j  wanted  to  send  you  a 
token  of  my  friendship.  To  a  chief,  a  man,  and  a  warrior,  nothing 
could  be  more  acceptable  than  a  sword,  but  a  suitable  one  could  not 
be  obtained  at  this  place.  I  have,  therefor^,  directed  that  a  sword 
be  purchased  at  New  Orleans  and  forwarded  to  Dr.  Sibley,  who 
will  soon  present  it  to  you  in  my  name.  Farewell,  brother;  I  pray 
the  ( ireat  Spirit  to  preserve  >ou  in  health  and  Imppiness."  This 
"talk"  and  the  present  of  the  sword  doubtless  had  much  influence  in 
keeping  the  Caddoes  on  friendly  terms  with  the  Americans,  and  the 
anxiety  in  Louisiana  was  relieved  by  the  news  of  the  victories  of 
Gens.  Jackson,  Floyd  and  White  over  the  Creeks. 

In  his  message  to  the  legislature  on  Jan.  H,  1814,  the  governor 
discussed  at  some  length  the  war  then  going  on  with  Great  Britain; 
referred  to  "evidences  of  industry  and  economy"  he  noticed  on 
his  recent  tour  through  the  state ;  this  disasters  resulting  from  the 
war,  floods  and  hurricanes,  which  "depressed  commercial  enterprise 
and  discouraged  agricultural  exertion ; ' '  the  financial  embarrass- 
ments resulting  from  these  conditions;  the  difficulty  in  some  of  the 
parishes  in  meeting  the  payment  of  taxes ;  and  recommended  a 
revision  and  compilation  of  the  laws.  Judge  Dominick  A.  Hall, 
of  the  supreme  court,  had  been  appointed  by  the  president  to  the 
office  of  district  judge  of  the  United  States,  leaving  a  vacancy  on 
the  supreme  bench  of  the  state,  and  during  this  session  the  state 
senate  rejected  five  successive  nominations  of  the  governor.  Near 
the  time  foi*  adjournment  the  governor  submitted  to  Atty.-Gen. 
Martin  a  series  of  questions  relating  to  the  matter  of  ajipointments, 
viz. :  Whether  the  governor  is  not  bound  by  the  constitution  to 
exercise  his  free  agency  in  making  nominations,  and  whether  he 
should  not  resist  all  attempts  of  the  senate  to  influence  such  nom- 
inations? Whether,  if  the  senate  continued  to  reject  every  one  pro- 
posed by  the  governor,  the  vacane.y  might  be  filled  during  the  recess 
of  the  legislature?  If  the  vacancy  could  not  be  so  filled,  would  two 
judges  of  the  court  be  considered  as  competent  for  the  transaction 
of  business?  Mr.  I\Iartin  rendered  a  rather  lengthy  opinion,  the 
substance  of  which  was  that  the  governor  should  exercise  his  free 
agency  and  not  yield  to  the  senate ;  that,  under  the  circumstances 
he  could  not  appoint  a  judge  during  the  recess;  and  that  two  judges 
would  be  competent  for  the  transaction  of  bixsiness.  This  opinion 
1—1.5 


226  LOUISLINA 

failed  to  bring  harmouy,  and  the  legislature  adjourned  Avithout  an 
appointment  having  been  made. 

Some  excitement  in  military  circles  occurred  in  the  earlj^  part  of 
the  year  1814.  Late  in  the  preceding  December  Gen.  Thomas 
Flournoy,  commanding  the  U.  S.  forces  on  the  Mississippi,  reported 
to  Gov.  Claiborne  that  not  more  than  700  men  could  be  concen- 
trated in  Louisiana,  and  made  a  requisition  for  1,000  of  the  state 
militia  to  be  employed  in  the  U.  S.  service  for  six  montlis  unless 
sooner  discharged.  On  Christmas  daj^  Claiborne  issued  orders  to 
carry  the  requisition  into  effect.  The  2nd  division  marched  to  Jlaga- 
zine  barrael^,  opposite  New  Orleans,  which  place  had  been  desig- 
nated as  the  general  rendezvous,  but  the  1st  division  failed  to  re- 
spond. A  second  order  on  Feb.  21,  1S14,  met  with  no  better  result, 
and  on  oMarch  3  the  governor  wrote  to  Flournoy:  "With  the  ex- 
ception of  three  or  four  companies  of  the  city  militia,  whose  con- 
duct met  my  highest  approbation,  my  orders  were  not  only  disre- 
garded, but  resolutions  of  determined  disobedience  were  entered 
into  by  the  non-commissioned  officers  and  privates  of  several  sepa- 
rate corps,  and  transmitted  to  me."  Gayarresays:  "The  secret  of 
all  this  opposition  was,  the  invincible  repugnance  of  the  Creole  and 
French  population  to  be  enlisted  in  the  service  of  the  United  States 
under  officers  not  of  their  own  choosing,  and  their  apprehension 
of  being  sent  out  of  the  state,  for  which  -alone  they  were  disposed 
at  that  time  to  shed  their  blood."  On  the  refusal  of  the  militia  to 
enter  the  service  of  the  United  States,  the  400  men  at  ^Magazine 
barracks  were  disbanded,  and  on  ilarch  30  Clailiorue  i.ssued  a  cir- 
cular vindicating  the  authority'  under  which  he  had  acted.  Later, 
when  Louisiana  was  actually  invaded  by  the  British,  the  militia 
of  the  state  rendered  a  good  account  of  itself. 

On  Aug.  29  Col.  Nicholls,  of  the  British  artillery,  issued  a  proc- 
lamation calling  on  the  inliabitants  of  Louisiana  to  join  with  the 
British  forces  in  "liberating  from  a  faithless,  imbecile  government, 
your  paternal  soil."  This  stirred  the  people  of  the  state  to  action, 
but  not  in  the  direction  Nicholls  had  hoped.  Early  in  September 
the  governor  addressed  a  letter  to  Mr.  Girod,  the  mayor  of  New 
Orleans,  requesting  him  to  use  the  greatest  vigilance  concerning 
the  admission  of  strangers  into  the  city  in  order  to  avoid  the 
entrance  of  spies.  A  few  days  later  he  issued  general  orders  calcu- 
lated to  arouse  the  patriotism  and  zeal  of  the  militia,  aiid  on  the 
same  day  wrote  to  Gov.  Shelby  of  Kentucky,  asking  him  to  forward 
troops  for  the  defense  of  New  Orleans.  On  the  15th  a  meeting  was 
held  at  Tremoulet's  coffee  house,  at  which  resolutions  M-ere  passed 
declaring  the  attachment  of  the  people  of  the  State  of  Louisiana  to 
the  government  of  the  L^nited  States  and  that  "they  will  repel  with 
indignation  every  attempt  to  create  disaffection  and  weaken  the 
force  of  the  country,  by  exciting  dissensions  and  jealousies  at  a 
moment  when  union  is  most  necessary."  On  the  21st  Gen.  Jackson 
issued  two  proclamations — one  to  the  white  people  of  Louisiana  and 
the  other  to  the  free  colored  men  of  the  state — calling  on  them  to 
rally  to  the  defense  of  the  country.    From  that  time  on  until  the 


LOUISIANA  227 

actual  commencement  of  hostilities  the  preparations  for  war  went 
on  with  unabated  vigor.  When  Jackson  arrived  in  New  Orleans 
on  Dec.  1,  his  presence  inspired  both  confidence  and  patriotism,  and 
though  there  were  some  differences  of  opinion,  some  bickerings  and 
jealousies,  the  main  object  was  not  lost  sight  of,  and  the  Louisian- 
ians  never  wavered  until  the  invaders  were  driven  from  their  state. 
(See  War  of  1812.) 

The  legislature  met  on  Nov.  10,  but  was  not  able  to  do  much 
toward  the  defense  of  the  state.  The  condition  of  business  at  this 
time  is  thus  told  by  Latour:  "Credit  was  annihilated;  already  for 
several  months  had  the  banks  suspended  the .  payment  of  their 
notes;  to  supply  the  want  of  specie  one  and  three  dollar  notes  had 
been  issued,  and  dollars  had  been  cut  as  a  siibstitute  for  small 
change.  On  the  banks  refusing  specie,  the  moneyed  men  had  drawn 
in  their  funds,  which  they  no  longer  let  out  without  a  usurious 
interest  of  three  or  four  per  cent,  a  month.  Every  one  was  dis- 
tressed, confidence  had  ceased,  and  with  it  almost  every  species  of 
business.     Our  situation  seemed  desperate." 

On  Dee.  14,  the  governor,  in  a  message  to  the  general  assembly, 
recommended  the  suspension  of  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus  for  a 
limited  time,  but  as  on  a  former  occasion,  in  the  territorial  days, 
it  met  with  determined  opposition,  and  a  bill  to  that  effect  was 
defeated,  though  it  was  supported  by  both  Jackson  and  Claiborne. 
On  the  16th  the  governor  advised  an  adjournment  of  the  legislature 
for  two  or  three  weeks,  owing  to  the  unsettled  condition?,  but  the 
assembly  declined  to  adjourn  on  the  grounds  that  "accidents  might 
happen,  and  unforeseen  cases  might  occur,  when  the  interference 
of  the  legislature  might  be  necessary."  Jackson  thereupon  pro- 
claimed martial  law  and  issued  one  of  his  characteristic  proclama- 
tions to  the  people.  On  the  18tli  the  governor  approved  an  act 
granting  delays  in  certain  civil  proceedings,  for  the  protection  of 
those  who  might  be  called  upon  to  perform  military  duty,  and  on 
the  23d  the  British  appeared  before  the  city.  The  assembly  then 
ceased  to  sit,  as  its  members  were  engaged  in  the  work  of  defense 
in  various  capacities,  though  every  day  at  noon  a  few  members  of 
each  house  would  meet  at  their  respective  halls  and  regularly  ad- 
journ for  the  day.  On  the  28th  the  halls  of  the  assembly  were 
closed  by  military  authority.  Wlien  Mr.  Rkipworth,  president  of 
the  senate,  and  two  or  three  members. of  that  body  attempted  to 
enter  the  senate  chamber  they  were  warned  away  by  a  sentinel  on 
the  staircase,  who  presented  his  bayonet,  and  the  senators  repaired 
to  the  city  hall,  where  the  adjournment  was  effected.  The  order 
closing  the  halls  was  revoked  the  next  day.  This  incident  led  to 
an  exhaustive  investigation  by  a  joint  committee  of  the  two 
branches  of  the  nssembly,  and  was  the  principal  reason  why  the 
legislature  refused  to  extend  a  vote  of  thanks  to  Gen.  Jackson  as  it 
did  to  the  other  military  commanders  -^ho  took  part  in  the  battle 
of  New  Orleans.  This  vote  was  taken  on  Feb.  2,  1815,  and  on  the 
6th  the  lesrislature  adjourned.  fSee  Louallier,  Louis,  and  Hall, 
Dominiek  A.) 


228  LOUISIANA 

Early  ou  the  morning  of  March  13  a  courier  arrived  with  a  dis- 
patch announcing  the  treaty  of  peace.  The  order  proehiimiug  mar- 
tial la\r  was  revoked,  and  on  the  lith  Jackson  began  preparations 
for  disbanding  the  troops.  The  people  returned  to  their  several 
avocations  and  Louisiana  began  an  era  of  prosperity  that  continued 
uninterrupted  until  the  beginning  of  the  Civil  war  in  1861.  On 
Jan.  8,  1816,  the  first  anniversary  of  the  battle  of  Xew  Orleans  was 
celebrated  with  imposing  ceremonies.  On  ^Mareh  23  Gen.  Jackson 
visited  the  city,  where  he  remained  several  days  as  a  guest  of  honor, 
and  on  July  4  a  magnificent  dinner  was  given  at  Jackson  Hall,  at 
which  the  follo^ving  toast  was  received  with  enthusiasm:  "Ma.i.-Gen. 
Andrew  Jackson — In  the  hour  of  danger  our  country  was  fortunate 
in  finding  a  second  Washington." 

The  presidential  campaign  of  1816  aroused  very  little  interest  in 
the  state.  Monroe  received  the  electoral  vote.  The  principal  con- 
test was  between  Gen.  Jacques  Villere  and  Joshua  Lewis,  the  candi- 
dates for  governor.  The  vote  as  announced  by  the  general  assembly, 
which  was  convened  ou  Nov.  18,  was:  Yillere,  2,314;  Lewis,  2,145. 
On  Dec.  17  Gov.  Claiborne  retired  to  private  life,  after  having  been 
governor  for  thirteen  years.  The  strifes  and  animosities  that  arose 
at  various  times  during  his  administration  were  forgotten.  In  con- 
cluding his  farewell  address  to  the  legislature  he  said:  "I  cannot 
retire  from  Jhe  station  to  which  the  people  of  the  state  were  pleased 
to  raise  me,  without  tendering  to  them  my  sincere  acknowledge- 
ments. Had  this  station  been  free  from  every  embarrassment,  I 
might  not  perhaps  have  justly  estimated  their  generous  patronage, 
but  in  moments  of  my  greatest  difficulty  the  proofs  of  personal 
confidence,  and  the  ready  support  afforded  me,  were  such  as  can 
never  be  forgotten — they  are  deeply  engraven  on  a  grateful  heart." 

Clarence,  a  village  in  the  eastern  part  of  Xatchitoehes  parish,  is 
on  the  line  of  the  Louisiana  Railway  &  Navigation  company,  about 
7  miles  northeast  of  Natchitoches,  the  parish  seat.  It  has  a  money 
order  postoffiee,  an  express  office,  telegraph  and  teleplione  facilities, 
and  is  the  shipping  point  for  a  large  agricultural  district.  Its  popu- 
lation is  122. 

Clark,  Daniel,  a  prominent  figure  in  New  Orleans  about  the  be- 
ginning of  the  19th  century,  was  a  native  of  Ireland.  His  grand- 
father, whose  name  was  also  Daniel,  had  commanded  a  Pennsyl- 
vania regiment  in  the  royal  service,  was  at  one  time  clerk  to  the 
council  of  West  Florida,  and  was  one  of  the  first  to  obtain  grants 
of  land  in  that  colony.  In  1786  the  nephew  came  to  New  Orleans 
upon  file  invitation  of  his  uncle,  whose  wealth  he  inherited.  When 
the  Territory  of  Orleans  was  organized  he  was  appointed  a  member 
of  the  first  legislative  council,  but  declined  the  seat  because  he 
had  been  active  in  calling  public  meetings  and  memorializing  Con- 
gress not  to  erect  the  new  territory.  He  asfain  came  into  prom- 
inence through  his  association  with  Aaron  Burr  and  Gen.  James 
Wilkinson,  the  latter  of  whom  he  accused  of  being  connected  with 
the  scheme  to  secure  the  secession  of  the  western  territory  from 
the  United  States.    In  1S0.5  Clark  was  elected  delegate  to  Congress 


LOUISIANA  229 

and  served  until  1809,  when  lie  was  succeeded  by  Julien  Poydras. 
He  was  secretly  married  in  Philadeli)hia  in  1803,  and  to  this  mar- 
riage was  born  a  daughter,  Myra,  who  afterward  became  the  wife 
of  Gen.  E.  P.  Gaines.  The  date  of  his  death  is  somewhat  problem- 
atical, but  his  will,  dated  in  1813,  left  all  his  property  to  his  daugh- 
ter.    (See  Gaines,  Jlyra  Clark.) 

Clark,  George  Rogers,  Revolutionary  soldier,  was  born  in  Albe- 
marle county,  Va.,  Nov.  19,  1752.  He  was  educated  chiefly  in  a 
private  school  kept  by  a  Scotchman,  among  whose  pupils  was  James 
Madison,  afterward  president  of  the  United  States.  Before  Clark 
attained  to  his  majority  he  joined  a  surveying  party  working  on 
the  upper  Ohio  river,  where  he  became  the  owner  of  a  farm.  He 
was  a  volunteer  under  Gov.  Dunmore  in  the  war  with  the  Shawnee 
Indians,  after  which  he  pushed  on  westward  beyond  the  settle- 
ments into  Kentucky,  and  by  his  prowess  against  the  Indians  he 
came  in  time  to  be  recognized  as  the  protector  of  all  the  frontier 
settlements  o?  what  is  now  Ohio,  Indiana  and  Illinois.  In  1776  he 
Avas  commissioned  major  in  the  Virginia  militia  by  Patrick  Henry, 
was  promoted Jieutenant-colonel  the  following  year,  when  he  raised 
about  200  men,  and  in  Feb.  1779,  captured  the  British  fort  at  Vin- 
cennes.  Subsequently  the  posts  at  Kaskaskia  and  Kahokia  on  the 
Mississippi  river  surrendered  to  him,  and  when  in  1781  he  was  com- 
missioned brigadier-general  in  the  Continental  army,  he  began 
making  preparations  for  carrying  out  his  long  cherished  project  of 
capturing  Detroit,  but  was  unable  to  raise  a  sufficient  force  to  make 
the  expedition.  His  "Conquest  of  the  Northwest"  played  an  impor- 
tant part  in  the  adjustment  of  the  boundaries  of  the  United  States 
possessions  at  the  close  of  the  Revolution.  Pierre  Choiiteaii,  of 
St.  Louis,  Mo.,  a  descendant  of  one  of  the  founders  of  that  cit.v, 
says:  "While  not  a  part  of  Louisiana's  history,  the  conquest  of 
the  Illinoi.s^  by  Col.  George  Rogers  Clark  in  1778-9  was  the  most 
potent  factor  in  shaping  its  destinies.  By  this  campaign  the  Amer- 
ican commissioners  to  the  Congress  of  Paris  in  1783  were  enabled 
to  establish  and  maintain  that  a  government  de  facto  as  well  as 
de  jure  had  been  established,  thereby  defeating  the  contentions  of 
the  foreign  governments,  and  placing  the  western  boundary  of  our 
young  republic  on  the  Mississippi  river.  The  Creoles  of  Louisiana 
have  a  pardonable  pride  in  the  part  taken  by  their  ancestors  in 
this  campaign ;  and  that  Clark  was  not  unmindful  of  the  services 
.  rendered  by  the  Cr'eoles  is  evidenced  by  the  bountiful  manner  in 
which  offices  of  honor  and  trust  were  conferred  on  them  after  the 
acquisition  of  the  territory  by  the  United  States."  Gen.  Clark  died 
near  Louisville,  Ky.,  Feb.  18,  1818,  and  his  remains  rest  in  an 
unknown  and  unmarked  grave.  The  reward  he  received  was  in  no 
wise  commensurate  to  the  services  he  rendered. 

Clarks,  a  village  in  the  southei'n  part  of  Caldwell  parish,  is  a  sta- 
tion on  the  St.  Louis,  Iron  IMountain  &  Southern  R.  R.,  about  7 
miles  south  of  Columbia,  the  parish  seat  and  nearest  banking  town. 
It  has  a  money  order  postoffice,  an  express  office,  and  is  the  trading 
center  of  a  considerable  territory. 


230  LOUISIANA 

Clay  (R.  R.  name  Elmore),  a  money  order  post-hamlet  in  the 
northwestern  part  of  Jackson  parish,  is  on  the  Chicago,  Rock  Island 
&  Pacific  R.  R.,  about  7  miles  northwest  of  Vernon,  the  parish  seat. 

Clays. — The  opportunities  for  the  development  of  the  clay  prod- 
ucts industries  in  the  State  of  Louisiana  are  manifold,  for  in  various 
regions,  especially  in  the  alluvial  and  bluff  formations,  excellent 
deposits  of  elaj'  are  to  be  found  in  abundance.  The  chief  clay  prod- 
ucts prodiiced  in  the  state  at  the  present  time  are  common,  pressed 
and  vitrified  brick  and  blocks,  sewer  pipe,  drain-tile,  and  tlue  and 
stove  linings.  Shreveport  is  the  principal  brick  and  tide  producing 
center  of  the  state,  fine  deposits  of  clay  being  found  in  its  imme- 
diate vicinity.  In  fact  these  deposits  are  extensive  and  numerous 
throughout  the  northwestern  portion  of  the  state  between  the 
Sabine  and  the  Red  rivers.  The  total  capital  invested  in  the  brick 
and  tile  industry  in  the  state  in  1900,  according  to  the  U.  S.  census 
report  of  that  year,  was  $672,138,  of  which  sum  $182,255  was  in- 
vested in  land,  $209,280  in  buildings,  $112,901  in  machinery,  tools 
and  implements,  and  $167,702  was  in  cash  and  sundries.  The  aggre- 
gate value  of  the  brick  and  tile  produced  in  the  state  increased  from 
$282,625  in  the  year  1890  to  $553,465  in  1900,  an  increase  of  nearly 
100  per  cent,  in  ten  years.  The  increase  ip  the  total  value  of  com- 
mon brick  during  the  same  decade  was  about  equal  to  the  above 
increase  in  the  agregate  value  of  the  brick  and  tile  industry,  while 
the  number  of  comon  brick  produced  in  1900  was  more  than  twice 
that  of  ten  years  before.  The  number  of  pressed  brick  on  the 
market  in  1900  was  approximately  three  times  that  produced  in 
1890,  indicating  that  those  who  are  rearing  brick  structures  in  the 
state  are  becoming  reconciled  to  the  fact  that  these  buildings 
should  be  ornamental  and  pleasing  to  the  e.ye,  at  the  same  time 
possessing  the  qualities  of  strength  and  durability.  This  variety 
of  brick  is  manufactured  extensively  along  the  lines  of  the  New 
Orleans  &  Northeastern  and  the  Illinois  Central  railways,  as  are 
also  articles  of  common  earthenware,  and  in  the  Grand  Gulf  hills 
are  extensive  deposits  of  white  clays  which  some  day  will  undoubt- 
edly be  utilized  for  the  manufacture  of  ornamental  brick  and  pot- 
tery of  the  finer  varieties. 

Clayton,  a  post-hamlet  and  station  in  the  northern  part  of  Con- 
cordia parish,  on  the  New  Orleans  &  Noi'thwestern  R.  R.,  about  12 
miles  northwest  of  Vidalia,  the  parish  seat.  It  has  an  express  office 
and  telegraph  station  and  a  population  of  100. 

Clearlake,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  northeastern  part  of  Natchitoches 
parish,  is  situated  on  Sabine  Lake,  about  6  miles  east  of  Ca,spari, 
the  nearest  railroad  station. 

Cleora,  a  hamlet  and  station  in  the  central  part  of  Morehouse 
parish,  is  on  the  St.  Louis,  Iron  Mountain  &  Southern  R.  R.,  about 
6  miles  southea.st  of  Bastrop,  the  parish  seat,  and  4  miles  southwest 
of  Mer  Rouge.  It  has  a  money  order  postoffiee  and  some  retail 
stores. 

Cleveland,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  central  part  of  Jackson  parish,  is 


LOUISIANA  231 

situated  on  Bayou  Beaucoup,  about  7  miles  west  of  Avard,  the 
nearest  railroad  station. 

Clifford,  a  post-hamlet  and  station  in  the  northwestern  part  of 
"Webster  parish,  is  on  the  Louisiana  &  Arkansas  K..  R.,  about  3  miles 
south  of  the  state  line. 

Clifton,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  northwestern  part  of  Washington 
parish,  is  situated  near  the  Bogue  Chitto,  about  6  miles  north  of 
Pranklinton,  the  parish  seat,  and  4  miles  south  of  Magee,  the  near- 
est railroad  station. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  Louisiana  is  semi-tropical.  The  fall 
of  the  year  is  the  most  pleasant  season  in  the  state,  and  when  the 
wind  is  from  the  north  the  sky  is  clear  and  serene,  the  air  bracing 
and  invigorating.  The  transformation  from  winter  to  summer  is 
by  an  extremely  short  spring;  the  winds  are  changeable  and  erratic, 
blowing  within  a  short  time  from  every  point  of  the  compass,  but 
the  fall  is  long  and  pleasant.  In  order  to  give  an  idea  of  the  climate 
of  Louisiana,  it  will  be  necessary  to  make  comparisons  with  other 
sections  of  the  country.  Considering  the  heat,  the  normal  mean 
maximum  temperature  for  the  hottest  month,  July,  taken  from  the 
data  of  the  U.  S.  weather  bureau  reports,  covering  a  period  of  15 
years,  it  is  seen  that  the  section  of  the  country  from  southern  Illi- 
nois, southeast  Missouri,  to  central  Minnesota,  has  an  average 
highest  temperature  of  84°,  with  an  average  lowest  temperature  of 
65°,  making  the  daily  range  18°.  For  Louisiana  for  the  same 
month,  the  average  highest  temperature  was  99°,  the  average  lowest 
temperature  74°,  making  the  daily  range  17°.  Considering  the 
coldest  month,  it  was  found  that  the  upper  Mississippi  valley  Jthe 
first  named  section)  had  an  average  highest  temperature  for  Janu- 
ary of -31°,  and  a  lowest  of  13°,  or  a  daily  range  of  18°,  Louisiana 
had  for  the  same  month,  an  average  highest  temperature  of  59°,  an 
average  lowest  of  44°,  or  a  daily  range  for  the  month  of  15°.  The 
maximum  temperature  of  the  Mississippi  valley  for  the  summer, 
recorded  at  Des  Moines,  la.,  and  Cairo,  111.,  was  103°,  the  lowest 
temperature  for  the  same  section,  in  winter,  was  43°  below  zero 
at  La  Crosse,  Wis.,  or  an  absolute  range  of  temperature  of  146°. 
The  highest  temperature  on  record  for  northern  Louisiana  was 
107*,  recorded  at  Shreveport,  and  the  highest  on  record  for  south- 
ern Louisiana,  was  97°,  at  New  Orleans.  The  lowest  temperature 
recorded  for  northern  Louisiana  was  6°,  at  Shreveport,  and  the  low- 
est temperature  reported  for  the  southern  part  of  the  state  was  20°, 
at  New  Orleans,  making  the  absolute  range  for  the  northern  part  of 
the  state  101°,  and  for  the  southern  part,  77°,  which  is  a  much 
smaller  range  than  that  of  the  northern  Mississippi  valley,  Missouri 
valley  or  the  northwestern  section  of  the  country.  Comparing  the 
mean  relative  humidity  of  different  sections:  from  a  record  of  the 
U.  S.  Weather  Bureau,  covering  a  period  of  15  years,  it  was  found 
that  the  mean  annual  relative  humidity  of  the  upper  Mississippi 
valley  was  computed  to  be  69  per  cent.,  the  mean  for  the  Missouri 
valley  74  per  cent.,  the  mean  for  Louisiana  71  per  cent.,  being  but 
2  per  cent  above  the  former  section,  and  3  per  cent,  below  the  latter. 


232  LOUISIANA 

The  highest  mean  monthly  for  the  year  in  Louisiana,  -was  74  per 
cent.,  while  the  hiuliest  in  the  other  sections  was  91  per  cent.  The 
average  yearly  rainfall  in  the  upper  ^lississippi  valley  is  39  inches, 
most  of  which  falls  during  the  summer  months.  The  average  for 
Louisiana  is  (30  inches,  4  to  6  inches  of  which  fall  each  month  of  the 
j'ear.  In  California  west  winds  prevail,  Ijlowing  from  the  ocean; 
in  Louisiana,  south  winds  prevail,  blowing  from  the  gulf.  Cali- 
fornia has  a  greater  number  of  sunshiny  days  in  the  summer 
months,  but  an  almost  total  lack  of  rainfall.  The  rainfall  in  Louis- 
iana is  general  throughout  the  year,  with  but  few  foggy  days.  The 
district  where  rain  falls  in  California  in  summer  is  small,  confined 
to  the  localities  which  are  directly  affected  by  the  ocean  breezes, 
and  extend  but  a  few  miles  inland.  The  valleys  back  from  the 
cosat  become  unbearably  hot  in  the  summer  months;  there  is  but 
little  vegetation  and  ,water  is  not  easily  procured.  Louisiana  has 
only  one  climate,  and  that  a  well  defined  one.  It  has  hot  Aveather, 
but  the  gulf  breeze  extends  inland,  reaching  to  the  northern  portion 
of  the  state,  which  has,  however,  a  higher  temperature  than  that 
recorded  in  the  southern  portion  during  the  summer  mouths.  The 
rainfall  and  moisture  is  almost  the  same,  being  but  slightly  less  in 
the  north  than  the  south.  The  sunnuers  are  long,  but  this  is  neces- 
sary for  the  crops,  grown  in  the  region.  Louisiana  is  comparatively 
free  from  killing  frosts,  and  has  a  great  advantage  over  northern 
Florida,  which  is  frequently  visited  by  frosts  heavy  enough  to  kill 
the  fiiiit  and  ofteu  the  trees.  The  southern  part  of  the  state,  from 
Rapides  and  Concordia  parishes  soiith,  compares  with  the  southern 
part  of  the  Florida  peninsula.  Jlost  of  the  cold  waves  that  sweep 
south  over  the  country  during  the  winter  mouths  are  deflected  from 
Louisiana,  as  nearly  all  the  winter  storms  have  an  eastern  tendency. 
The  storms  that  arise  in  northwestern  Texas  usually  pass  to  the 
north  of  Louisiana,  and  the  storms  that  arise  east  of  the  Rocky 
mountains  are  generally  attracted  by  the  valley  of  the  great  lakes 
and  pass  down  the  St.  Lawrence.  Another  cause  of  this  immunity 
from  storms,  is  the  great  volume  of  warm  moist  air  which  hangs 
over  the  gulf  and  central  part  of  the  state,  ami  which  mingles  with 
the  cold  air  from  the  north  and  passes  off  to  the  east.  Xot  that 
Louisiana  is  entirely  free  from  cold  waves,  as  the  temperature 
sometimes  falls  to  but  10"  or  15°,  above  zero.  Dry  winds  are  un- 
known in  Louisiana,  consequently  there  are  no  high  winds,  and  the 
moisture  is  not  absorbed  from  the  earth.  The  high  winds  that  pre- 
vail are  storm  winds,  and  nearly  always  cause  precipitation — gen- 
erally a  hard  rainfall.  While  Louisiana  does  not  have  a  windy  cli- 
mate it  has  a  breezy  one,  the  air  from  the  gulf  is  cool,  salty  and  in- 
vigorating. There  are  few  states  in  the  Union  that  possess  more 
genial  climate.  The  only  difference  in  tJie  climate  of  the  northern 
and  southern  portions  of  the  state,  is  a  slight  increase  in  the  range 
of  temperature,  an  atmosphere  less  humid  and  a  rainfall  averaging 
4  inches  less  annually. 

Clinton,  the  parish  seat  of  East  Feliciana  jiari.sh,  is  located  near 
the  center  of  the  parish,  the  site  having  been  determined  by  a  vote 


LOUISIANA  233 

of  the  people  when  the  parish  was  organized  in  1824.  The  town 
was  laid  out  in  1830  and  two  years  later  the  Clinton  female  acad- 
emy was  founded  by  the  sisters  of  George  Bancroft,  the  noted  his- 
torian. The  Centenary  collese  was  located  here  in  1839,  and  the 
town  was  incorporated  in  1852.  Clinton  is  the  eastern  terminus 
of  a  short  branch  of  the  Yazoo  &  IMississippi  Valley  R.  R.,  which 
connects  with  the  main  line  at  Ethel.  This  branch  is  a  part  of  th^ 
old  Clinton  &  Port  Hudson  R.  R.,  which  was  completed  in  1840, 
but  after  that  road  was  absorbed  by  the  Yazoo  &  Mississippi  Valley 
system  the  portion  from  Ethel  to  Port  Hudson  was  abandoned. 
Clinton  is  a  town  of  considerable  commercial  activity.  It  has  a 
bank,  a  large  brick  and  tile  factory,  some  minor  manufactures,  a 
number  of  well  conducted  mercantile  establishments,  a  money 
order  postoffice  with  niral  delivery  routes  emanating  from  it,  good 
schools  and  churches,  and  the  press  and  professions  are  well  repre- 
sented.    The  popidation  is  918. 

Clio,  a  money  order  post-luunlet,  in  the  southeastern  part  of  Liv- 
ingston parish,  is  situated-  on  the  Amite  river,  about  8  miles  south- 
east of  Spriugville,  the  parish  seat,  and  the  same  distance  southwest 
of  Springfield,  the  nearest  railroad  station.  It  has  a  population  of 
1.50  and  is  the  sixpply  point  for  a  considerable  district. 

Cloutierville,  a  money  order  post-village  in  the  southeastern  part 
of  Natchitoches  parish,  is  located  on  the  Cane  river  about  20  miles 
southeast  of  Natchitoches.  It  was  founded  by  Alexander  Cloutier, 
and  incorporated,  with  the  idea  of  making  it  the  seat  of  justice  for 
a  new  parish  which  Cloutier  petitioned  to  have  established.  The 
prospects  of  this  were  so  good  that  a  large  building  was  erected 
for  parish  purposes  and  a  Catholic  church,  then  the  only  religion 
known  in  this  section  of  Louisiana.  The  new  parish  was  not  cre- 
ated and  the  town  has  remained  a  village.  The  population  is  2.5C. 
Derry,  on  the  Texas  &  Pacific  R.  R.,  3  miles  west,  is  the  nearest 
railroad  station. 

Clover,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  western  part  of  Rapides  parish,  is 
situated  on  Bayou  Boeuf,  about  15  miles  west  of  Alexandria,  the 
parish  seat,  and  5  miles  southeast  of  Hoyt,  the  nearest  railroad 
station. 

Clyde  (R.  R.  name  Swaty),  a  post-village  in  the  western  part  of 
Sabine  parish,  is  a  station  on  the  Kansas  City  Southern  R.  R.,  about 
12  miles  northwest  of  Jlany,  the  parish  seat,  and  3  miles  north  of 
ZwoUe,  the  nearest  banking  town.     It  is  a  lumber  town. 

Coal. — The  mineral  coal  of  Louisiana  is  of  the  species  known  as 
lignite,  also  called  wood-coal  or  fossil-wood.  Lignite  is  usually  of 
a  brownish  color,  though  it  is  sometimes  pitch  black.  As  the  name 
implies,  it  retains  the  form  and  appearance  of  wood,  bi;t  it  contains 
more  hydrogen  than  wood.  Strictly  speaking,  lignite  is  an  unfin- 
ished product.  As  the  jirocess  of  decomposition  continues  lignite 
throws  off  carburetted  hydrogen,  and  in  time  becomes  a  bituminous 
coal.  The  lignite  beds  of  Louisiana  are  probably  offshoots  from  the 
larger  formations  along  the  eastern  foot  of  the  Rocky  mountains, 
which  depoisits,  according  to  Hayden,  "occupy  a  position  between 


234  LOUISIANA 

the  Cretaceous  and  Eocene  Tertiary  strata,  cover  an  area  of  about 
50,000  square  miles  M-itliin  the  United  States,  and  extend  north  into 
Canada  and  south  into  Mexico." 

About  the  besiniiing  of  the  present  century  mining:  operations 
Avere  commenced  in  the  lignite  deposits  of  the  Dolet  hills.  A 
bulletin  issued  by  the  state  commission  of  the  Louisiana  Purchase 
exposition  in  1904,  says:  "Analyses  recently  made  show  the  fol 
lowing  average  composition :  Water,  32  per  cent. ;  volatile  matter, 
34  per  cent. ;  fixed  carbon,  31  per  cent. ;  ash,  3  per  cent.  Thermal 
value  with  15.2  per  cent,  moisture  is  9883  B.  T.  U.  The  water  evap- 
orates on  exposure  with  but  little  slacking  in  the  coal.  This  de- 
posit, varying  in  thickness  from  6  to  8  feet,  covers  an  area  of  over 
40,000  acres,  situated  between  tAvo  main  lines  of  railroad  running 
north  and  south.  The  coal  can  be  easily  mined  above  the  inter- 
secting branches.  *  *  *  Geological  investigation.s  show  that  this 
formation  underlies  a  large  part  of  northwestern  Louisiana,  with 
numerous  outcrops  from  the  Ouachita  to  the  Sabine.  On  the  latter 
stream,  near  Sabine  town,  is  a  bed  of  lignite  over  5  feet 
thick.  Other  prominent  outcrops  are  near  Mansfield,  ^lany  and 
Shreveport. " 

Concerning  the  deposits  at  ]\Iansfield,  "Current  Events,"  a  maga- 
zine published  by  the  Kansas  City  Southern  railway,  said  in  the 
issue  of  Jan.,  1904:  "In  the  vicinity  of  Mansfield,  La.,  are  some  40 
square  miles  of  land  underlaid  with  a  good  quality  of  tertiary  coal, 
which  occurs  in  three  layers,  each  7  feet  thick  and  of  easy  access. 
A  corporation  has  been  recently  formed  to  undertake  the  mining  of 
this  coal,  for  which  there  is  an  excellent  market.  How  it  escaped 
development  before  this  is  one  of  the  mysteries,  considering  the 
proximity  to  a  dozen  large  cities  within  easy  reach.  The  opening 
of  the  first  mines  will  probably  bring  about  the  development  of  the 
whole  region  before  long." 

Coast  Line. — The  coast  line  of  Louisiana,  including  the  bays  and 
lakes  on  the  coast,  such  as  Breton  sound,  Chandeleur  sound,  Atcha- 
falaya,  Barataria,  Cote  Blanche,  Terre  Bonne  and  Vermilion  bays. 
Lakes  Borgne,  Pontchartrain,  etc.,  approximates  2,000  miles.  The 
coast  may  be  divided  into  two  parts;  the  1st  or  eastern  division  lies 
between  Cat  island,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Pearl  river,  on  the  east, 
and  Vermilion  bay  on  the  southwest.  These  are  the  eastern  and 
western  limits  of  the  great  IMississippi  delta.  It  is  supposed  that 
at  one  time  the  water  of  the  great  river  flowed  through  Bayou 
Manchac,  Lake  Maurepas,  Lake  Pontchartrain  and  the  Rigolets  into 
Mississippi  Sound.  The  outline  of  this  part  of  the  coast  is  ex- 
tremely irregular,  indented  with  many  bays  and  cut  by  lakes  and 
bayous  into  a  labyrinth  of  peninsulas  and  islands.  The  general 
contour  of  the  coast  is  like  the  arc  of  a  circle,  convex  toward  the 
gulf.  The  islands  along  the  delta  coast  all  have  a  tendency  to  form 
in  groups,  convex  toward  the  gulf  (see  Chandeleur  Islands),  and 
the  individuals,  islands  of  each  group  have  the  same  general  outline 
as  that  of  the  group  itself.  The  bayous  which  flow  through  the 
delta  lands  are  nearly  always  shallow  near  the  mouths,  which  are 


LOUISIANA  235 

often  obstructed  by  shallow  bays  filled  with  sand  bars.  The  2nd  or 
western  division  of  the  coast,  from  Vermilion  bay  to  Sabine  lake, 
which  forms  the  southwestern  boundary  of  the  state,  has  a  very 
regular  beach  on  the  edge  of  the  marsh;  there  are  no  outlying 
islands  and  the  general  structure  is  entirely  different  from  the 
eastern  section.  The  marshes  which  border  the  coast  extend  from 
the  water  line  of  the  gulf,  inland  to  a  depth  varying  from  5  to  25 
miles  but  averages  about  12  miles.  In  all  cases  it  is  low,  wet  and 
subject  to  tidal  overflow.  In  most  places  the  marshes  are  impass- 
able. They  are  filled  with  lakes  and  intersected  by  many  bayous. 
The  marshes  are  not  uniform  in  structure,  being  in  some  places 
practically  a  lake,  in  others  a  grassy  plain,  firm  enough  for  cattle 
to  graze  on.  In  other  places  the  surface  is  apparently  firm,  while 
underneath  the  crust  there  is  nothing  but  water  and  oozy  mud.  In 
some  places  considerable  solid  islands  rise  above  the  marsh  and 
present  the  unusual  spectacle  of  islands  on  land. 

Coburn,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  southeastern  part  of  Sabine  parish, 
is  situated  on  Middle  creek,  about  8  miles  southeast  of  Roily,  the 
nearest  railroad  station,  and  12  miles  southeast  of  Many,  the  parish 
seat. 

Codes  and  Statutes. —  (See  French  Domination,  Spanish  Domina- 
tion, Black  Code,  and  the  several  State  Constitutions).  During  the 
period  of  the  French  domination,  the  laws,  ordinances,  customs,  and 
usages  of  the  Prevostship  and  Viscounty  of  Paris  formed  the  early 
basis  of  the  laws  of  the  province  of  Louisiana,  and  there  was  early 
provided  an  administrative  and  .judicial  body  or  government  council, 
similar  in  character  to  the  one  provided  for  San  Domingo  and 
Martinique.  The  edicts  or  decrees  of  this  council,  at  whose  head 
stood  the  governor  of  the  province,  together  with  the  royal  edicts 
issued  from  time  to  time,  provided  the  chief  legislation  for  the 
colony.  This  government  council,  known  throughout  the  French 
period  as  the  superior  council,  underwent  numerous  changes  in  its 
personnel  and  functions.  For  instance,  as  modified  by  the  royal 
edict,  it  was  to  consist  in  1719  of  the  governor,  the  two  "Lieuten- 
ants de  Roi,"  or  lieutenant-governors,  the  king's  attorney-general, 
and  four  other  persons,  together  with  such  directors  of  the  Western 
Company  as  might  happen  to  be  in  the  colony  as  ex-offieio  mem- 
bers. After  the  surrender  of  the  charter  of  the  India  Company, 
the  superior  council  was  again  reorganized  by  letters  patent  issiied 
in  1732,  when  it  was  made  to  consist  of  the  governor,  king's  com- 
missary, two  lieutenant-governors,  attorne.v-general,  commander  of 
New  Orleans,  and  six  others  (Gayarre)).  In  the  latter  portion  of 
the  French  period  the  superior  council  appears  to  have  consisted 
of  some  thirteen  members,  and  it  was  this  famous  body  which  en- 
tertained the  petition  for  the  expulsion  from  the  colony  of  the 
Spanish  UUoa,  and  formally  enjoined  him  to  quit  the  colony  within 
three  days  in  Oct.,  1768. 

The  Spanish  Gov.  O'Reilly  abolished  the  superior  council,  and 
established  in  its  place  a  city  council,  or  cabildo.  The  transition 
from  the  French  to  Spanish  laws  was  not  difficult,  because  of  their 


236  LOUISIANA 

similarity  of  origin.  ""Tlie  people  of  Louisiana,  under  the  Spanish 
resrime,  were  governed  by  the  Fuero  Viego,  Fuero  Juzco,  Partidas, 
Recopilaciones,  Leyes  de  las  Indias,  Aiistos  Accordados,  and  Royal 
Schedules.  To  explain  these,  Spanish  commentators  Avere  sorted 
to,  and  to  eke  out  any  deficiency  the  lawyers  who  came  from 
France  or  Hispaniola  read  Pothier,  D'Aguesseau,  Dnmoulin,  etc. 
El  Fuero  Juzco  was  a  compilation  of  the  rules  and  regulations  made 
for  Spain  by  its  national  councils  and  Gothic  kings  as  early  as  693 
A.  D.  It  was  the  first  code  made  by  the  Spanish  nation :  it  consisted 
of  12  volumes,  and  was  originally  published  in  Latin.  It  was  trans- 
lated into  Spanish  in  the  13th  eentui-y  by  order  of  Ferdinand  III. 
El  Fuero  Viego  was  published  in  the  year  992.  It  is  divided  into 
five  books,  and  contains  the  ancient  customs  and  usages  of  the 
Spanish  nation.  The  Partidas  is  the  most  perfect  system  of  Span- 
ish laws,  and  maj^  be  advantageously  compared  with  any  code 
published  in  the  most  enlightened  ages  of  the  world.  It  is  in  imi- 
tation of  the  Roman  Pandects,  and  may  be  considered  a  digest  of 

the  laAvs  of  Spain Much  of  our  present  system  of  practice 

is  taken  from  the  Partidas.  The  Recopilacion  of  Castile  was  pub- 
lished in  the  year  1567,  under  the  authority  and  supervision  of 
Philip  II.  From  that  time  to  1777  many  new  editions  of  the  work 
were  produced.  The  Autos  Accordados  were  edicts  and  orders  in 
Council  sanctioned  and  published  by  virtue  of  a  royal  decree.  It 
consists  of  but  one  volume.  The  scattered  laws  made  for  the  Span- 
ish colonies  at  different  periods,  were  digested  by  Philip  IV,  in 
the  same  form  as  the  Recopilacion  of  Castile,  and  called  in  1661 
the  Recopilacion  de  las  Indias."  (Louisiana  and  her  Laws,  bj- 
Henry  J.  Leovy.)  Of  this  great  digest  of  colonial  laws,  says  Bourne 
in  his  Spain  in  America:  "Recopilacion  de  Leyes  de  los  Reinos 
de  las  Indias,  in  spite  of  shortcomings  as  to  finance  and  variances 
with  modern  ideas,  was,  in  its  broad  humanity  and  consideration 
for  the  general  welfare  of  the  king's  American  subjects,  far  superior 
to  anything  that  has  been  shown  for  the  English  or  French 
colonies." 

When  Louisiana  became  the  "Orleans  Territory"  under  the 
United  States,  the  government  permitted  the  people  of  the  new 
territory  to  make  what  changes  they  pleased  in  the  existing  system 
of  laAvs.  The  criminal  laws  of  Spain  were  repealed  and  new  penal 
statutes  adopted,  "the  definitions  and  intendments  of  which  were 
left  to  the  Common  law  of  England."  The  first  territorial  legis- 
lature in  1806  a^ithorized  two  members  of  the  bar,  Jlessrs.  Brown 
and  Lislet,  to  prepare  a  digest  of  the  laws  then  in  existence  in  the 
territory,  and  each  to  receive  .$800  a  year  for  five  years  as  compensa- 
tion. Says  Leovy:  "Instead  of  complying  with  their  orders  and 
digesting  the  laws  in  existence,  these  gentlemen  made  a  code  based 
principally  on  the  Code  Napoleon.  This  was  adopted  by  the  legis- 
lature, and  is  now  known  as  the  old  Civil  Code  of  1808.  This  code 
did  not  repeal  former  laws:  the  old  Civil  Code  only  repealed  such 
parts  of  the  Civil  law  as  were  contrary  or  incompatible  with  it.  It 
did  not  contain  many  important  provisions  of  the  Spanish  law  nor 


LOUISIANA  237 

any  rules  of  judicial  proceedings.  It  was  therefore  decided  that  the 
Spanish  laws  'were  to  be  considered  as  untouched  when  the  Digest 
or  Civil  Code  did  not  reach  them.  The  legislature,  therefore,  in 
1819  ordered  the  publication  of  such  parts  of  the  Partidas  as  were 
still  in  force." 

In  the  course  of  a  number  of  years  the  state  outgrew  the  "Old 
Code,"  and  the  legislature  appointed  a  committee,  consisting  of 
Messrs.  Livingston,  Derbigny,  and  Moreau  Lislet,  to  amend  and 
revise  it.  Their  work  resulted  in  the  so-called  "Civil  Code  of  Lou- 
isiana," which  went  into  operation  in  1825.  The  Code  of  Practice 
was  enacted  April  12,  1824,  and  was  promulgated  Sept.  2,  1825. 
This  code  repealed  all  former  rules  of  practice,  and  such  parts  of 
the  Civil  Code  as  conflicted  with  it.  The  code  of  criminal  law, 
prepared  by  Edward  Livingston,  was  completed  in  1828,  and  was 
a  large  work  of  800  pages.  It  embraced  five  divisions — a  Code  of 
Crimes  and  Punishments,  a  Code  of  Procedure,  a  Code  of  Evidence, 
a  Code  of  Reform  and  Prison  Discipline,  and  a  Book  of  Definitions. 
De  Bow  calls  the  work  "a  great  book,  but  one  of  little  practical 
utility."  On  the  other  hand,  Mignet,  the  French  historian,  says: 
"(Livingston)  has  composed  a  book  that  recommends  itself  to  the 
attention  of  philosophers  as  a  beautiful  system  of  ideas,  and  to  the 
use  of  nations  as  a  vast  code  of  rules." 

The  present  constitution  of  the  state,  hy  articles  322,  323  and 
324,  made  provision  for  a  Code  of  Criminal  Law,  a  Code  of  Criminal 
Procedure,  and  a  Code  of  Criminal  Correction,  to  be  prepared  by  a 
commission  of  three  lawyers,  appointed  by  the  governor. 

Coe,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  northern  part  of  Acadia  parish,  situated 
on  Bayou  Plaquemine,  5  miles  northwest  of  Branch,  the  nearest 
railroad  town. 

Coffee.  John,  a  soldier  of  the  War  of  1812,  was  born  in  1772.  He 
became  a  Iirother-in-law  and  partner  of  Gen.  Andrew  Jackson,  with 
whom  lie  was  engaged  in  the  Indian  wars  in  Alabama  after  the 
massacre  of  Fort  ]\lims,  especially  distinguishing  himself  at  the 
battle  of  Talladega.  In  tlie  War  of  1812  he  was  in  command  of 
the  army  at  Pensacola  and  went  to  the  aid  of  Jackson  at  New 
Orleans.  On  the  morning  of  Jan.  8,  1815,  he  was  4  miles  above  the 
city  and  was  guided  to  the  battle-field  by  a  planter  named  De  la 
Ronde,  arriving  in  time  to  take  position  on  the  right  of  the  Amer- 
ican line,  where  his  command  rendered  valiant  service  during  the 
action.  Gen.  Coffee  was  complimented  by  Jackson  in  his  report, 
and  on  Feb.  2,  1815,  the  Louisiana  legislature  extended  him  a  vote 
of  thanks  for  his  timely  arrival  and  gallantry  in  repelling  the  at- 
tacks of  the  British.  After  the  war  Gen.  Coffee  settled  in  Georgia. 
He  was  elected  to  the  lower  house  of  Congress  in  1832,  and  re- 
elected in  1834,  but  died  before  the  beginning  of  his  second  term. 
Coffee  county,  Ga.,  was  named  in  his  honor. 

Cofield,  a  post-village  of  Ascension  parish,  is  situated  on  the  west 
bank  of  the  Mississippi  river,  2  miles  southwest  of  Burnside,  the 
nearest  railroad  station,  and  4  miles  northeast  of  Donaldsouville, 


238  LOUISIANA 

tlie  parish  seat.  It  is  a  sliipping  point  for  a  rich  agricultural  dis- 
trict. 

Coldwater,  a  post-hamlet  aud  station  in  the  extreme  western  part 
of  Winn  parish,  is  on  the  Louisiana  &  .Vrkansas  R.  K.,  2  miles  north- 
east of  Saline  lake  and  15  miles  northwest  of  "Winnfield,  the  parish 
seat.     It  has  an  express  office,  telegraph  and  telephone  facilities. 

Coleman,  a  post-village  in  the  southeastern  part  of  Madison  par- 
ish, is  about  3  miles  southwest  of  Mound,  the  nearest  railroad  sta- 
tion.   Vicksburg,  Miss.,  is  the  nearest  banking  town. 

Coleman,  Hamilton  Dudley,  tinancier  and  member  of  Congress, 
Avas  born  in  New  Orleans,  La.,  !May  12,  1815.  At  the  outbreak  of 
the  Civil  war  he  enlisted  as  a  private  in  the  Washington  artillery, 
which  served  in  the  Army  of  Northern  Virginia  throiighout  the 
war.  After  peace  was  established  he  began  to  manufacture  and 
deal  in  plantation  machinery ;  was  active  in  the  organization  of  the 
World's  Ind;isti-ial  and  Cotton  Centennial  exposition  at  New  Or- 
leans in  1884-5 ;  was  one  of  the  organizers  of  the  first  electric  light- 
ing company  established  in  New  Orleans ;  served  as  vice-president 
and  afterward  as  president  of  the  company ;  was  for  two  terms  pres- 
ident of  the  'New  Orleans  chamber  of  commerce ;  was  elected  in 
Nov.,  1888,  one  of  the  vice-presidents  of  the  National  board  of 
trade,  and  was  elected  to  the  51st  Congress  as  a  Republican. 

Colfax,  the  capital  of  Grant  parish,  is  located  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  old  stream,  Rigolet  de  Bon  Dieu,  which,  in  1836,  robbed  the 
old  channel  of  its  waters  and  became  the  main  channel  of  the  Red 
river.  The  town  became  the  seat  of  justice  of  the  parish  when  it 
was  organized  in  1869  and  was  incorporated  in  1878.  The  iirst 
postmaster  was  S.  E.  Cuney  and  the  first  .store  was  opened  by  W.  S. 
Calhoun  in  1867.  A  terrible  riot  occurred  in  Colfax  in  April,  1873, 
w'hen  a  band  of  negroes  held  the  courthouse  for  several  days  defy- 
ing the  w'hites.  On  Easter  Sunday,  April  13,  the  whites  tired  upon 
the  negroes,  who  had  erected  defenses  at  the  courthouse.  They 
took  refuge  in  a  brick  barn,  which  was  fired,  and  the  negroes  who 
were  not  burned  w'ere  taken  prisoners.  A  few  white  men  were 
wounded  and  40  negroes  taken  prisoners.  In  1880,  Mrs.  ^I.  A.  Lane 
donated  a  block  of  land  to  the  town  and  parish,  the  condition  be- 
ing that  the  seat  of  justice  be  continued  at  Colfax.  This  donation 
was  accepted  in  1881,  and  on  Jan.  4,  1882,  the  new  courthouse  was 
received  by  the  police  jury,  the  parish  offices  being  moved  into  the 
new  building  on  Jan.  5.  The  pioneer  journal  was  the  Colfax  Chron- 
icle, issued  July  8,  1876,  by  J.  M.  Sweeney.  It  was  started  as  an 
independent  paper,  "owing  no  allegiance  to  any  political  party." 
The  second  newspaper  was  established  by  T.  M.  Wells,  in  Aug., 
1884.  In  1883,  the  Methodist  Society  donated  land  for  a  public 
school  building  which  was  erected  the  same  year.  The  3Iasons 
have  a  lodge  in  Colfax,  and  the  following  churches  are  represented : 
Methodist  Episcopal,  Baptist  and  Catholic.  The  Southwestern 
Loan  &  Building  association  was  organized  in  Oct.,  1890.  The 
principal  industries  of  Colfax  are  sawmills,  woodworking  factories 
and  cotton  seed  oil  mills.     The  Louisiana  Railway  &  Navigation 


LOUISLVNA  239 

company's  line  runs  through  Colfax,  and  as  it  is  on  the  Red  river, 
it  is  the  principal  shipping  point  supply  depot  for  a  large  section 
of  the  rich  river  valley.  It  has  one  bank,  a  money  order  postoffiee, 
express,  telegraph  and  telephone  facilities  and  a  population  of 
1,049. 

College  of  the  Immaculate  Conception. — According  to  Fay's  His- 
tory of  Education  in  Louisiana,  the  Society  of  Jesus  has  two  col- 
leges in  the  state,  one  called  St.  Charles  college,  at  Grand  Coteau, 
and  the  other  the  college  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  in  New 
Orleans.  The  former  Avas  founded  in  1837  and  still  continues  its 
labors;  the  latter,  which  is  much  the  larger  and  more  important  of 
the  two,  was  founded  in  1847,  when  the  Jesuits  reentered  Louisiana 
upon  the  invitation  of  Archbishop  Blanc.  In  that  year  a  site  was 
secured  at  the  corner  of  Common  and  Baronne  streets,  in  the  city 
of  New  Orleans,  and  a  brick  building  40  by  150  feet,  three  stories 
high,  was  erected.  This  building,  in  connection  with  a  frame 
l^ouse  adjoining,  constituted  the  college,  which  was  formall.y  opened 
in  the  fall  of  1849  with  100  stiulents  and  a  staff  of  ten  instructors. 
The  number  of  students  grew  steadily  until  the  breaking  out  of  the 
Civil  war,  when  260  were  enrolled,  and  since  the  war  the  attend- 
ance has  been  all  that  could  be  desired.  In  1856  the  college  was 
endowed  by  the  legislature  with  the  full  powers  and  privileges  of 
a  university.  The  plan  of  stiidies  embraces  the  doctrine  and  evi- 
dences of  the  Roman  Catholic  religion,  logic,  metaphysics,  rlietoric, 
composition,  elocution,  history,  geography,  mathematics,  ethics, 
a.stronomy,  philosophy,  penmanship,  bookkeeping,  the  Latin,  Greek, 
English,  French,  German  and  Spanish  languages,  etc.  The  college 
ol¥ers  a  complete  classical  course,  embracing  the  three  general  de- 
partments of  philosophy,  rhetoric  and  belles-lettres,  a  commercial 
course,  a  preparatory  course,  and  an  advanced  postgraduate  course, 
the  last  named  leading  to  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Arts.  The 
college  has  a  fine  library  of  some  18,000  volumes  and  its  alumni 
occupy  places  of  honor  and  responsibility  in  the  political,  commer- 
cial, professional  and  educational  circles  of  the  state  and  nation. 

College  of  Louisiana. — This  former  state  institution  of  learning, 
now  the  Centenary  college  of  Louisiana  (q.  v.),  was  in  many  ways 
the  actual  successor  of  the  College  of  Oi-leans,  elsewhere  described. 
French  influences  as  opposed  to  English,  had  prevailed  in  the  col- 
lege of  Orleans,  and  the  representatives  of  the  country  parishes  in 
the  legislature,  many  of  whom  were  of  English  descent,  were  jealous 
of  the  city  influence  in  the  old  state  fostered  school.  These  were 
the  general  causes  which  brought  about  the  downfall  of  the  College 
of  Orleans,  and  led  to  the  act,  of  Feb.  18,  1825,  which  established 
the  College  of  Louisiana  at  the  little  village  of  Jackson,  East  Felici- 
ana parish,  and  transferred  the  annual  state  appropriation  of  $5,- 
000  from  the  College  of  Orleans  to  the  new  institution.  The  English 
influence  was  to  dominate  in  the  College  of  Loiiisiana,  a  fact  which 
led  to  the  rival  establishment  of  the  College  of  Jefferson  (q.  v.),  a 
few  years  later.  The  new  college  was  authorized  to  confer  the 
usual  degrees  granted  by  any  university,  college,  or  seminary  in  the 


240  LOUISIANA 

United  States,  aud  the  eiirrieulum  was  to  embrace  courses  in  Eng- 
lish, French,  Spanish,  Latin,  Greek,  mathematics,  natural  philoso- 
pliy.  chemistry,  natnral  history,  geography,  moral  aud  political 
philosophy,  ancient  and  modern  history,  logic,  and  rhetoric.  The 
original  act  of  esta])lishment  provided  for  a  lioard  of  trustees  for 
the  college,  to  consist  of  the  following  public  officers :  The  gover- 
nor (Heur.y  Johnson),  and  tlu^  members  of  the  supreme  court 
(George  Jlathews,  Francois  Xavier  i\Iartin.  and  Alexander  Foster), 
together  with  28  private  citizens.  The  history  of  the  institution 
covers  a  period  of  IS  years,  during  which  it  had  an  annual  average 
attendance  of  between  80  and  100  students.  The  institution  was 
organized  and  began  its  work  in  Dec  1826.  witli  a  faculty  of  3 
members,  between  30  and  40  preparatory  students,  and  numerous 
students  coming  forward  to  take  \\p  the  work  of  its  academic  de- 
partment. The  first  president  was  Mr.  Gird,  a  graduate  of  AVest 
Point.  As  in  the  case  of  all  early  state  colleges  provision  was  made 
for  the  gratiiitous  instruction  of  such  indigent  piipils  as  might  care 
to  attend  the  college.  The  attendance  had  grown  to  between  50 
and  60  by  1830.  and  the  institution  was  reported  to  be  in  a  pro- 
gressive and  flourishing  coudition.  In  1831  the  report  shows  over 
80  students  and  4  college  buildings.  That  the  institution  was  well 
provided  for  at  this  time  is  sliown  by  the  fact  that  its  gross  income 
from  state  aid,  sale  of  books  and  stationery,  tuition  fees,  aud  private 
donations,  was  in  excess  of  $15,000.  It  then  had  a  faculty  of  5  mem- 
bers and  a  chaplain.  The  last  report  for  the  college  in  1844  item- 
ized its  resources  as  follows :  Commodious  buildings.  $70,000 ; 
library.  1,600  volumes,  $4,000:  cabinets  aud  collections.  $1,500;  140 
acres  of  land.  $2,500:  apparatus.  $2,010;  founder's  donations,  in 
money,  $20,000.  in  land  and  town  lots.  $10,000.  In  1843  the  college 
had  only  46  st^idents.  aud  like  the  other  state  colleges.  Jefferson 
and  Franklin,  was  fast  going  down  hill.  In  1845  the  state  decided 
to  cease  its  support  of  all  three  institutions,  let  rivalries  die  out, 
and  gain  a  fresh  start.  Indeed,  the  year  1845  marks  the  end  of  the 
so-called  beneficiary  period  in  state  education,  extending  from  1803 
to  1845,  and  the  rise  of  the  public  school  system  proper.  The  state 
appropriated  to  the  College  of  Louisiana  an  estimated  total  of  $260,- 
000  during  its  existence.  In  1845  an  act  was  passed  to  sell  the  col- 
lege, and  it  passed  iuto  tlie  liands  of  the  ^lethodist  denomination, 
to  bi'  known  henceforth  as  tlie  Centenary  college  of  Louisiana. 

College  of  Orleans,  Avhich  was  the  first  institution  of  learning  to 
be  organized  in  the  Territory  of  Orleans,  was  the  outgrowth  of  an 
early  attempt  by  the  legislative  council  of  the  territory  to  institute 
a  university,  which  was  to  be  the  head  of  a  complete  educational  sys- 
tem, inchuling  preparatory  scliools  or  academies,  public  libraries,  one 
in  each  county  of  the  territory,  and  all  under  the  supervision  and 
control  of  a  single  board  of  regents.  The  scheme  was  in  many  respects 
an  ideal  one.  save  that  the  board  of  regents  was  given  too  much  of 
a  political  complexion,  and  the  funds  for  the  support  of  the  various 
schools  were  to  be  provided  from  the  profits  of  two  lotterj'  franchises. 
The  early  legislative  acts  pertaining  to  the  college  referred  to  it  as 


LOUISIANA  241 

the  "university,"  though  the  university  idea  was  never  realized.  The 
original  act  was  modified  from  time  to  time  by  the  legislature,  and  it 
was  finally  wise  enough  to  make  a  direct  appropriation  from  tlie  state 
treasury  for  the  support  of  the  college  in  New  Orleans.  This,  to- 
gether with  private  aid,  and  the  donation  of  the  needed  grounds  and 
buildings  by  the  corporation  of  New  Orleans,  gave  the  institution  a 
promising  start.  As  early  as  1806,  in  his  message  to  the  legislature, 
Gov.  Claiborne  strongly  advocated  the  modern  system  of  a  general 
tax  for  the  support  of  the  schools  of  the  territory,  and  the  legislature 
of  the  next  year  revoked  the  lottery  appropriation,  though  resort  was 
again  made  to  lottery  appropriations  at  a  later  period.  Says  Pay, 
in  his  History  of  Education  in  Louisiana,  refei-ring  to  some  of  the 
eflfects  of  Claiborne's  recommendation:  "Passing  over  some  previous 
tinkering  with  the  university  act,  we  find  in  an  act  of  April  9,  1811, 
some  new  provisions  of  importance.  The  state  made  an  appropriation 
out  of  her  treasury  of  $39,000,  for  a  college  and  schools  in  the  terri- 
tory— $1.3,000  for  the  college  in  New  Orleans,  and  a  sum  not  to  exceed 
$2,000  each  for  schools  in  the  remaining  counties.  It  was  provided 
that  50  indigent  children  should  be  taught  gratis  in  the  college,  for 
which  an  annual  sum  of  $3,000  was  set  apart,  while  the  county  acad- 
emies  were  to  receive  $500  each.  These  new  provisions  contain  a 
sounder  financial  policy  than  the  old  haphazard  resort  to  lottery  sup- 
port, and  beneficiary  education  is  for  the  first  time  formally  intro- 
duced. "We  may  not  conclude,  however,  that  lottery  appropriations 
were  abandoned,  for  by  the  act  of  Feb.  13,  1813,  the  University  of 
New  Orleans  was  again  authorized  to  raise  $50,000  by  a  lottery.  But 
state  appropriations  to  this  cause  were  also  continued,  and  on  March 
6,  1819,  the  stated  appropriation  from  the  treasury  was  raised  to 
$4,000  annually.  In  1821  the  annual  appropriation  was  further  in- 
creased to  $5,000,  and  the  administrators  (the  act  abolished  the  regents 
and  appointed  a  board  of  9  administrators  in  their  place)  were  em- 
powered to  raise  a  sum  of  $50,000  which  the  regents  had  somehow 
failed  to  raise.  How,  or  for  what  purpose,  the  act  does  not  specify; 
it  was  doubtless  the  lottery  appropriation  mentioned  above.  In  1823 
a  further  source  of  revenue  was  provided  for  the  College  of  New  Or- 
leans by  the  license  of  six  gambling  houses  at  $5,000  each,  one-fourth, 
$7,500,  to  be  the  share  of  the  college.  This  sum  was  in  the  following 
year  reduced  to  $7,000  by  a  new  scale  of  apportionment  of  this  fund. 
In  1825  the  annual  appropriation  of  $5,000  was  withdrawn  in  favor 
of  the  College  of  Louisiana  (q.  v.),  but  $3,000  more  was  allowed  from 
the  gambling  license  fund."  This  left  the  institution  with  an  annual 
income  of  $10,000,  but  showed  all  too  clearly  the  hostility  of  the  legis- 
lature, as  all  specific  appropriations  from  the  state  treasury  were  now 
cut  ofif.  The  end  came  on  March  31,  1826,  when  the  college  was  for- 
mally given  up,  and  was  replaced  by  a  central  and  2  primary  schools. 
Though  the  college  never  attained  to  the  university  rank,  and  was, 
in  this  respect,  a  disappointment  to  its  friends,  and  though  there  was 
considerable  friction  in  ad.iusting  the  curriculum  to  suit  the  opposing 
tastes  of  the  English  and  French  speaking  populations,  it  nevertheless 
educated  many  useful  citizens,  man.v  of  its  graduates  becoming  promi- 
1—16 


242  LOUISIANA 

neut  lawyers,  judges,  legislators  aud  business  men.  Its  most  distin- 
guished graduate  was  Charles  Gayarre,  the  brilliant  historian  of  Louis- 
iana. In  his  reminiscences  he  has  written  entertainingly  of  the  old 
school.  He  tells  us  that  instruction  was  given  in  the  College  of  Orleans 
in  Latin.  French.  Spanish.  English,  literature  and  mathematics,  and 
the  courses  in  these  branches  were  efficient;  Greek  was  not  taught. 
Music,  dancing  and  fencing  were  also  taught,  but  these  were  extras. 
The  discipline  enforced  at  the  college  he  describes  as  very  severe,  and 
attributes  his  subsequent  ill  health  to  the  rigorous  life  led  there. 
Speaking  of  the  indigent  pupils  in  attendance,  he  laments  the  fact 
that  they  were  under  a  social  disiiualrfication.  He  says:  "There  were 
generally  in  the  College  of  Orleans  only  a  few  day  scholars.  They 
were  youths  who.  generally  on  account  of  the  poverty  of  their  parents, 
could  not  afford  to  be  full  boarders.  Most  were  admitted  on  half  pay ; 
others  did  not  pay  at  all,  being  sent  by  the  board  of  regents,  every 
member  of  which  had  the  privilege  to  select  a  poor  boy  who,  on  the^ 
recommendation  of  his  patron  and  on  the  assiirance  of  his  family 
being  in  destitute  circumstances,  was  entitled  to  be  educated  gratis. 
Those  who  were  thus  selected  by  the  regents  were  designated  as 
'charity  students'  by  those  who  had  been  more  favored  by  fortune. 
This  was  ungenerous  and  mean,  but,  alas,  even  children  are  not  free 
from  the  blemish  of  up.start  insolence.''  ^Mr.  Gayarre  has  also,  in 
his  inimitable  style,  given  us  portraits  of  some  of  the  eccentric  but 
polished  and  learned  men  among  the  teachers,  such  as  Jules  Dave- 
zac,  a  native  of  St.  Domingo,  and  the  first  head  of  the  school ;  Roche- 
fort,  head  of  the  collegiate  department  in  Gayarre 's  day,  expounder 
of  the  Latin  classics  and  the  histories  of  Kome,  Greece  and  France 
— a  poet,  scholar  and  gentleman,  and  beloved  of  all  the  pupils; 
Teinturier,  the  professor  of  mathematics,  who  combined  his  love  for 
mathematics  with  that  of  natural  history,  and  displayed  his  thrift 
by  adding  to  his  comfortable  salary  as  professor  of  mathematics, 
the  profits  derived  from  his  fine  garden,  and  from  his  alien  calling 
as  a  tuner  of  pianos ;  and  finally  Joseph  Lakanal,  the  last  president 
of  the  college,  a  fortner  priest  and  professor  of  belles-lettres  before 
the  revolution  of  1789  in  France,  who  broke  his  priestly  vows  in 
1791,  was  one  of  the  regicides  of  the  national  convention  of  1792, 
and  later  took  a  prominent  and  active  part  in  the  stirring  years 
of  the  first  republic  and  during  the  Napoleonic  regime.  Practi- 
cally all  traces  of  the  old  college  have  now  disappeared,  and  its 
buildings  have  been  demoli-shed  or  devoted  to  other  iises. 

CoUinsburg,  an  old  post-hamlet  of  Bossier  parish,  is  a  short  dis- 
tance east  of  the  Red  river,  about  20  miles  north  of  Shreveport.  It 
is  one  of  the  few  old  towns,  not  situated  on  a  railroad,  that  has  not 
become  extinct  since  the  war.  Antrim  is  the  most  convenient  rail- 
road station. 

CoUinston,  a  village  of  ]\Iorehouse  parish,  is  situated  in  the  south- 
ern part  of  the  parish  at  the  .iunction  of  the  New  Orleans  &  North- 
western and  the  St.  Louis,  Iron  Mountain  &  Soiithern  railroads, 
about  7  miles  southeast  of  Bastrop,  the  parish  seat,  and  nearest 
banking  town.     This  town  is  located  in  a  rich  agricultural  district 


LOUISIANA  243 

and  is  the  supply  and  shipping  point  for  a  large  cotton  district.  It 
has  a  money  order  postoffice,  express  ofSce,  telephone  and  telegraph 
facilities,  and  a  population  of  333. 

Callot,  Jean  Victor,  a  French  general  and  explorer,  was  born  at 
Chalons-sur-Maruc  al)Out  1751.  During  the  Revolutionary  war  he 
served  on  the  staff  of  Marshal  Rochambeau,  afterward  in  the 
French  army  and  as  governor  of  the  island  of  Guadaloupe.  In  1796, 
at  the  suggestion  of  M.  Adet,  the  French  minister  plenipotentiary 
to  the  United  States,  Gen.  Collot  made  an  extended  trip  through 
the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  valleys  to  procure  information  for  the 
French  government.  He  arrived  at  New  Orleans  in  November  of 
that  year,  and  Gov.  Carondelet,  believing  him  to  be  on  some  pri- 
vate mission  inimical  to  Spain,  had  him  arrested,  sent  him  to  the 
Balize,  where  he  remained  a  prisoner  for  about  two  months,  when 
he  was  permitted  to  embark  for  Philadelphia.  The  results  of  his 
investigations  were  published  at  Paris  in  1826  in  two  large  quarto 
volumes  under  the  title  of  "Voyage  dans  le  Nord  d'  Americiue  en 
1796."  His  observations  were  chiefly  of  a  military,  political  and 
geographical  nature,  and  the  work  was  illustrated  with  numerous 
maps,  plans,  etc.  Gen.  Collot  passed  down  the  Mississippi  just  be- 
fore the  evacuation  of  the  posts  in  the  Natchez  district  by  the  Span- 
iards, and  his  comments  regarding  the  people  of  that  section  are  of 
interest.  He  says:  "In  this  population  may  be  distinguished  three 
classes  of  emigrants;  the  first  is  composed  of  those  who  first  estab- 
lished themselves  when  this  colony  belonged  to  Great  Britain ;  the 
second,  of  those  commonly  called  Tories  or  Loyalists,  who,  at  the 
period  of  the  American  revolution,  took  arms  for  the  king  of  Eng- 
land, and  who  fled  hither  at  the  peace  of  1783 ;  the  third  class  is 
composed  of  those  who,  since  the  peace,  discontented  with  the  Fed- 
eral government,  are  come  hither  to  form  settlements,  having  pur- 
chased lands  at  a  very  small  price.  These  three  classes  are  abso- 
lutely divided  in  political  opinions.  The  first  is  purely  English; 
the  second  is  Anglo-American  royalist ;  the  third  is  republican,  but 
the  weakest  in  number.  They  are,  however,  in  general,  agreed  on 
all  questions  respecting  the  Federal  government,  which  they  equally 
detest,  and  against  which  their  hatred  is  carried  to  such  a  point, 
that  if  ever  it  should  be  their  lot  to  form  part  of  the  United  States 
when  the  limits  are  fixed,  conformable  to  the  treaty  between  this 
government  and  Spain,  they  would  transport  themselves  under  the 
dominion  of  the  latter,  wliatever  repugnance  they  might  feel  to 
live  under  a  government  wliich,  in  their  opinion,  gives  no  national 
character." 

Colomb,  a  post-hamlet  and  station  in  the  west-central  part  of  St. 
James  parish,  is  situated  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Mississippi  river 
and  the  Yazoo  &  Mississippi  Valley  R.  R.,  about  4  miles  north  of 
Convent,  the  parish  seat. 

Colquitt,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  northern  part  of  Claiborne  parish, 
is  situated  near  Corney  bayou,  about  10  miles  east  of  Haynesville, 
the  nearest  railroad  station,  and  14  miles  northeast  of  Homer, 
the  parish  seat. 


244  LOnSL.\NA 

Colsons,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  southeastern  part  of  Union  parish, 
on  the  Ouachita  boundary,  is  situated  on  Bayou  L 'Outre,  about  3 
miles  west  of  Sterlington,  the  nearest  railroad  station. 

Columbia,  the  capital  of  Caldwell  parish,  is  located  on  the  west 
bank  of  the  Ouachita  river  near  the  center  of  the  parish.  It  is  an 
old  settlement  and  was  made  the  seat  of  justice  when  the  parish 
was  organized  in  1838.  The  first  merchant  was  a  Mr.  Stokes,  who 
opened  a  general  store  there  some  years  prior  to  that  time.  The 
town  was  incorporated  in  1867.  In  addition  to  the  transportation 
facilities  afforded  by  the  Ouachita  river,  Columbia  is  on  the  line  of 
the  St.  Louis,  Iron  Mountain  &  Soiithern  K.  R.,  which  makes  it  a 
convenient  shipping  point,  and  it  has  a  volume  of  business  as  large 
as  many  towns  three  or  four  times  its  size.  It  has  one  bank,  several 
general  stores,  drug  and  hardware  stores,  a  newspaper,  good  schools 
and  churches,  and  a  population  of  500. 

Colixmbus,  a  village  in  tlie  southwestern  part  of  Sabine  parish,  is 
near  the  Sabine  river  and  about  8  miles  northwest  of  Egypt,  the 
nearest  railroad  station.  It  has  a  money  order  postoffice,  and  is  a 
trading  center  for  the  neighborhood. 

Colyell,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  central  part  of  Livingston  parish, 
is  about  4  miles  southwest  of  Springville,  the  parish  seat. 

Comite,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  eastern  part  of  East  Baton  Eouge 
parish,  is  situated  near  Comite  creek  about  8  miles  northeast  of 
Baton  Rouge,  the  parish  seat  and  nearest  railroad  town. 

Commercial  Associations. — Within  recent  years  the  business  men 
of  almost  every  town  and  city  in  the  state  have  formed  themselves 
into  an  association  having  for  its  aims  the  advancement  of  local 
interests.  These  associations,  which  generally  have  taken  the  name 
of  "Progressive  L'nions,"  are  somewhat  broader  in  their  scope  than 
the  old  boards  of  trade,  chambers  of  commerce,  and  the  various 
"exchanges,"  which  reflected  their  benefits  only  iipon  their  own 
members,  whereas  the  progressive  union  aims  to  promote  the  gen- 
eral welfare  of  the  community  by  securing  the  location  of  new 
manufacturing  concerns,  improving  the  educational  and  transpor- 
tation facilities,  etc.  Each  of  these  associations  or  unions  has  pre- 
pared and  distributed  more  or  less  "literature"  calling  attention  to 
the  merits  and  advantages  of  the  particular  town  or  city  in  which 
it  is  located,  and  in  this  way  the  resources  of  the  state  have  been 
widely  advertised. 

On  IMarch  3,  1908,  representatives  of  the  commercial  organiza- 
tions of  Alexandria,  Athens,  Baton  Rouge,  Crowley,  De  Quiney, 
Eunice,  Lafayette,  Lockport,  ^linden,  ]\Ionroe,  New  Iberia,  New  Or- 
leans, Ponchateula,  Shreveport,  Slidell,  Thibodaux  and  "Winnfield 
met  in  New  Orleans  and  formed  a  state  association  under  the  name 
of  the  "Louisiana  Commercial  Secretaries'  Association,"  and 
adopted  the  motto  of  "Louisiana  for  Louisiana."  Active  member- 
ship in  this  association  is  confined  to  the  secretaries  of  the  various 
commercial  organizations,  though  the  presidents  of  such  organi- 
zations are  admitted  as  lionorary  members.  The  objects  of  the  as- 
sociation as  set  forth  in  the  plan  of  organization  are :  1 — To  encour- 


LOUISIANA  245 

age  the  industrial  and  commercial  development  of  the  whole  state 
by  cooperation  in  all  matters  affecting  the  interests  of  the  state 
at  large ;  2 — To  exploit  the  advantages  of  the  state ;  3 — To  assist 
each  other  by  intercliange  of  ideas;  by  holding  a  state  convention 
annually;  by  encouraging  the  establishment  of  integral  organiza- 
tions throughout  the  state  and  securing  their  cooperation  and  mem- 
bership in  the  association ;  4— To  give  advice  and  information  to 
one  another,  and  to  bring  the  individual  secretaries  of  the  com- 
mercial organizations  of  the  state  into  closer  personal  intercourse. 
After  the  adoption  of  this  declaration  of  principles,  the  following 
officers  were  elected :  M.  B.  Trezevant  of  New  Orleans,  president ; 
E.  W.  Anderson  of  Monroe,  first  vice-president ;  L.  N.  Bruegger- 
hoff  of  Shreveport,  second  vice-president ;  J.  W.  Bckert  of  New 
Iberia,  third  vice-president;  H.  A.  Davis  of  Minden,  secretary- 
treasurer.  Since  the  organization  was  formed  other  local  pro- 
gressive leagues  or  unions  have  joined  the  movement,  which  prom- 
ises to  become  a  potent  factor  in  tlie  development  of  the  resources 
of  Louisiana. 

Committee  of  Defense. — At  the  meeting  held  at  Tremoulet's  cof- 
fee house  on  Sept.  15,  1814,  when  a  British  invasion  of  Louisiana 
was  momentarily  expected,  a  resolution  was  adopted  to  appoint  a 
committee  of  nine  persons  "to  cooperate  with  the  constituted  civil 
and  military  authorities  in  suggesting  means  of  defense,  and  call- 
ing forth  the  energies  of  the  country  to  repel  invasion  and  preserve 
domestic  tranquility."  The  committee  appointed  pursuant  to  this 
resolution  consisted  of  Edward  Livingston,  Pierre  Foueher,  Du 
Suau  de  la  Croix,  Benjamin  Morgan,  George  M.  Ogden,  Jean  N. 
Destrelian,  John  Blanque,  Dominique  Bouligny  and  Augustus 
Macarty.  Soon  after  their  appointment  the  members  of  the  com- 
mittee got  together  and  issued  an  addtess  to  the  people  of  the  state, 
the  closing  portion  of  which  was  as  follows:  "Beloved  country- 
men, listen  to  the  men  honored  by  yovir  confidence,  and  who  will 
endeavor  to  merit  it ;  listen  to  the  voice  of  honor,  duty,  and  of 
nature !  Unite !  Form  Init  one  body,  one  soul,  and  defend  to  the 
last  extremity  your  sovereignty,  your  property — defend  your  own 
lives  and  the  dearer  existence  of  your  wives  and  children." 

This  address  was  signed  by  all  the  committee  except  Ogden  and 
Blanque.  It  is  not  definitely  known  why  it  failed  to  bear  their 
signatures,  but  it  is  a  fact  worthy  of  note  that,  when  the  enemy 
actually  appeared,  every  one  of  the  nine  did  his  whole  duty  in  re- 
pelling the  invaders,  and  several  of  them  received  honorable  men- 
tion in  the  reports  of  the  commanding  officer.  Gen.  Andrew  Jack- 
son. 

Common  Schools. —  (See  School  System,  Public.) 

Come,  a  post-village  of  Franklin  parish,  is  situated  in  the  east- 
ern part,  about  2  miles  east  of  Cordill,  the  nearest  railroad  station, 
and  8  miles  soiitheast  of  Winnsboro,  the  parish  seat.  It  has  a 
money  order  postoffice  and  some  retail  trade. 

Concession,  a  post-village  in  the  northern  part  of  Plaquemines 
parish,  is  situated  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Mississippi  river  and  the 


246  LOUISIANA 

New  Orleans,  Fort  Jackson  &  Grand  Isle  R.  R..  about  11  miles 
south  of  New  Orleans. 

Concessions  First. —  (See  Laud  Grants.) 

Concord,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  southeastern  part  of  Caldwell  par- 
ish, is  a  station  on  the  Ouachita  &  Northwestern  R.  R.,  about  8 
miles  southeast  of  Columbia,  the  parish  seat. 

Concordia  Parish,  one  of  the  oldest  in  Louisiana,  was  one  of  the 
original  12  counties  created  by  the  territorial  council  Dec.  4,  1804. 
James  Wilkinson  was  appointed  .iudge  of  Concordia  county  and 
held  the  ofBce  from  1806  to  1808;  James  Houston  was  made  sheriff, 
and  held  office  for  the  same  time.  Vidalia  became  the  seat  of  jus- 
tice. In  1807  the  legislature  abolished  the  counties  created  in  1804 
and  erected  19  parishes,  Concordia  being  tlie  13th  created.  Tensas 
and  a  part  of  Carroll  parish  were  carved  from  the  noi'thern  part 
of  the  parish  as  it  was  originally  laid  out.  Concordia  is  situated 
in  the  eastern  part  of  the  state  on  the  ilississippi  river,  and  as  now 
constituted  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Catahoula  and  Tensas  par- 
ishes; the  Mississippi  river  forms  its  entire  eastern  lioundary;  on 
the  soutli  it  is  bounded  1iy  Pointe  Coupee  and  Avoyelles  parishes, 
and  on  the  west  by  Catahoula  and  Avoyelles,  from  M'hich  it  is  sep- 
arated by  the  Black  and  Red  rivers.  One  of  the  first  magistrates 
in  the  territoi-y,  of  whom  any  record  has  been  preserved,  was  Don 
Joseph  Vidal,  civil  commandant  of  Concordia,  holding  under  his 
Catholic  jMajesty,  the  King  of  Spain.  Don  Nicholas  Vidal  and  other 
commandants  ruled  here  from  the  first  occiipancy  of  the  country 
by  Spain  until  the  foi-mal  transfer  of  Louisiana  territory  to  the 
United  States  in  1803.  At  that  time  Fort  Concord  (now  Vidalia) 
was  the  only  settlement  between  Pointe  Coupee  and  the  mouth  of 
the  Arkansas  river,  on  the  west  bank  of  the  ^Mississippi.  The  set- 
tlement had  a  steady  and  rapid  growth,  as  the  people  were  peace- 
able, honest  and  industrious.  During  1802  and  1803  grants  Avere 
issued  within  the  present  bounds  of  Concordia  to  some  75  settlers, 
many  of  whom  became  active  in  the  affairs  of  the  territory  and 
state.  Tlie  census  of  1810  shows  that  Concordia  had  attained  a 
population  of  2,886  over  one-half  of  whom  were  slaves.  The  parish 
is  drained  by  the  ^Mississippi  river  on  the  east,  and  by  the  Black 
and  Red  rivers  and  their  tributary  streams  along  its  western  and 
southern  boundaries.  It  has  an  area  of  707  square  miles,  and  is 
one  of  the  righ  agricultural  districts  of  the  IMississippi  delta.  The 
formation  is  alluvial  land  and  wooded  swamps,  which  are  heavily 
timbered  with  such  varieties  as  cypress,  oak.  ash.  gum,  elm,  hack- 
berry,  pecan,  sycamore,  cottonwood  and  willow,  the  most  valuable 
being  cypress,  oak  and  pecan.  Only  a  comparatively  small  part 
of  the  timber  had  been  cut  up  to  a  few  years  ago,  and  lumbering 
promises  to  lie  a  source  of  great  wealth  in  tlie  future.  The  lands 
of  the  parish  are  well  protected  from  overflow  by  levees,  and  the 
soil  is  exceedingly  fertile,  producing  cotton,  corn,  hay,  potatoes, 
sugar-cane,  sorghum,  tobacco,  alfalfa  and  all  kinds  of  vegetables. 
Along  the  Natchez  &  Western  R.  R.  truck  farming  has  grown  into 
an  important  industry,  while  fruits  of  various  kinds,  both  large 


LOUISIANA  247 

and  small  varieties,  flourish  in  the  kindly  soil  and  climate  of  this 
favored  region,  and  are  exported  to  the  nearby  markets.  Game 
of  all  kinds  is  plentiful  in  the  forests  and  fish  of  several  varieties 
are  found  in  the  streams  and  lakes.  Shipping  and  transportation 
facilities  are  excellent.  The  Natchez  &  Western  R.  R.  runs  west 
across  the  parish  from  Vidalia  to  Black  River;  the  New  Orleans  & 
Northwestern  R.  R.  enters  the  northern  boundary  near  Clayton  and 
runs  southeast  to  Vidalia:  the  Texas  &  Pacific  traverses  the  entire 
eastern  pai't  of  the  parish  north  and  south,  and  the  steamboats  on 
the  ^Mississippi  river  touch  at  various  points  along  the  eastern  boun- 
dary. Vidalia,  the  parish  seat,  is  a  flourishing  town,  situated  on 
the  Mississippi  river  and  all  of  the  railroads  that  enter  the  parish. 
Other  important  villages  and  towns  are  Fairview,  Perriday,  Ar- 
raagli,  Lamarque,  Mabel,  Monterey,  Frogmore  and  Wildsville.  The 
principal  manufacturing  industries  of  the  parish  are  woodenware, 
syrup  and  canning  factories  and  cotton  compresses.  The  follow- 
ing statistics  are  taken  from  the  U.  S.  census  for  1910:  Number 
of  farms,  1,358;  acreage,  165,506;  acres  under  cultivation,  64,436; 
value  of  land  and  improvements  exclusive  of  buildings,  $2,877,- 
164 :  value  of  farm  bviildings,  $701,862 ;  value  of  live  stock,  $597,- 
442;  total  value  of  all  crops,  $796,573.     The  population  is  14,278. 

Confederate  Congress. — On  Jan.  19,  1861,  a  committee  of  the 
Mississippi  legislature  reported  resolutions  favoring  tlie  establish- 
ment of  a  provisional  government  for  a  Southern  Confederacy.  The 
other  Southern  States  approved  the  plan,  and  on  Feb.  4  a  Confed- 
erate Congress  met  at  Montgomery,  Ala.  This  Congress  was  more 
in  the  nature  of  a  convention,  in  which  Louisiana  was  represented 
by  John  Perkins,  Jr.,  Duncan  F.  Kenner,  Charles  M.  Conrad,  Alex- 
ander de  Clouet,  Edward  Sparrow  and  Henry  Marshall.  The 
session  of  the  Provisional  Congress,  provided  for  by  the  conven- 
tion, began  on  Nov.  18,  1861,  and  continued  until  Feb.  15,  1862. 
The  senators  from  Louisiana  were  Thomas  J.  Semmes  and  Edward 
Sparrow :  the  representatives,  Duncan  P.  Kenner,  Charles  Villere, 
Lucicu  J.  Dupre,  John  Perkins,  Jr.,  Charles  M.  Conrad  and  Henry 
Marshall.  The  Confederate  government  was  established  under  the 
"permanent  constitution,"  on  Feb.  18,  1862.  Semmes  and  Spar- 
row continued  as  members  of  the  senate  during  the  entire  exist- 
ence of  the  Confederacy,  and  the  representatives  in  the  Congress 
of  1863  were  the  same  as  in  provisional  Congress  above  mentioned. 
In  1864  a  vacancy  occurred  in  the  seat  of  Henry  Marshall,  but 
Villere,  Conrad,  Kenner,  Dupre  and  Perkins  continued  to  repre- 
sent their  respective  districts  until  the  Confederacy  passed  into 
history. 

Confederate  Memorial  Hall,  in  New  Orleans,  was  established  in 
the  year  1889  for  the  preservation  of  relics  of  the  Civil  war,  par- 
ticularly those  pertaining  to  the  State  of  Louisiana.  Prior  to  that 
time  a  number  of  small  associations  in  the  state  were  interested  in 
the  collection  of  these  relics.  These  associations  were  all  consoli- 
dated and  Frank  T.  Howard  donated  a  building,  which  was  com- 


248  LOUISLVNA 

pleted  in  1891.  A  small  anmial  appropriation  from  the  state  as- 
sists in  maintaining  the  institution,  but  it  is  mainly  supported  by 
vohintary  contributions  from  Confederate  veterans  and  their 
friends.  The  eolleetion  numbers  about  20,000  articles,  many  of 
them  of  valuable  historic  significance. 

Confederate  States. — The  Confederate  States  of  America  in- 
cluded tlie  states  that  seceded  from  the  Union  in  1860-61.  South 
Carolina  was  the  only  state  that  passed  an  ordinance  of  secession 
in  1860,  though  five  others  seceded  before  President  Lincoln  was 
inaugurated.  The  Confederate  government  was  organized  by  a 
convention  or  congress  which  met  at  jMontgomery,  Ala.,  Feb.  4, 
1861.  At  that  time  only  seven  states  had  withdrawn  from  the 
Union.  These  states,  with  the  dates  on  which  they  passed  seces- 
sion ordinances,  were  as  follows :  South  Carolina,  Dec.  20,  1860 ; 
Mississippi,  Jan.  9,  1861;  Florida,  Jan.  10;  Alabama,  Jan.  11; 
Georgia,  Jan.  19 ;  Louisiana.  Jan.  26 ;  and  Texas,  Feb.  5.  Texas 
was  not  represented  at  the  opening  of  the  convention,  but  her  del- 
egates arrived  in  time  to  concur  in  the  organization  of  the  pro- 
visional government,  of  which  Jefferson  Davis  of  ilississippi  was 
elected  president,  and  Alexander  H.  Stephens  of  Georgia,  Adce- 
president.  These  officers  were  inaugurated  on  ]\Ionday,  Feb.  18, 
and  on  March  11  the  delegates  from  the  seven  states  unanimously 
adopted  a  constitution  for  the  permanent  government  of  the  "Con- 
federate States  of  America." 

On  April  15,  1861,  President  Lincoln  issued  a  proclamation  de- 
claring that  in  the  seven  seceded  states  "the  laws  are  now  opposed 
and  the  execution  thereof  obstructed  by  combinations  too  power- 
ful to  be  suppressed  by  the  ordinary  course  of  judicial  proceed- 
ings or  by  the  powers  vested  in  the  marshals  of  law,"  and  calling 
for  75,000  troops  "to  suppress  said  combinations  and  to  cause  the 
laws  to  be  duly  executed."  Alexander  H.  Stephens,  in  his  "Con- 
stitutional View  of  the  War  Between  the  States,"  says:  "The 
effect  of  these  proclamations  of  Lincoln  was,  in  less  than  thirty 
days,  to  drive  the  inner  tier  of  the  four  border  states,  so-called, 
from  the  old  into  the  new  Confederacy."  Virginia  seceded  on 
April  17,  Arkansas  on  May  6,  North  Carolina  on  May  20,  and  Ten- 
nessee on  June  8,  all  becoming  members  of  the  Confederacy  in  due 
form.  In  addition  to  these  eleven  states  the  Confederate  govern- 
ment recognized  Missouri  as  a  member  of  the  Confederac.y,  and 
also  extended  recognition  to  the  revolutionary  government  in  Ken- 
tucky, though  neither  of  the  two  states  ever  ratified  an  ordinance 
of  secession. 

Soon  after  the  inauguration  of  ]Mr.  Davis  as  president  of  the 
Confederate  States,  three  commissioners — John  Forsyth  of  Ala- 
bama, Martin  J.  Crawford  of  Georgia,  and  Andre  B.  Roman  of 
Louisiana — were  sent  to  Washington,  "for  the  pui'pose  of  nego- 
tiating friendly  relations  between  that  government  (the  United 
States),,  and  the  Confederate  States  of  America,  and  for  the  set- 
tlement of  all  questions  of  disagreement  between  the  two  govern- 


LOUISIANA  249 

ments,  upon  principles  of  right,  justice,  equity  and  good  faith." 
Another  commission,  consisting  of  William  L.  Yancey  of  Alabama, 
A.  Dudley  Mann  of  Virginia,  and  A.  P.  Rost  of  Louisiana,  was  sent 
to  Europe  "to  present  the  Confederate  cause  and  position  to  Eng- 
land and  France,  with  a  view  of  opening  negotiations  with  those 
powers."  The  peace  commissioners  visited  "Washington,  according 
to  their  instructions,  but  William  H.  Seward,  secretary  of  state  in 
Lincoln's  cabinet,  refused  to  grant  them  an  interview  or  to  an- 
swer any  communication  from  them.  Tlie  European  commission 
also  failed  to  accomplish  its  purpose  and  in  the  fall  of  1861  John 
Slidell  (q.  v.)  of  Louisiana  and  James  M.  Mason  of  Virginia  were 
sent  as  commissioners  to  Europe,  but  were  arrested  and  taken 
from  the  British  mail  steamer  Trent  by  a  U.  S.  war  vessel.  The 
government  of  the  C'onfederate  States  of  America  ceased  to  exist 
in  the  spring  of  1865,  and  after  a  long,  tedious,  and  in  many  in- 
stances unjust,  process  of  "reconstruction,"  the  states  Avere  read- 
mitted into  the  Federal  Union. 

Confiscation. — In  1863  the  Federal  government  adopted  the  pol- 
icy of  confiscating  the  property  of  those  who  had  been  active  in  the 
establishment  or  support  of  the  Confederacy.  Concerning  the  re- 
sults of  this  policy  in  Louisiana,  especially  in  the  city  of  New  Or- 
leans, a  report  made  in  the  early  part  of  1865  says:  "The  govern- 
ment has  in  fact  made  very  little  by  its  confiscations  of  1863-64. 
The  defaulting  quartermaster  here  turned  over  $75  as  the  total  net 
proceeds  of  the  sales  of  all  the  splendid  Paris-made  furniture,  gold 
and  silver  plate,  and  an  infinitude  of  valuable  things  which  Avere 
taken  from  the  houses  of  rich  absentees  and  registered  enemies  of 
New  Orleans;  and  Judge  Durell  of  the  United  States  district  court 
says  that  the  net  proceeds  of  the  confiscation  sales  of  the  property 
adjudged  to  the  United  States  in  his  court  will  not  exceed  $100,- 
000.  This  includes  s\ich  properties  as  the  800  valuable  city  lots  of 
John  Slidell,  with  many  a  splendid  store  and  family  residence  upon 
them.  Harpies,  who  have  done  nothing  bi;t  make  money  out  of 
both  parties  during  the  war,  profit  by  confiscation,  the  govern- 
ment does  not." 

Throughout  the  state  a  large  number  of  plantations  were  held  by 
the  Freedmen's  bureau  as  liable  to  confiscation,  biit  in  the  end  most 
of  them  were  returned  to  their  rightful  owners.  Among  these 
plantations  were  some  of  the  finest  sugar  estates  in  the  country, 
and  when  their  owners  recovered  possession  of  them  after  the  war 
they  were  found  to  be  in  a  sorry  condition.  Levee  protection  had 
been  neglected,  buildings  and  otlier  improvements  wantonly  de- 
stroyed, and  once  fertile  fields  were  overrun  with  weeds  and  shrub- 
bery.    Such  is  the  curse  of  war. 

Congregational  Church. — (See  Protestant  Churches.) 

Congressional  Districts. — 1st  District,  City  of  New  Orleans,  3-4-5- 
6-7-8-9  and  15th  wards,  parishes  of  Plaquemines  and  St.  Bernard; 
population  (1910)  203,120.  2nd  District,  City  of  New  Orleans,  1-2- 
10-11-12-13-14-16  and  17th  wards,  parishes  of  St.  Charles,  St. 
James  and  St.  John;  population  (1910)  220,557.    3rd  District,  Par- 


250  LOUISIANA 

ishes  of  Assumption,  Iberia,  Lafourche,  St.  ilartin,  St.  Mary,  Terre- 
bonne and  Vermilion;  population  (1910)  234,382.  4th  District, 
Parishes  of  Bienville,  Bossier,  Caddo,  Claiborne,  DeSoto,  Red 
River  and  Webster;  population  185,041.  5th  District,  Parishes  of 
Caldwell,  Catahoula,  Concordia,  E.  Carroll,  Franklin,  Jackson, 
Lincoln,  Madison,  IMoorehouse,  Ouachita,  Tensas,  Union  and  W. 
Carroll;  population  (1910)  204,036.  6th  District,  Parishes  of  As- 
cension, E.  Baton  Rouge,  E.  Feliciana,  Iberville,  Livingston,  Pt. 
Coupee,  St.  Helena,  St.  Tammany,  Tangipahoa,  Washington,  W. 
Baton  Rouge  and  W.  Feliciana;  population  (1910)  247,612.  7th 
District,  Parishes  of  Acadia,  Allen,  Beauregard,  Calcasieu,  Cam 
eron,  Evangeline,  Jetf  Davis  and  St.  Landry ;  population  165,- 
563.  Stli  District,  Parishes  of  Avoyelles,  Grant,  La  Salle,  Natchi- 
toches, Rapides,  Sabine,  Vernon  and  Winn;  population  196,077. 

Congressional  Representation. — The  following  list  contains  the 
names  of  senators  and  representatives  who  have  served  the 
state  of  Louisiana  in  the  Congress  of  tlie  United  States.  During 
the  Civil  war  the  state  was  without  representation  in  the  3Sth  and 
39th  Congresses,  and  had  only  a  partial  representation  in  the  37th. 
(See  Confederate  Congress.)  The  figures  after  each  name  give 
the  number  of  the  Congress  or  Congresses  of  which  the  senator 
or  representative  was  a  member. 

Senators. — Barrow,  Alexander,  27,  28,  29;  Benjamin,  Judah  P., 

33,  34,  35,  36:  Blanchard,  Ne\vtou  C,  53,  54;  Bouligny.  Dominique, 
18,  19,  20;  Brown,  James,  12,  13,  14,  16,  17,  IS;  Caffery,  Douelson, 
52,  53,  54,  55,  56;  Claiborne,  William  Charles  Cole,  (died  before 
taking  his  seat),  15;  Conrad,  Charles  M.,  27,  31;  Destrehau,  Jean 
Noel,  (resigned  before  taking  his  seat),  12;  Downs,  Solomon  W., 
30,  31,  32 ;  Eustis,  James  B.,  45,  49.  50,  51 ;  Foster,  Murphy  J.,  57, 
58,  59,  60;  Fromentin,  Eligius,  13,  14,  15;  Gayarre,  Charles  E.  A., 
(resigned  before  taking  his  seat),  24;  Gibson.  Randall  Lee,  48,  49, 
50,  51,  52 ;  Harris,  John  S.,  40,  41  ;  Johnson,  Henrv,  15,  16,  17,  18, 
28,  29.  30 ;  Johnston,  Josiah  Stoddard,  IS,  19,  20,  21,  22,  23 ;  Jonas, 
Benjamin  F.,  46,  47,  48;  Kellogg,  William  Pitt,  40,  41,  42,  45,  46, 
47;  Livingston,  Edward,  21,  22;  ]\[cEnerv,  Samuel  Douglas,  55, 
56,  57,  58,  59,  60;  Magruder,  Allan  B.,  12;  Jlouton,  Alexander,  24, 
25,  26,  27;  Nicholas.  Robert  Carter,  24,  25,  26;  Porter,  Alexander, 
23,  24,  28 ;  Posey,  Thomas,  12 ;  Ransdell,  J.  E.,  63 ;  Slidell,  John,  33. 

34,  35,  36;  Soule,  Pierre,  29,  31,  32,  33;  Thornton,  J.  R.,  62,  63: 
Waggaman.  George  A.,  22,  23;  West,  J.  Rodman,  42,  43,  44;  White, 
Edward  Douglas,  52,  53. 

Representatives. — Acklen,  Joseph  Hayes,  45,  46;  Aswell,  J.  B.,  63; 
Baircl,  Samuel  T..  55,  56;  Blacklmrn.  William  Jasper,  40;  Blanchard. 
Newton  C,  47,  48,  49,  50,  51.  52,  53 ;  Boarman,  Aleck,  42 ;  Boatner, 
Charles  J.,  51,  52,  53.  54;  Bouligny,  John  Edmund,  36;  Bossier, 
Pierre  Evariste,  28;  Breazeale.  Phanor,  56,  57,  58;  Brent,  William 
I.,  18,  19,  20:  Broussard,  Robert  F.,  55,  56.  57.  58.  59,  60,  61,  62,  63; 
Buck,  Charles  F.,  54;  Bullard,  Henry  Adams.  22.  23,  31;  Butler, 
Tliomas.  15,  16;  Chinn.  Thomas  W.,  26;  Coleman.  Hamilton  Dudley, 
5]  ;  Darrall.  C.  B.,  41,  42,  43.  44,  45,  47 ;  Davey.  Robert  Charles,  53, 


LOUISIANA  251 

55.  57,  58,  59,  60;  Davidson,  Thomas  G.,  34,  35,  36;  Dawson,  John 
B.,'  27,  28 ;  Dunbar,  William,  33 ;  Dupre,  H.  G.,  62,  63 ;  Elam,  Joseph 
B.,  45,  46 ;  Elder,  Walter,  63 ;  Ellis,  E.  John,  44,  45,  46,  47,  48 ;  Es- 
topinal,  Albert,  60,  61,  62,  63;  Eustis,  George,  Jr.,  34,  35; 
Favrot,  G.  K.,  60;  Flanders,  Benjamin  F.,  37;  Garland,  Rice,  23, 
24,  25,  26;  Gay,  Edward  J.,  49,  50,  51;  Gibson,  Randall  Lee,  44, 
45,  46,  47;  Gilinore,  S.  C,  61;  Gurley,  Henry  H.,  18,  19,  20,  21; 
Hahn,  Michael,  37,  49;  Harmanson,  John  H.,  29,  30,  31;  Hunt,  Car- 
leton,  48;  Hunt,  Theodore  G.,  33;  Irion,  Alfred  Briggs,  49;  John- 
son, Henry,  23,  24,  25 ;  Johnston,  Josiah  Stoddard,  17 ;  Jones,  Ro- 
land, 33 ;  Kellogg,  William  Pitt,  48 ;  King,  J.  Floyd,  46,  47,  48,  49 ; 
Labranehe,  Alcee,  28;  Lagan,  Matthew  D.,  50,  52;  Landry,  J.  Aris- 
tide,  32;  Landrum,  John  M.,  36;  La  Sere,  Emile,  29,  30,  31;  Lazaro, 
Ladislas,  63;  Leonard,  John  Edwards,  45;  Levy,  William  M.,  44; 
Lewis,  Edward  Taylor,  48;  Livingston,  Edward,  18,  19,  20;  Me- 
Clearv,  James,  42 ;  Mann,  James,  40 ;  Meyer,  Adolph,  52,  53,  54, 
55,  56,  57,  58,  59,  60;  Moore,  John,  26,  27,  32;  Morey,  Frank,  41, 
42,  43,  44;  Morgan,  L.  I.,  62,  63;  Morse,  Isaac  Edward,  28,  29, 
30,    31 ;     Nash,    Charles    E.,    44 ;    Newsham,     Joseph     Parkinson, 

40,  41;  Newton,  Cherubusco,  50;  Ogden,  Henry  W.,  53,  54, 
55;  Overton,  Walter  H.,  21;  Penn,  Alexander  G.,  31,  32;  Perkins, 
John,  Jr.,  33;  Price,  Andrew,  51,  52,  53,  54;  Pujo,  Arsene  P.,  58, 
59,  60,  61;  Ransdell,  Joseph  Eugene,  56,  57,  58,  59,  60,  61,  62; 
Ril>ley,  Eleaser  W.,  24,  25 ;  Robertson,  Edward  White,  45,  46,  47, 
50;  Robertson,  Samuel  Mathews,  50,  51,  52,  53,  54,  55,  56,  57,  58, 
59,  60;  Robertson,  Thomas  Boiling,  12,  13,  14,  15;  St.  Martin, 
Louis,  32,  49;  Sandidge,  John  M.,  34,  35;  Sheldon,  Lionel  A.,  41, 
42,  43;  Sheridan,  George  A.,  43;  Slidell,  John,  28,  29;  Smith, 
George   L.,   43;   Spencer,   William   B.,   44;   Sypher,   Jav  Hale,   40, 

41,  42,  43;  Taylor,  Miles,  34,  35,  36;  Thibodeaux,  Bannori  G.,  29,  30; 
Thomas,  Philemon,  22,  23;  Vidal  Michael,  40;  Wallace,  Nathaniel 
Dick,  49 ;  Watkins,  John  T.,  59,  60,  61,  62,  63 ;  White,  Edward  D.,  21, 
22,  23,  26,  27 ;  Wickliffe,  Robert  C,  61 ;  Wilkinson,  Theodore  Stark, 
50,  51. 

Connelly,  a  post-village  in  the  northern  part  of  Bienville  parish, 
is  a  station  on  the  Vieksburg,  Shreveport  &  Pacific  R.  R.,  about  3 
miles  east  of  Gibsland. 

Conrad,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  northwestern  part  of  Natchitoches 
parish,  is  about  3  miles  west  of  Black  lake  and  2  miles  northeast 
of  Grappes  Bluff,  the  nearest  railroad  station. 

Conrad,  Charles  M.,  U.  S.  senator  from  Louisiana,  was  born  at 
"Winchester,  Va.,  about  1804.  While  still  young  he  moved  with  his 
family  to  Mississippi  and  later  to  Louisiana.  He  studied  law;  was 
admitted  to  the  bar;  commenced  practice  in  New  Orleans;  entered 
politics,  and  was  a  member  of  the  state  house  of  representatives 
for  a  number  of  years  before  he  was  elected  U.  S.  senator  from 
Louisiana,  as  a  Whig,  in  place  of  Alexander  Mouton,  resigned, 
serving  from  April  14,  1842,  to  March  3,  1843.  In  1844  he  was  sent 
as  a  delegate  to  the  state  constitutional  convention,  and  elected 
representative  from  Louisiana  to  the  31st  Congress,    as    a    Whig, 


252  LOUISLINA 

serviug  from  Dec.  3,  1849,  to  Aug.  17,  1850,  when  he  resigned. 
President  Fillmore  appointed  him  secretary  of  war  and  he  acted 
in  this  capacity  from  Aug.  13,  1850,  to  ]\Iarch  7,  1853.  He  was  a 
delegate  from  Louisiana  to  the  ^Montgomery  Provisional  Confed- 
erate Congress  of  1861,  and  representative  from  Louisiana  in  the 
1st  and  2nd  Confederate  Congresses,  1862-64.  He  died  at  New  Or- 
leans, La.,  Feh.  12,  1878. 

Consolidated  Bonds. — (See  Finances,  State.) 

Constitutional  Commission. — The  general  assembly  of  1892  au- 
thorized the  appointment  of  a  commission  to  consider  measures  in- 
volving amendments  to  the  constitution  of  the  state.  The  commis- 
sion was  made  iip  as  follows:  2  members  of  the  state  senate,  to 
be  appointed  by  the  lieutenant-governor;  3  members  of  the  house 
of  representatives,  to  be  appointed  by  the  speaker ;  and  2  citizens 
of  the  state  to  be  appointed  by  the  governor,  in  July,  1893,  but  the 
organization  was  not  completed  until  Jan.  3,  1894.  When  the  leg- 
islature met  on  ^fay  fi  of  that  year  the  commission  made  its  re- 
port, recommending  the  following  amendments : 

1.  To  provide  that  every  voter  should  be  able  to  read  the  con- 
stitution in  his  mother  tongue,  or  to  be  possessed  of  taxable  prop- 
erty to  the  amount  of  .^200.  and  to  have  paid  his  poll  tax.  the  edu- 
cational or  property  cjualification  being  alternative. 

2.  To  provide  for  an  increase  in  the  amount  of  revenue  to  be 
devoted  to  the  public  schools ;  removal  of  the  restrictions  as  to  the 
amount  to  be  appropriated  for  the  salaries  of  state  and  parish 
superintendents  of  schools;  to  provide  for  local  taxation  for  school 
purposes,  and  for  the  pa.yment  of  the  interest  of  the  seminary  fund 
out  of  the  general  instead  of  the  public  school  fund. 

3.  A  revision  of  the  law  requiring  six  courts  of  appeals  with 
12  judges,  so  that  there  should  be  but  two  circuits  in  the  state  with 
3  judges  in  each,  the  maximum  limit  of  these  courts  to  be  $3,000. 
The  judges  of  the  new  coiu'ts  to  be  elected  by  the  people  in  1900, 
the  6  judges  of  the  present  courts  whose  terms  did  not  expire  until 
1900  to  preside  over  the  new  courts  until  their  successors  were 
elected. 

4.  To  vest  in  the  supreme  court  jurisdiction  over  "all  cases 
arising  under  the  constitution,  treaties,  and  laws  of  the  L'nited 
States,  or  imder  the  constitution  of  the  state,  or  in  which  the  le- 
gality of  costs,  fees,  charges,  or  allowances  shall  be  in  dispute, 
whatsoever  may  be  the  amount  thereof."  This  amendment  also 
gave  the  supreme  court  original  jurisdiction  in  proceedings  to  dis- 
bar attorneys  for  unprofessional  conduct,  and  allowed  the  legis- 
lature to  lix  the  qualifications  of  justices  of  the  peace,  whose  juris- 
diction was  to  be  extended  to  cases  involving  $200,  exclusive  of 
interest. 

5.  To  make  it  mandatory  on  the  legislature  to  provide  for  the 
trial  of  offenses  below  the  grade  of  felony  by  a  jury  of  6  persons, 
or  by  the  eoiirt  at  any  regular  or  special  term,  and  to  permit  the 
general  assembly  to  provide,  by  suitable  legislation,  that  a  verdict 


LOUISIANA  253 

in  both  civil  and  criminal  cases  might  be  rendered  by  a  majority 
of  the  jurors. 

6.  To  enable  the  people  of  any  parish  or  municipality  to  levy 
taxes  for  public  improvements  whenever  a  majority  of  the  legal 
voters  of  siich  parish  or  municipality  declare  in  favor  of  such  tax- 
ation. This  amendment  also  authorized  the  people,  under  proper 
protection,  to  extend  aid  to  siieh  enterprises  as  would  promote  the 
general  welfare. 

7.  Providing  90  working  days  for  the  general  assembly  in  1896, 
and  60  days  at  each  session  thereafter ;  also  enabling  the  assembly 
to  enact  revisions  of  the  codes  or  general  statutes  without  having 
them  read  in  full  in  each  house. 

8.  Giving  the  legislature  power  to  provide  by  law  for  pensions 
to  veterans  of  the  Confederate  army,  and  to  include  such  pensions 
in  the  objects  for  which  the  state  might  exercise  its  taxing  power. 

Other  amendments  proposed  by  the  commission  provided  for  the 
suspension  of  accused  public  ofBcials,  pending  trial;  the  abolition 
of  the  penitentiary  lease  system ;  the  simplification  of  the  home- 
stead and  exemption  laws;  the  abrogation  of  the  paragraph  of  the 
constitution  limiting  the  expenditures  of  the  bureau  of  agriculture ; 
permitting  city  elections  to  be  held  on  different  days  from  the 
state  elections;  and  removing  the  restriction  which  confined  the 
contracts  for  state  printing  to  residents  of  the  state.  When  the 
report  of  the  commission  was  presented  to  the  legislature,  a  biU 
was  at  once  introduced  providing  for  a  constitutional  convention, 
but  it  was  voted  down  and  the  report,  after  some  minor  changes, 
was  adopted.  The  amendments  were  submitted  to  the  people  at 
the  next  state  election  and  were  all  rejected.  The  defeat  of  these 
amendments  paved  the  way  for  the  constitutional  convention  of 
1898. 

Constitutional  Convention  of  1811. — The  enabling  act  passed  by 
Congress,  Feb.  20,  1811,  authorized  the  inhabitants  of  Orleans  ter- 
ritory to  form  a  constitution  and  state  government  preparatory 
to  admission  into  the  Union;  to  select  such  name  as  they  might 
deem  proper ;  and  to  elect  delegates,  not  to  exceed  60  in  number, 
on  the  third  ]\Ionday  of  Sept.,  1811,  who  were  to  meet  in  conven 
tion  at  New  Orleans  on  the  first  ilonday  in  November.  The  first 
business  of  the  convention  was  to  determine  whether  it  was  expe- 
dient or  not  to  form  a  constitution  and  state  government  for  the 
people  within  the  said  territory.  The  act  further  provided  that 
the  state  should  be  republican  in  form  and  the  constitution  should 
not  be  repugnant  to  the  laws  and  constitution  of  the  United 
States.  The  people  were  required  to  disclaim  title  to  the  unappro- 
priated and  waste  lands  within  the  limits  of  the  proposed  state,  and 
the  same  were  to  remain  entirely  under  the  control  of  the  United 
States ;  lands  sold  by  Congress  were  to  be  exempt  from  taxation 
for  a  period  of  5  years  after  sale ;  lands  belonging  to  nonresident 
citizens  of  the  United  States  were  never  to  be  taxed  higher  than  the 
lands  of  residents ;  no  taxes  were  to  be  imposed  on  lands  the  prop- 
erty of  the  United  States;  "and  the  river  Mississippi  and  the  navi- 


254  LOUISLVNA 

gable  rivers  and  waters  leading  into  the  same  or  into  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  shall  be  eoiiuiiou  highways  and  forever  free,  as  well  to  the 
inhabitants  of  the  said  state  as  to  other  citizens  of  the  United 
States,  without  any  tax,  duty,  impost  or  toll  therefor,  imposed  by 
the  said  state."  Wlu'uever  the  convention  should  assent  to  the 
requirements  of  the  United  States;  when  a  copy  of  the  constitution 
and  the  proceedings  should  be  sent  to  Congress,  and  when  the 
proceedings  of  the  convention  should  be  approved  by  the  latter 
body,  the  state,  it  was  announced,  would  be  duly  admitted  to  the 
Union.  In  aid  of  the  state.  Congress  provided  by  the  same  act,  that 
five  per  cent,  of  the  net  proceeds  arising  from  the  sales  of  the  lands 
of  the  United  States,  after  Jan.  1,  1811,  "shall  be  applied  to  laying 
out  and  constructing  such  public  roads  and  levees  in  said  state  as 
the  legislature  thereof  may  direct." 

Though  the  region  forming  the  province  of  West  Florida  had 
been  taken  possession  of  by  the  United  States  and  made  a  part  of 
the  Territory  of  Orleans  in  1810,  Congress  had  not  seen  fit  to  in- 
clude that  province  in  the  boundaries  of  the  proposed  .state.  Conse- 
quently, delegates  to  the  constitutional  convention  were  chosen 
only  from  the  12  counties  into  which  the  territory  was  then  divided. 
The  following  delegates  were  elected  to  frame  the  first  constitution 
of  the  state :  Julien  Poydras,  president.  From  the  county  of  Or- 
leans, J.  D.  de  Goutin,  Bellechasse,  J.  Blanque,  F.  J.  Le  Breton, 
D'Orgenois,  ilagloire  Guiehard,  S.  Henderson,  Denis  de  La  Ronde, 
F.  Livaudais,  Bernard  JIarigny,  Thomas  Urquhart,  Jacques  Vil- 
lere,  John  Watkius,  Samuel  Winter.  From  the  county  of  German 
Coast,  James  Brown,  Jean  Noel  Destrehan,  Alexandre  La  Branche. 
From  the  county  of  Acadia,  IMichel  Cantrelle,  J.  ^I.  Reynaud,  6. 
Roussin.  From  the  county  of  Iberville,  Aman  Hebert,  William 
Wikoff,  Jr.  From  the  county  of  Natchitoches,  P.  Boissier,  J.  Prud- 
homme.  From  the  county  of  Lafourche,  William  Goforth,  B.  H\ib- 
bard,  Jr.,  St.  IMartin,  H.  S.  Thibodaux.  From  the  county  of  Pointe 
Coupee,  S.  Hiriart.  From  the  county  of  Rapides,  R.  ILall,  Thomas 
F.  Oliver,  Levi  Wells.  From  the  county  of  Concordia,  James  Dun- 
lap.  David  B.  Morgan.  From  the  county  of  Ouacliita,  Henry  Bry. 
From  tlie  county  of  Opeloiisas,  Allan  B.  ^Lagruder,  D.  J.  Sutton, 
Jolui  Thompson.  From  the  county  of  Attakapas,  Louis  De  Blanc, 
Henry  Johnson,  W.  C.  I\Iaquille,  Charles  Olivier,  Alexander  Porter. 

This  convention  assembled  in  New  Orleans  Nov.  4,  1811,  and 
after  the  election  of  F.  J.  Le  Breton  D'Orgenois  as  temporary 
chairman,  it  adjourned  to  Nov.  18.  When  it  reassembled  on  that 
date  it  effected  a  permanent  organization  by  the  choice  of  Julien 
Poydras,  the  territorial  delegate  to  Congress,  as  president,  and 
Eligius  Fromentin  secretary.  Mr.  Watkins  introduced  the  resolu- 
tion looking  to  the  formation  of  a  state  government,  wliich  Avas  at 
once  emphatically  opposed  by  such  able  delegates  as  Destrehan, 
]\Iorgan,  Porter  and  Hubbard,  but  the  final  vote  showed  a  large 
majority  in  its  favor,  only  7  negative  votes  being  recorded.  A 
committee  of  7 — Destrehan,  Magruder,  Brown,  Cantrell,  Johnson, 
Blanque  and  Bry — was  then  appointed  to  prepare  a  draft  of  a  con- 


LOUISIANA  255 

stitution.  Six  days  later  the  committee  submitted  its  draft,  which 
was  long  and  ably  debated.  The  name  of  Louisiana  was  given  to 
the  new  state,  though  Jeti'erson  and  other  names  were  suggested. 
One  of  the  knotty  problems  which  occupied  the  time  of  the  conven- 
tion was  whether  West  Florida  should  constitute  a  part  of  the 
state.  Finally  all  the  conditions  exacted  by  Congress  were  com- 
plied with,  the  constitution  was  approved  and  adopted  on  Jan.  22, 
1812,  and  it  was  voted  to  send  2  delegates — Fromentin  and  Ma- 
gruder — with  all  the  proceedings  to  lay  the  same  before  Congress 
for  ratification.  Having  completed  its  work  the  convention  ad- 
journed without  day  on  .Jan.  28,  1812,  after  a  long  drawn  out  ses- 
sion of  over  2  months. 

The  act  of  Congress,  appi-oved  April  8,  1812,  admitted  Louisiana 
to  statehood,  but  it  was  not  to  go  into  eifeet  until  April  30,  the  9th 
anniversary  of  the  treaty  of  cession.  Meanwhile,  by  act  of  Con- 
gress, approved  April  14,  1812,  a  formal  tender  was  made  to  the 
new  state  of  all  that  portion  of  West  Florida  lying  west  of  the 
Pearl  river.  This  enlargement  of  the  state  was  promptly  accepted 
by  the  first  state  legislature  under  the  following  resolution,  adopted 
Avig.  4,  1812:  "Be  it  therefore  resolved,  that  the  senate  and  house 
of  representatives  of  the  State  of  Louisiana  in  general  assembly 
convened,  do  approve  of  and  consent  to  the  enlargement  of  the 
limits  of  the  said  state  of  Louisiana  in  manner  as  provided  by  the 
above  in  part  recited  act  of  Congress,  hereby  declaring  that  the 
same  shall  forever  be  and  remain  part  of  the  State  of  Louisiana." 

Constitutional  Convention  of  1845. — Louisiana  had  outgrown  her 
organic  law  adopted  at  the  time  of  her  admission  to  the  Union  in 
1812,  and  the  demand  of  the  people  for  a  more  democratic  instru- 
ment had  grown  too  insistent  to  be  longer  disregarded.  The  ques- 
tion of  holding  a  constitutional  convention  for  the  revision  of  the 
constitution  came  before  the  people  at  the  general  election  of  1842 
and  an  overwhelming  majority  was  registered  in  favor  of  the  prop- 
osition. In  accordance  with  the  will  of  the  people  the  legislature 
of  1844  ordered  that  an  election  be  held  in  July  for  the  selection 
of  77  delegates  to  a  state  constitutional  convention.  The  delegates 
chosen  met  in  convention  at  Jackson,  Aug.  5,  1844;  on  Aug.  24, 
1844,  the  convention  adjourned  to  meet  in  New  Orleans  on  Jan. 
14,  1845. 

Bernard  Marigny  served  as  temporary  chairman  of  the  conven- 
tion, while  a  permanent  organization  was  effected  by  the  choice  of 
Joseph  Walker,  of  Rapides,  as  president,  and  Horatio  Davis  as 
secretary.  Among  the  distinguisljed  members  of  the  convention 
were  the  following :  Ex-Gov.  A.  B.  Roman,  John  R.  Grymes,  Felix 
Garcia,  Duncan  F.  Kenner,  Joseph  Walker,  Pierre  Soule,  Bernard 
Marigny,  George  Eustis,  Christian  Roselius,  William  C.  C.  Clai- 
borne, C.  M.  Conrad,  Judah  P.  Benjamin,  Antoine  Boudousquie, 
Isaac  T.  Preston,  and  Thomas  H.  Lewis.     (See  Fortier's  Louisiana.) 

The  constitution  as  evolved  had  a  number  of  serious  defects,  but 
was  on  the  whole  a  distinct  improvement  over  the  one  adopted  in 
1812.     Besides  creating  the  office  of  lieutenant-governor,  the  con- 


256  LOUISL\NA 

vention  widened  the  elective  franchise,  changed  the  time  of  holding 
elections,  requiring  elections  to  be  held  throughout  the  state  on 
the  same  day,  changed  and  greatly  simplified  the  judicial  system, 
provided  for  free  public  scliools,  a  seminary  of  learning,  a  state 
university,  and  a  state  superintendent  of  education,  showed  its 
distrust  of  the  legislature  in  a  number  of  important  particulars, 
particularly  in  the  manner  of  pledging  the  faith  of  the  state  for 
the  payment  of  obligations,  and  in  the  matters  of  state  indebted- 
ness, stock  subscriptions,  divorces,  lotteries,  etc.  An  effort  was 
made  in  the  convention  to  limit  the  choice  of  governor  to  native 
born  Americans,  but  the  attempt  was  frustrated  after  a  brilliant 
debate.  Says  J.  D.  B.  De  Bow  (Fortier's  His.  of  La.,  vol.  3,  p.  234)  : 
"Great  and  strenuoiis  exertions  were  made  in  the  convention  to 
apply  the  native  American  qualification,  and  thus  exclude  from 
this  high  office  whoever  may  have  had  the  raisfortime  not  to  have 
been  born  among  us.  This,  we  think,  is  carrying  proscription  en- 
tirely too  far,  and  we  rather  agree  in  the  main  with  those  eloquent 
gentlemen  who  battled  against  the  attempted  innovation,  and  so 
triumphantly  demonstrated  its  unjust  and  injurious  tendencies. 
Amongst  these  most  conspicuously  .stood  Mr.  Soule,  the  gifted  ad- 
vocate, and  ]\Ir.  ilarigny.  These  gentlemen  might  have  been  con- 
sidered the  advocates  of  the  French  interests  of  Louisiana,  and 
standing,  as  it  were,  intermediate  between  the  order  of  things 
which  belonged  to  the  State  in  earlier  days,  and  the  new  one  which 
has  been  coming  upon  her.  We  can  appreciate  the  delicacy  of  their 
position  in  the  Convention  during  such  a  discussion  as  this,  and 
admire  the  skill,  ability,  and  patriotism  with  which  they  conducted 

themselves The  native  American  exclusiveness  was  thrown 

out  of  convention,  and  we  consider  it  dead  in  Louisiana." 

The  convention  finally  adopted  a  constitution  on  May  14,  ad- 
journed without  day  on  the  16th,  and  the  new  instrument  was  duly 
ratified  by  the  people  of  the  state  at  the  succeeding  election. 

Constitutional  Convention  of  1852. — Despite  the  advance  made 
toward  tlie  adoption  of  more  democratic  institutions  by  the  consti- 
tution of  1845,  a  demand  speedily  arose  for  a  new  instrument  which 
would  further  satisfy  tlie  radical  views  of  government  prevailing 
among  the  masses.  Joseph  M.  Walker,  inaugurated  governor  of 
the  state  in  1850,  had  been  rash  enough  to  recommend  in  liis  inau- 
gural message  an  amendment  to  the  constitution  making  the  ofiSces 
of  all  the  judges  of  the  state  elective,  but  he  was  strongly  opposed 
to  the  calling  of  a  constitutional  convention.  The  advocates  of  a 
more  radical  change  in  the  organic  law  prevailed,  and  the  consti- 
tution duly  assembled  in  Baton  Kouge  on  July  5,  1852.  Its  delib- 
erations were  presided  over  by  Duncan  F.  Keuner,  and  the  record 
of  its  proceedings  were  kept  by  Secretary  J.  B.  Walton.  The  con- 
vention appears  to  have  performed  its  work  with  diligence  and  dis- 
patch, as  its  labors  were  conchided  on  July  31.  The  instrument 
evolved  was  a  radical  one  for  that  day,  biit  contained  many  excel- 
lent provisions,  such  as  the  safeguarding  of  the  public  school  funds, 
the  creation  of  a  Board  of  Public  Works,  the  limitation  of  sessions 


LOUISIANA  257 

of  the  legislature  to  60  days,  and  the  popular  election  of  the  im- 
poi'tant  state  officers,  the  secretary  of  state  and  the  treasurer.  On 
the  other  hand,  all  the  judicial  offices  throughout  the  state  were 
made  elective,  the  debt  limit  of  the  state  was  increased  from  $100,- 
000  to  $8,000,000  and  the  legislature  was  once  more  authorized  to 
create  banks  by  special  act  or  under  general  law.  (See  Constitu- 
tion of  1852.) 

Constitutional  Convention  of  1864. — Early  in  1863  the  important 
questions  of  reorganizing  the  state  government,  and  providing  for 
the  recently  emancipated  negroes  began  to  be  agitated.  Two  fac- 
tions arose  within  the  state,  one  advocating  the  election  of  new 
state  officers  under  the  old  constitution  amended  to  meet  the 
changed  conditions,  and  the  other,  called  the  Free  State  general 
committee,  declaring  that  the  old  order  of  affairs  had  been  wiped 
out  by  the  secession  of  the  state,  that  a  convention  should  be  sum- 
moned to  frame  a  new  constitution,  and  that  the  state  government 
should  be  wholly  reorganized  after  the  adoption  of  an  entirely  new 
constitution.  A  petition  sent  to  Washington  to  have  the  old  con- 
stitution recognized  was  considered,  but  President  Lincoln  avoided 
making  any  decision.  Gov.  Shepley  favored  the  views  of  the  Free 
State  committee,  while  Gen.  Banks  practically  recognized  the  old 
constitutional  party  by  ordering  an  election  of  state  officers  on 
Feb.  22,  1864.  Michael  Hahn,  the  Banks  candidate,  received  a  large 
majority  over  Benj.  F.  Flanders,  nominated  by  the  Free  State 
party,  and  J.  Q.  A.  Fellows,  who  ran  on  a  ticket  favoring  "the  Con- 
stitution and  the  Union,  with  the  preservation  of  the  rights  of  all 
inviolate."  Meanwhile,  Gen.  H.  W.  Allen  was  elected  Confederate 
governor  of  Louisiana,  and  was  duly  inaugurated  on  Jan.  25,  1864. 
Thus  the  state  was  blessed  with  2  governors,  a  Confederate  in  the 
north,  and  a  Federal  in  the  south. 

Immediately  succeeding  the  inauguration  of  Gov.  Hahn  on 
March  4,  1864,  Gen.  Banks  ordered  an  election  for  March  28  of 
delegates  to  a  convention  to  revise  the  old  constitution ;  this  order 
was  sanctioned  by  Gov.  Hahn,  who  had  been  invested  with  the 
powers  of  the  military  governor,  and  who  was  in  need  of  military 
assistance.  A  total  of  97  delegates  were  chosen  at  the  election,  of-, 
whom  2  were  rejected  by  the  committee  on  credentials.  The  right 
to  vote  at  this  election  was  thus  defined:  "Every  free  white  man, 
twenty-one  years  of  age,  who  has  been  a  resident  of  the  state 
twelve  months,  and  six  months  in  the  parish  in  which  he  offers  to 
vote,  who  is  a  citizen  of  the  United  States,  and  who  shall  have 
taken  the  oath  prescribed  by  the  president  in  his  proclamation  of 
Dec.  6,  1863,  shall  have  the  right  to  vote  in  the  election  of  dele- 
gates." The  total  vote  cast  was  6,836  in  favor  of  the  convention, 
and  1,566  against.  Under  the  circumstances  only  a  small  constitu- 
ency was  represented  in  the  convention,  and  the  delegates  only 
spoke  for  a  small  fraction  of  the  people  of  Louisiana.  Said  a  com- 
mittee of  Congress  at  a  later  date:  "Elections  were  held  only  in 
the  parishes  included  within  tlie  Federal  lines,  and  these  lines  were 
the  Teche  on  the  one  side  and  the  Amite  on  the  other,  comprehend- 
1—17 


258  LOUISIANA 

ing  the  parish  or  city  of  New  Orleans,  and  the  neighboring  parishes 
on  the  ilississippi. "  Even  late  in  1864,  three-fourths  of  the  state 
was  still  in  the  possession  of  the  Confederate  forces. 

The  eonveutiou  assembled  on  April  6,  and  the  following  day 
chose  E.  H.  Durell  as  president.  A  new  constitution  was  finally 
adopted  on  Jiily  23,  and,  after  a  session  of  78  days,  the  convention 
adjonrned  Jiily  25.  Prior  to  this  the  convention  had  adopted  a 
resolution  to  the  effect  "that  when  this  convention  adjourns,  it 
shall  be  at  the  call  of  the  president,  whose  diity  it  shall  be  to  recon- 
vene the  convention  for  any  cause,  or,  in  case  the  Constitution 
shoidd  not  be  ratitied,  for  the  purpose  of  taking  such  measures  as 
may  be  necessary  for  the  formation  of  a  civil  government  in  Louisi- 
ana. He  shall  also,  in  that  case,  call  upon  the  proper  officers  of  the 
state  to  cause  elections  to  be  held  to  fill  any  vacancies  that  may 
exist  in  the  convention,  in  parishes  where  the  same  may  be  prac- 
ticable." This  resolution  was  largely  responsible  for  the  unfor- 
tunate events  leading  \\j)  to  the  riot  of  1866  in  New  Orleans  (q.  v.). 

The  constitution  adopted  July  23  necessarily  made  many  impor- 
tant changes  in  the  former  organic  law  of  1852.  It  forever  abol- 
ished slavery  and  involuntary  servitude,  except  as  a  punishment 
for  crime,  whereof  the  party  shall  have  been  duly  convicted,  and 
the  legislature  was  prohibited  from  making  any  law  that  recog- 
nized the  right  of  property  in  man.  It  was  provided  that  the  seat 
of  government  shoiild  not  be  changed,  but  that  a  session  of  the 
legislature  should  be  held  at  New  Orleans  on  the  first  ^Monday  of 
October,  1861::  also,  that  the  special  election  for  members  of  the 
legislature  should  be  held  on  the  same  day  as  the  election  for  the 
ratification  of  the  new  constitution,  and  declared  that  "the  term  of 
office  of  the  first  general  assembly  should  expire  as  though  its 
members  had  been  elected  on  the  first  Monday  of  November,  1863." 
Everj'  qualified  voter  was  made  eligible  to  a  seat  in  th*"  assembly. 
It  directed  the  legislature,  after  making  the  eniimeration,  to  appor- 
tion the  representation  in  the  general  assembly,  which  was  to  con- 
sist of  lis  representatives  and  31  senators.  Whites  who  had  re- 
sided in  the  state  1  year,  and  in  the  parish  3  months,  were  given 
the  franchise :  and  the  legislature  could  extend  the  right  of  suffrage 
to  other  persons,  "citizens  of  the  United  States,  who  by  military 
service  by  taxation  to  support  the  government,  or  by  intellectual 
fitness,  may  be  deemed  entitled  thereto."  The  legislature  was  pro- 
hibited from  passing  any  law  "exchiding  citizens  of  this  state  from 
oflSce  for  not  being  conversant  with  any  language  except  that  in 
which  the  constitution  of  the  United  States  is  written,"  and  from 
passing  any  law  "requiring  a  property  qualification  for  office." 

Still  other  articles  provided  that  there  should  be  a  state  auditor 
of  public  accounts;  that  the  supreme  court  should  consist  of  1  chief 
justice  and  -4  associate  justices ;  that  no  judgment  should  be  ren- 
dered by  the  supreme  court  witliout  the  concurrence  of  a  majority 
of  the  judges;  that  "the  privilege  of  free  suffrage  should  be  sup- 
ported by  laws  regulating  elections  and  prohibiting  under  adequate 
penalties,  all  undue  influence  thereon  from  power,  bribery,  tumult, 


LOUISIANA  259 

or  other  improper  practises;"  that  the  right  of  the  people  against 
unreasonable  searches  and  seizures  should  not  be  violated ;  that  the 
power  of  the  legislature  to  grant  aid  to  corporations,  except  to 
charitable  and  industrial  associations,  should  be  limited;  that  the 
legislature  should  have  the  power  to  license  the  selling  of  lottery 
tickets  and  the  keeping  of  gambling  houses;  that  9  hours  should 
constitute  a  day's  labor  on  public  works;  that  there  should  be 
appointed  a  state  engineer  to  superintend  all  public  works;  that  the 
legislature  might  create  internal  improvement  districts,  and  grant 
aid  to  such  districts  out  of  the  funds  arising  from  the  sale  of  swamp 
and  overflowed  lands.  The  articles  bearing  on  education  are  inter- 
esting and  important.  The  salary  of  the  superintendent  of  educa- 
tion was  fixed  at  $4,000,  and  the  legislature  was  authorized,  iinder 
certain  circumstances,  to  abolish  the  office ;  directed  the  legislature 
to  "provide  for  the  education  of  all  cliildren  of  the  state  between 
the  ages  of  six  and  eighteen  years,  by  maintenance  of  free  public 
schools  by  taxation  or  otherwise ;"  provided  that  "the  general  exer- 
cises in  the  common  schools  shall  be  conducted  in  the  English  lan- 
guage;" that  a  university  be  established  in  New  Orleans,  to  con- 
sist of  four  faculties,  viz :  Law,  Medicine,  Natural  Sciences,  and 
Letters ;  that  the  legislature  provide  for  its  organization  and  main- 
tenance ;  (this  was  an  effort  to  put  new  life  into  the  university 
created  by  the  constitution  of  1845)  (q.  v.)  ;  that  the  old  fund  for 
the  support  of  the  Seminary  of  Learning  should  be  appropriated 
to  the  benefit  "of  literature  and  the  arts  and  sciences;"  and  that 
"no  appropriation  should  be  made  by  the  legislature  for  the  sup- 
port of  any  private  school  or  institution  of  learning,  whatever,  but 
the  highest  encouragement  should  be  granted  to  public  schools 
throughout  the  state." 

At  the  election  held  Sept.  5,  1864,  on  the  adoption  or  rejection  of 
the  constitution,  4,664  votes  were  recorded  in  its  favor,  and  789 
against.  The  legislature  chosen  at  the  same  time  in  conformity 
to  the  provisions  of  the  constitution,  assembled  at  New  Orleans 
Oct.  3,  and  its  many  startling  pieces  of  legislation  are  a  matter  of 
record    (See   Ilahn's  Administration,   etc.). 

Constitutional  Convention  of  1867. — This  convention  was  called 
under  the  Military  Reconstruction  Act  of  Congress,  adopted  in 
1S67,  and  formed  an  essential  step  in  the  Federal  program  designed 
to  free  the  Southern  states  from  the  military  authority  exercised 
under  the  reconstruction  acts,  and  to  restore  them  to  their  former 
political  standing  in  the  Union.  (See  Reconstruction.)  The  act  of 
Congress  provided  that  the  delegates  slunild  be  elected  by  the  male 
citizens  of  the  state,  21  years  old  and  upwards,  "of  whatever  race, 
color,  or  previous  condition  of  servitude,"  residents  of  the  state  for 
one  year  and  not  disfranchised.  No  person  could  be  elected  as  a 
delegate  who  was  excluded  from  office  by  the  14th  amendment. 
LTnder  a  supplemental  reconstruction  bill  passed  by  Congress, 
March  2,  1867,  the  registration  of  voters  was  provided  for  and  the 
conduct  of  the  election  of  delegates.  The  military  commandant 
of  each  district  was  to  order  the  election  of  the  delegates,  and  the 


260  ~  LOUISL\NA 

conventions  were  to  be  held  "only  when  a  majority  of  the  inscribed 
electors  voted  npon  this  question,  and  a  majority  of  those  voting 
voted  in  the  affirmative." 

The  several  constitutions  adopted  by  the  conventions  were  to 
be  submitted  to  the  registered  voters  for  ratification,  and  if  a  fa- 
vorable majority  was  secured,  copies  of  the  constitutions  were  to 
be  then  submitted  to  Congress  through  the  president  for  ratifica- 
tion and  approval.  When  approved  by  Congress,  that  body  would 
then  admit  the  senators  and  representatives  from  the  "rebel 
states." 

The  convention  met  at  New  Orleans  on  Nov.  23,  1867,  and  con- 
tiniied  in  session  until  March  9,  1868.  On  March  7  it  finally  adopted 
a  constitiition.  As  was  to  be  expected,  considering  the  character 
of  the  electorate,  a  large  majority  of  the  delegates  were  negroes. 
The  convention  chose  J.  G.  Taliaferro  to  preside  over  its  delibera- 
tions. One  of  the  provisions  of  the  reconstruction  acts  was  that  a 
tax  should  be  levied  to  meet  the  expenses  incident  to  the  conven- 
tion. Accordingly,  on  Dec.  24,  the  convention  adopted  the  ordi- 
nance providing  for  a  tax  on  property  of  one  mill  per  cent,  for  this 
purpose.  In  order  to  carry  this  plan  into  effect  it  was  found  neces- 
sary to  pass  a  supplemental  ordinance  embodying  an  elaborate 
scheme  of  taxation.  The  sheriffs  and  collectors  in  each  parish  were 
directed  to  give  notice  of  the  tax  to  the  tax-payers,  and  a  penalty 
of  25  per  cent,  additional  was  imposed  in  default  of  payment  of  the 
tax  within  30  days  after  such  notice.  The  collectors  and  sheriffs 
were  further  ordered,  in  case  of  such  default,  to  seize  and  sell  any 
movable  or  immovable  property  to  satisfy  the  special  assessment. 
A  committee  was  afterward  appointed  to  confer  with  the  military 
commander  of  the  district.  Gen.  Hancock,  for  the  purpose  of  ascer- 
taining whether  he  would  exercise  his  authority  to  assist  in  the 
collection  of  the  tax.  They  were  told  that  the  ordinance  made 
sufficient  provision  for  its  collection,  and,  if  any  of  the  officers 
intrusted  with  the  duties  pertaining  thereto  were  forcibly  resisted, 
the  "major-general  commanding  will  promptly  use  the  military 
power  to  maintain  the  supremacy  of  the  law.  To  this  extent  he  has 
authority  to  act,  but  it  is  not  his  province  to  interfere  in  the  matter 
in  any  other  way."  When  a  later  application  was  made  to  Gen. 
Hancock  through  a  special  committee  to  know  what  he  would  do  in 
case  the  civil  courts  should  interfere  with  the  collectors  in  the  dis- 
charge of  their  duties,  he  replied  that  "it  would  be  highly  improper 
for  him  to  anticipate  any  illegal  interference  of  the  courts  in  the 
matter.  Whenever  a  case  arises  for  the  interposition  of  the  powers 
vested  in  the  commanding  general  by  the  acts  of  Congress,  he  will 
promptly  exercise  them  for  the  preservation  of  law  and  order." 
The  tax  proved  difficult  of  collection,  and  the  convention  adopted 
an  ordinance  early  in  ^March,  1868,  extending  the  time  for  exacting 
the  penalty  to  the  20th  of  that  month  and  making  the  following 
interesting  provision:  "That  the  warrants  issued  by  the  authority 
of  this  convention  for  the  payment  of  per  diem  and  mileage  of 
delegates  and  the  pay  of  its  officers,  except  the  official  printer  or 


LOUISIANA  261 

printers,  shall  be  receivable  in  payment  of  all  taxes  and  licenses 
due  to  the  State  of  Louisiana,  and,  when  paid  in  the  Treasury  of 
tile  State  on  account  of  any  State  tax  or  license,  the  same  shall  bo 
placed  by  the  Treasurer  of  the  State  to  the  debit  of  the  convention 
fund  on  his  books,  and  shall  be  paid  out  of  said  fund  for  the  benefit 
of  the  general  fund  of  the  State." 

A  variety  of  propositions  were  submitted  to  the  convention 
from  time  to  time,  aimed  to  secure  certain  social  rights  to  citizens 
"without  regard  to  race  or  color,"  which  excited  prolonged  de- 
bates, and  ultimately  resulted  in  the  adoption  of  the  13th  article  of 
the  constitution  (q.  v.).  As  in  the  reconstruction  convention  of 
most  of  the  states,  the  topics  which  excited  the  most  earnest  de- 
bate were  those  connected  with  the  subjects  of  voting  and  holding 
office.  The  conservative  element  in  the  convention  opposed  all  re- 
strictions founded  on  the  part  which  citizens  had  taken  in  the  late 
war.  The  final  result  of  the  debates  was  the  adoption  of  the  pro- 
A'isions  embodied  in  articles  98  and  99,  and  containing  certain  of- 
fensive clauses  which  operated  to  effectively  disfranchise  a  large 
number  of  the  best  white  citizens  of  the  state.  The  certificate  re- 
quired of  those  citizens  who  had  been  in  sympathy  with  the  South- 
ern cause  stating  that  they  must  first  "acknowledge  the  late  rebel- 
lion to  have  been  morally  and  politically  wrong"  was  especially 
odious.     (See  Constitution  of  1868.) 

In  addition  to  the  constitution  itself,  the  convention  passed  an 
ordinance  providing  for  an  election  to  be  held  April  17  and  18, 
1868,  at  which  the  vote  was  to  be  taken  on  the  ratification  of  the 
constitution,  and  officers  were  to  be  chosen  to  administer  the  govern- 
ment under  the  same.  It  was  further  provided  that  all  officers  chos- 
en at  such  election  should  enter  upon  the  discharge  of  their  duties  on 
the  second  Monday  after  the  returns  of  their  election  were  officially 
promulgated,  or  as  soon  thereafter  as  qualified,  but  their  regular 
terms  of  office  were  to  date  from  the  first  Monday  in  November 
following  their  election.  The  same  ordinance  provided  for  the  first 
meeting  of  the  general  assembly  in  the  city  of  New  Orleans,  on  the 
third  Monday  after  the  official  promulgation  of  the  results  of  the 
election,  and  declared  that  it  shall  "proceed,  immediately  upon  its 
organization,  to  vote  upon  the  adoption  of  the  14th  amendment  to 
the  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  proposed  by  Congress,  and 
passed  June  1-3,  1866;"  and  that  "said  legislature  shall  not  have 
power  to  enact  any  laws  relative  to  the  per  diem  of  members,  or 
any  other  subject,  after  organization,  until  said  constitutional 
amendment  sliall  have  been  acted  upon." 

Gen.  Robert  C.  Buchanan,  who  had  succeeded  Gen.  Hancock  in 
the  command  of  the  Fifth  military  district,  ordered  the  election 
provided  for  by  the  convention,  the  specific  directions  therefor  be- 
ing embodied  in  Special  Orders  No.  6.3,  dated  March  25,  1868.  De- 
spite numerous  repoi'ts  of  impending  disturbances,  the  election 
passed  off  without  any  serious  trouble,  and  resulted  in  the  ratifica- 
tion of  the  constitution,  by  a  vote  of  51,737  in  its  favor  to  39,076 
against  it,  being  a  majority  of  12,661  for  ratification,  out  of  a  total 


262  LOUISIANA 

vote  of  80,813.  The  officers  elected  iu  April  were  appointed  to  their 
respective  offices  by  Gen.  Buchanan  under  instructions  from  Gen. 
Grant,  and  the  following  November  regularly  entered  upon  their 
terms  of  office.  The  legislature  elected,  after  the  acceptance  of  the 
constiti;tion  by  Congress,  met  on  June  27,  1868,  and  on  July  9, 
adopted  the  14th  amendment  to  the  Federal  constitution  as  one 
of  its  earliest  acts.  Gen.  Buchanan  thereupon,  July  13,  1868,  is- 
sued Special  Orders  No.  154,  which  turned  the  administration  of 
the  civil  affairs  over  to  the  duly  constituted  authorities. 

Constitutional  Convention  of  1879. — The  long  years  of  misrule 
in  Louisiana  attendant  on  the  period  of  reconstruction  closed  in 
April,  1877,  when  the  Federal  troops  were  withdrawn  and  the  pub- 
lie  offices  of  the  state  were  peacefully  surrendered  to  the  lawful 
officials  of  the  people's  choice.  With  the  return  to  normal  political 
conditions  within  the  state,  there  arose  an  overwhelming  sentiment 
for  a  change  in  the  organic  law  to  replace  the  constitution  of  1868, 
a  product  of  the  reconstruction  era.  Accordingly,  the  legislature 
of  1879  passed  an  act  to  provide  for  a  constitutional  convention  to 
frame  a  new  state  constitution.  Delegates  to  this  convention  Avere 
duly  elected  on  jMarch  18,  1S79,  and  the  convention  met  in  New 
Orleans  on  April  21.  It  perfected  its  permanent  organization  by 
the  election  of  Louis  A.  Wiltz  as  president,  and  William  H.  Harris 
as  secretary.  The  body  remained  iu  session  for  over  3  months,  and 
on  July  23  adopted  a  constitution.  The  instrument  evolved  was  a 
vast  improvement  over  that  of  1868,  despite  certain  defects  incident 
to  the  organization  of  the  judicial  department,  and  the  inconsist- 
ency shown  in  condemning  gambling  as  a  vice  in  one  section,  and 
giving  formal  recognition  to  the  lottery  system  in  another.  Dis- 
trust of  the  legislative  department  of  the  state  is  manifest  in  many 
parts  of  the  constitution,  and  numerous  limitations  on  the  powers 
of  the  general  assembly  were  imposed,  wliile.  on  the  other  hand, 
the  powers  of  the  state  executive  are  considerably  augmented.  Im- 
portant restrictions  were  placed  upon  the  right  of  suffrage,  and 
several  important  sections  were  devoted  to  the  matter  of  educa- 
tion, and  to  the  subjects  of  taxation  and  state  indebtedness.  New 
departures  were  the  provisions  for  the  maintenance  of  a  state 
levee  system,  and  the  creation  of  a  state  bureau  of  agriculture.  An 
ordinance  was  adopted  by  the  convention  relative  to  the  state  debt 
(See  Finances,  State). 

The  constitution  and  the  ordinance  relating  to  the  state  debt 
were  submitted  to  the  voters  of  the  state  and  duly  ratified  by  them 
on  Dee.  8,  1879.  (For  an  abstract  of  the  more  important  previsions 
of  this  constitution,  see  Constitution  of  1879). 

Constitutional  Convention  of  1898. — (See  Constitution  of  1898, 
Foster's  Adm.)  The  question  of  holding  a  constitutional  convention 
was  decided  affirmatively  at  an  election  held  on  Jan.  11.  1898,  and  at 
the  same  time  134  delegates  were  chosen.  The  vote  for  the  conven- 
tion was  36.178,  opposed  7.578.  The  convention  met  in  New  Orleans 
Feb.  8,  remained  in  session  for  over  three  months,  and  adopted  the 
present  state  constitution  on  May  12.    Practically  the  entire  member- 


LOUISIANA  263 

ship  of  the  convention  was  of  one  political  faith,  all  being  Democrats 
except  2 — a  Populist  and  an  Independent  Democrat.  A  permanent 
organization  was  perfected  by  the  election  of  E.  B.  Kruttschnitt  as 
president,  R.  H.  Snyder  first  vice-president,  S.  MeC.  Lawrason  second 
vice-president,  and  R.  S.  Landry  secretary.  By  far  the  most  impor- 
tant work  of  the  convention  was  the  adoption  of  the  momentous  arti- 
cles relating  to  suffrage  and  elections.  Certain  educational  or  prop- 
erty qualificatious  were  required  of  the  voter  and  all  foreigners  were 
required  to  be  naturalized,  but  the  real  kernel  of  the  whole  matter 
was  embodied  in  the  celebrated  "grandfather  clause"  contained  in 
section  5  of  the  suffrage  article,  which  reads  as  follows:  "No  male 
person  who  was  on  Jan.  1,  1867,  or  at  any  date  prior  thereto,  entitled 
to"  vote  under  the  constitution  or  statutes  of  any  state  of  the  United 
States,  wherein  he  then  resided,  and  no  son  or  grandson  of  any  such 
person  not  less  than  twenty-one  years  of  age  at  the  date  of  the  adop- 
tion of  this  constitution,  and  no  male  person  of  foreign  birth  who  was 
naturalized  prior  to  the  first  day  of  Januai-y,  1898,  shall  be  denied 
the  right  to  register  and  vote  in  this  State  by  reason  of  his  failure 
to  possess  the  educational  or  property  qualifications  prescribed  by  this 
constitution ;  provided,  he  shall  apply  for  registration,  and  shall  have 
registered  in  accordance  with  the  terms  of  this  article  prior  to  Sept.  1, 
1898.  and  no  person  shall  be  entitled  to  register  under  this  section 
after  said  date." 

The  rights  of  numerous  worthy  but  illiterate  white  citizens  were 
thus  safeguarded,  while  the  educational  and  property  qualifications 
effectually  removed  the  menace  of  the  15th  amendment  to  the  Federal 
constitution  by  the  disfranchisement  of  the  ignorant  negro  voter.  One 
of  the  avowed  and  confessed  objects  of  the  convention  had  been  the 
elimination  of  the  ignorant  vote,  whether  white  or  black.  Every 
thoughtful  man  in  the  convention  had  experienced  and  knew  the  ter- 
rible results  of  placing  political  power  in  ignorant,  incompetent  hands. 
Out  of  the  various  propositions  submitted  to  the  suffrage  committee 
and  debated  in  the  convention,  and  designed  to  permanently  estab- 
lish the  state  government  upon  the  basis  of  an  intelligent  electoral 
body,  the  sections  finally  adopted  have  proved  of  inestimable  worth. 
White  si;premacy  is  now  forever  crystallized  in  the  fundamental  law, 
and  an  impregnable  barrier  has  been  erected  against  any  possible  re- 
currence of  negro  domination.  Referring  to  the  provision  affecting 
foreigners.  Gov.  Foster  said  in  his  message  of  May  23,  1898 :  "Under 
the  former  constitution,  any  unnaturalized  foreigner,  male,  and  twen- 
ty-one years  of  age,  after  a  year's  residence  in  the  state,  could  vote 
on  a  mere  declaration  that  he  intended  to  become  a  citizen  of  the 
United  States.  This  gave  rise  to  much  discontent,  and  admitted  a 
large  number  of  foreigners  who  were  not  qualified  to  exercise  the  right 
of  suffrage,  and  who  in  many  instances  could  not  speak  the  English 
or  the  French  language,  and  were  ignorant  of  our  laws  and  institu- 
tions, and  hardly  ever  became  naturalized  citizens.  Under  the  new 
constitution,  no  man  of  foreign  birth  is  admitted  to  the  suffrage  until 
he  has  become  a  naturalized  citizen  of  the  United  States." 

Like  the  former  constitution  the  present  instrument  contains  a  bill 


264  LOUISLVNA 

of  rights,  and  is  also  characterized  by  a  further  limitation  on  the  legis- 
lative power.  Biennial  sessions  were  provided  for,  and  the  duration 
of  the  sessions  was  limited  to  60  days.  The  general  assembly  was 
prohibited  from  running  the  state  into  debt  and  limitations  were 
placed  on  the  legislative  power  to  enact  laws  of  a  special  or  local 
nature.  The  status  of  corporations  was  one  of  the  most  important 
subjects  before  the  convention,  and  the  legislature  was  given  consid- 
erable freedom  of  action  in  regard  to  changing,  revoking  or  amending 
franchises,  taxation  of  corporate  property,  etc.,  to  the  end  that  the 
creature  of  the  state  should  be  thoroughly  regulated  by  its  creator. 
As  in  the  constitution  of  1868.  the  governor  was  declared  ineligible 
for  a  second  term  immediately  following  the  first,  and  the  same  provi- 
sion was  applied  to  the  state  treasurer.  Lotteries,  and  the  sale  of  lot- 
tery tickets  was  prohibited.  The  educational  article  reflected  renewed 
solicitude  for  the  public  school  system ;  it  empowered  local  imits.  such 
as  parishes,  wards,  school  districts,  etc. ,  to  assess  themselves  without 
limit  for  school  purposes;  it  increased  the  apportionment  of  the  state 
tax  for  6  mills  for  public  education  to  a  minimum  of  one  and  one- 
quarter  mills  per  annum;  a\ithorized  police  juries  to  le^^-  a  tax  for 
school  purposes  up  to  the  limit  of  the  state  tax  of  6  mills:  directed 
that  the  school  fund,  except  that  arising  from  the  poll  tax.  be  distrib- 
iited  to  the  parishes  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  school  children 
within  their  borders;  that  the  poll  tax  be  spent  in  the  parish  only 
where  it  is  levied  and  collected ;  provided  for  separate  schools  for 
white  and  colored  children  throughout  the  state;  ordered  the  legisla- 
ture to  establish  a  state  board  and  parish  boards  of  public  education, 
and  recognized,  and  provided  for  the  maintenance  of  the  Tulane  uni- 
versity, the  Louisiana  state  nonual  school,  the  Louisiana  industrial 
institute,  and  the  Southern  university.  Another  article  adequately 
regulated  and  provided  for  the  state  levee  system.  An  entirely  new 
section  wa.s  the  one  devoted  to  the  care  and  promotion  of  good  public 
roads.  Provision  was  made  to  grant  pensions  to  disabled  Confederate 
soldiers  and  sailors,  and  their  wadows.  Encouragement  was  given  to 
Jhe  agricultural  interests  of  the  state,  and  a  2-ailroad.  express,  tele- 
phone, telegraph,  steamboat  and  other  watercraft,  and  sleeping  car 
commission  was  created :  also  a  state  board  of  charities  and  con*ec- 
dons,  and  boards  of  health  and  state  medicine. 
Constitutional  Convention  1913. — (See  Constitution  1913.) 
Constitution  of  1812. — The  first  state  constitution  of  Louisiana, 
adopted  at  New  Orleans.  Jan.  22,  1812.  provided  that  the  government 
of  the  state  should  be  divided  into  3  distinct  departments;  legislative, 
executive  and  judicial.  It  divided  the  legislative  branch  into  2  de- 
partments: senate  and  house  of  representatives;  the  two  together  con- 
stitute the  general  assembly.  Representatives  were  to  be  chosen  every 
2  years  and  senators  every  4  years.  The  general  assembly  was  to  con- 
vene on  the  first  Monday  in  January  each  year.  Only  free  white 
males  could  become  members  of  either  branch  of  the  assembly.  To  be 
eligible,  representatives  must  be  21  years  of  age  and  senators  27.  Free 
white  male  citizens  of  the  United  States,  who  had  attained  the  age  of 
21  years  and  had  resided  in  the  country  for  one  year,  and  had  paid 


LOUISIANA  265 

a  poll  tax  within  a  period  of  six  months,  could  vote  at  the  elections 
for  all  state  officers.  The  state  was  divided  into  14  senatorial  districts. 
Upon  the  assembling  of  the  first  legislature,  the  senators  were  to  be 
divided  into  2  classes,  the  seats  of  the  first  class  to  be  vacated  in  2 
years  and  of  the  second  class  at  the  end  of  4  years.  In  addition  to 
their  other  qualifications,  senators  must  be  possessed  of  landed  prop- 
erty of  the  value  of  at  least  $1,000.  A  majority  of  the  members  of  the 
general  assembly  was  necessary  to  do  business.  Each  branch  of  the 
legislature  was  authorized  to  judge  of  the  qualifications  of  its  mem- 
bers. Compensation  of  members  was  fixed  at  $4  per  day.  Members 
were  privileged  from  arrest  while  attending  the  sessions,  except  in 
cases  of  treason,  felony,  breach  of  the  peace,  and  "for  any  speech  or 
debate  in  either  house  thej'  shall  not  lie  questioned  in  any  other  place." 
During  his  term  of  office,  each  was  prohibited  from  holding  any  office 
of  emolument  created  while  he  was  a  member  of  the  assembly.  Clergy- 
men, priests  and  teachers  were  ineligible  while  exercising  their  func- 
tions as  such.  Collectors  of  state  taxes  were  ineligible  until  they  had 
obtained  a  quietus  for  the  amount  of  their  collections.  It  was  also 
provided  that  no  bill  should  have  the  force  of  law  until  on  3  successive 
days  it  had  been  read  in  each  house  and  free  discussion  invited 
thereon,  unless  four-fifths  of  the  members  should  agree  to  a  suspension 
of  the  rule  in  case  of  emergency.  It  was  required  that  all  revenue 
bills  should  originate  in  the  house  of  representatives,  but  the  senate 
might  propose  amendments. 

The  governor  was  made  the  chief  executive  officer  and  was  to  hold 
office  for  a  term  of  4  years.  His  election  was  provided  for  as  follows: 
The  citizens  throughout  the  state  should  first  vote  for  the  various  can- 
didates, after  which  the  returns  were  to  be  opened  in  the  presence  of 
both  houses  of  the  legislature,  the  2  candidates  having  the  highest ' 
number  of  votes  were  to  be  balloted  on,  and  the  one  receiving  the 
highest  number  of  votes  was  to  be  declared  elected  governor.  He 
was  made  ineligible  for  reelection,  must  be  35  years  of  age  and  the 
owner  of  landed  property  worth  at  least  $5,000.  His  term  of  office 
was  to  begin  on  the  fourth  Monday  succeeding  his  election.  No  mem- 
ber of  Congress  nor  minister  of  a  religious  society  was  eligible  to  the 
office  of  governor.  He  was  made  commander-in-chief  of  the  army 
and  navy  of  the  state ;  was  required  to  report  regularly  to  the  assem- 
bly the  condition  of  the  state ;  was  empowered  to  summon  the  assem- 
bly in  extraordinary  session;  was  expected  to  see  that  all  laws  were 
faithfully  executed  and  was  required  to  visit  the  several  counties  of  the 
state  at  least  once  in  2  years  to  inform  himself  of  local  conditions.  In 
case  of  a  vacancy  in  the  office  of  governor,  the  president  of  the  senate 
was  empowered  to  exercise  the  functions  of  the  office.  It  was  provided 
that  every  bill  passed  by  both  houses  should  be  submitted  to  the  gov- 
ernor for  his  approval  or  rejection;  if  approved,  he  must  sign  it,  but 
if  not  he  must  return  it  with  his  objections,  after  which,  in  order  to 
become  a  law,  it  must  pass  both  houses  by  a  two-thirds  majority,  the 
vote  to  be  by  ayes  and  nays  and  be  entered  on  the  journals.    If  any 


266  LOUISLiNA 

bill  was  held  by  the  governor  longer  than  10  daj's,  it  became  a  law 
without  his  signature. 

Provision  was  made  for  the  organization  of  a  state  body  of  militia. 
The  instrument  stated:  "The  free  white  men  of  this  state  shall  be 
armed  and  disciplined  for  its  defense;  but  those  who  belong  to  relig- 
ious societies  and  whose  tenets  forbid  them  to  carry  arms,  shall  not  be 
compelled  to  do  so,  but  shall  pay  an  equivalent  for  personal  ser\-ice." 

The  judicial  power  of  the  state  was  vested  in  a  supreme  court  and 
certain  inferior  courts.  The  supreme  court  was  given  appellate  juris- 
diction only  in  civil  cases  where  the  amount  in  controversy  was  $300 
or  over.  The  court  was  to  be  composed  of  not  less  than  3  nor  more 
than  5  members,  a  majority  forming  a  quorum,  and  the  salaries  of  the 
justices  were  fixed  at  $5,000.  The  state  was  divided  into  2  judicial 
districts — eastern  and  western — and  sessions  of  the  court  were  to  be 
held  in  New  Orleans  and  Opelousas.  After  5, years  the  court,  if  so 
authorized  by  the  general  assembly,  might  sit  elsewhere  than  Opelou- 
sas. An  attorney -general  was  provided  for,  as  well  as  other  prosecut- 
ing attorneys.    The  judges  were  to  hold  office  during  good  behavior. 

Other  important  provisions  of  the  constitution  were  as  follows: 
Treason  was  defined  to  be  le\Ting  war  against  the  state  or  adhering 
to  its  enemies  and  giving  them  aid  and  comfort.  A  person  who  had 
given  or  offered  a  bribe  to  secure  his  election,  was  disqualified  from 
serving  as  governor.  Money  could  not  be  drawn  from  the  state  treas- 
ury except  in  pursuance  of  appropriations  made  by  law,  "nor  shall 
any  appropriation  of  money  for  the  support  of  an  army  be  made  for 
a  longer  period  than  one  year."  An  account  of  the  receipts  and  dis- 
bursements were  required  to  be  published  annually.  The  right  of 
every  person  charged  with  a  crime  to  be  heard  in  his  own  defense 
formed  part  of  the  declaration  of  rights  adopted,  and  it  was  further 
declared  that  the  "privilege  of  the  right  of  habeas  corpus  shall  not 
be  suspended,  unless  when  in  cases  of  rebellion  or  invasion,  the  public 
safety  maj-  require  it."  Free  speech  and  free  press  were  specified, 
every  citizen  ' '  being  responsible  for  the  abuse  of  liberty. ' ' 

The  seat  of  government  was  fixed  at  New  Orleans,  and  all  laws 
conti-ary  to  the  constitution  were  declared  null  and  void.  The  consti- 
tution might  be  amended  by  first  submitting  the  proposed  amendment 
to  the  people.  The  territorial  government  was  merged  into  the  new 
state  government.  "All  laws  now  in  force  in  this  Territor.y,  not  incon- 
sistent with  this  constitution,  shall  continue  and  remain  in  full,  effect 
until  repealed  by  the  legislature." 

Constitution  of  1845. — The  second  state  constitution  was  adopted 
at  New  Orleans,  ^May  14, 1815,  and  was  ratified  by  the  people  the  same 
year.  It  was  enacted  in  response  to  a  demand  for  a  more  democratic 
instrument,  and  one  which  would  conform  to  the  new  conditions  of 
growth  within  the  state.  The  years  preceding  its  adoption  had  wit- 
nessed an  extraordinary  development  both  in  wealth  and  population. 
The  great  intlux  of  immigrants,  chiefly  English  speaking  Americans, 
bringing  with  them  habits  and  customs  more  or  less  at  variance  with 
those  of  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  the  state,  furnished  the  main  in- 
spiration for  a  change  in  the  organic  law,  and  which  resulted  in  bring- 


LOUISIANA  267 

ing  this  law  into  closer  approximation  to  the  principles  of  the  Com- 
mon law. 

The  new  instrument  provided  that  the  constitution  and  laws  of  the 
state  should  be  published  in  both  the  French  and  the  English  lan- 
guages, that  the  duration  of  offices  not  fixed  by  the  constitu- 
tion shoiild  not  exceed  4  years ;  that  the  members  of  either 
house  of  the  general  assembly  might  address  such  house  in 
either  the  French  or  English  language ;  that  emigration  from 
the  state  should  not  be  prohibited ;  that  the  next  assembly, 
the  first  elected  under  this  constitution,  and  which  convened  at 
New  Orleans  Feb.  9,  1846,  should  designate  and  fix  a  new  seat  of 
government  not  less  than  60  miles  from  New  Orleans,  the  sessions  to 
be  held  in  New  Orleans  until  the  end  of  1848  (Baton  Rouge  was  the 
choice  of  the  legislature  for  the  new  capital  of  the  state)  ;  that  the 
legislature  should  not  pledge  the  faith  of  the  state  for  the  payment  of 
any  bonds,  bills  or  other  contracts  or  obligations  for  the  benefit  or  use  of 
any  person  or  persons,  corporations  or  body  politic,  whatever ;  that  the 
amount  of  state  indebtedness  should  be  limited  to  $100,000,  except  in 
ease  of  war,  etc. ;  that  no  lottery  should  be  authorized  by  the  state,  and 
prohibiting  the  sale  of  lottery  tickets  within  the  state ;  that  the  state 
should  not  become  a  subscriber  to  the  stock  of  any  corporation  or  joint 
stock  company;  that  the  assembly  should  never  grant  any  exclusive 
privilege  or  monopoly  for  a  longer  period  than  20  years;  that  no  offi- 
cer, except  justice  of  the  peace,  should  hold  more  than  one  office; 
that  the  assembly  should  provide  for  the  organization  of  all  corpora- 
tions, except  those  with  banking  or  discount  privileges,  the  creation  of 
which  was  prohibited ;  that  the  city  of  New  Orleans  might  change  its 
form  of  government;  that  the  courts  and  not  the  legislature  should 
grant  divorces;  that  dueling  should  be  punished  by  deprivation  of 
office  and  the  right  of  suiJrage.  and  that ' '  the  legislature  shall  establish 
free  public  schools  throughout  the  state,  and  shall  provide  means  for 
their  support  by  taxation  on  pi-operty  or  otherwise.  A  university  shall 
be  established  in  the  city  of  New  Orleans.  It  shall  be  composed  of 
four  faculties,  to-wit:  one  of  law,  one  of  medicine,  one  of  the  natural 
sciences,  and  one  of  letters. ' '  Unfortunately  there  was  no  clause  bind- 
ing the  legislature  to  contribute  to  the  establishment  and  support  of 
the  proposed  university.  The  constitution  also  provided  for  the  office 
of  state  superintendent  of  education,  who  was  to  be  appointed  for  a 
term  of  two  years;  a  state  seminai-y  of  learning  was  likewise  to  be 
established.  Universal  suffrage  was  adopted  by  a  clause  which  de- 
clared "every  free  white  male,  who  has  been  two  years  a  citizen  of 
the  United  States,  who  has  attained  the  age  of  twenty-one  years,  and 
resided  in  the  State  two  consecutive  years  next  preceding  the  elec- 
tion, and  the  last  year  thereof  in  the  parish  in  which  he  offers  to  vote, 
shall  have  the  right  of  voting. 

Several  important  changes  were  made  in  the  three  departments  of 
government.  Representatives  and  senators  were  to  be  elected  on  the 
first  Monday  of  November  instead  of  the  first  Monday  in  June,  and 
the  legislatvire  was  to  convene  biennially  on  the  third  Monday  in  Jan- 
uary.   To  be  eligible  a  representative  must  have  been  a  citizen  of  the 


268  LOUISIANA 

state  for  3  years,  a  senator  for  4  years;  each  parish  was  to  have  at 
least  one  representative ;  no  parish  was  to  be  created  with  less  territory 
than  625  square  miles;  the  first  eimmeration  under  the  constitution 
was  to  be  made  in  1847,  the  second  in  1855,  and  thereafter  every  10 
years.  The  constitution  limited  the  number  of  representatives  to  not 
"less  than  70  nor  more  than  100;  and  "in  all  apportionments  of  the 
senate  the  popixlation  of  the  city  of  New  Orleans  shall  be  deducted 
from  the  population  of  the  whole  state,  and  the  result  produced  by 
this  division  shall  be  the  senatorial  ratio  entitling  a  senatorial  district 
to  a  senator;"  senators  were  to  be  divided  into  2  classes  to  be  elected 
biennially :  sessions  of  the  legislature  were  limited  to  60  days. 

In  the  executive  department  the  most  important  change  was  the  cre- 
ation of  the  new  office  of  lieutenant-governor,  who  was  to  preside  over 
the  deliberations  of  the  senate  and  to  succeed  to  the  oflBce  of  governor 
if  the  same  became  vacant  for  any  cause.  The  people  and  not  the  legis- 
lature wei-e  to  choose  the  governor  and  lieutenant-governor.  No  prop- 
erty qualifications  were  required  of  either,  but  they  must  be  at  least 
35  years  of  age,  citizens  of  the  United  States  as  well  as  residents  of 
the  state  for  15  years  next  preceding  their  election.  The  governor 
was  made  eligible  for  one  reelection,  but  at  least  4  years  must  inter- 
vene before  he  could  be  again  chosen;  his  term  of  office  was  to  com- 
mence on  the  foi;rth  Monday  of  January  following  his  election.  The 
governor  could  be  impeached  by  the  legislature,  bi;t  a  member  of  the 
supreme  coi;rt  was  to  preside  over  the  senate  during  the  trial  of  the 
charges  preferred  by  the  house  of  representatives,  and  judgment  of 
conviction  could  only  extend  to  removal  from  office  and  disqualifica- 
tion from  holding  office. 

The  constitution  modified  and  greatly  simplified  the  judicial  s.vs- 
tem.  It  established  in  place  of  the  numerous  former  courts  3  grades 
of  courts,  each  having  a  well  defined  jurisdiction — the  inferior  courts, 
or  jiistiees  of  the  peace,  were  not  to  have  jurisdiction  in  civil  causes 
in  excess  of  $100;  the  district  courts,  of  intermediate  jurisdiction, 
were  to  be  provided  for  by  the  next  legislature,  which  was  directed  to 
divide  the  state  into  judicial  districts,  the  judges  from  the  several 
districts  each  to  hold  office  for  a  term  of  6  years;  the  supreme  court 
was  an  appellate  body  consisting  of  one  chief  justice  and  three  puisne 
judges,  each  to  be  appointed  for  a  term  of  8  years.  This  court  was  to 
sit  in  New  Orleans  and  siich  other  places  as  the  justice  might  deter- 
mine. 

The  first  legislature  \inder  the  new  constitution  assembled  at  New 
Orleans  on  Feb.  9,  1846,  and  did  not  finally  adjourn  until  May  4, 
1847,  being  charged  with  the  important  woi'k  of  carrying  into  execu- 
tion the  various  clauses  of  the  new  constitution,  and  with  the  problems 
arising  from  the  Mexican  war. 

Constitution  of  1852.— (See  Const.  Conv.  of  1852,  Walker's  Adm.) 
This  instrument  was  adopted  at  Baton  Rouge  on  July  31,  1852,  and 
made  numerous  important  changes  in  the  organic  law  of  1845. 
The  latter  had  prohibited  the  legislature  from  contracting  an  in- 
debtedness in  excess  of  $100,000,  had  denied  it  the  right  to  estab- 
lish corporations  with  banking  and  discount  privileges,  and  had 


LOUISIANA  269 

forbidden  it  to  pledge  the  faith  of  the  state  for  the  payment  of  the 
contracts  or  obligations  of  either  persons  or  corporations,  and  from 
subscribing  to  the  stock  of  any  corporation.  The  constitution  of 
1852  empowered  the  legislature  "to  grant  aid  to  companies  or  as- 
sociations of  individuals  formed  for  the  exclusive  purpose  of  mak- 
ing works  of  internal  improvements,  wholly  or  partly  within  the 
state,  to  the  extent  only  of  one-fifth  of  the  capital  of  such  com- 
panies, by  subscription  of  stock  or  loan  of  money  or  public  bonds." 
The  aggregate  amount  of  such  liabilities  was  limited,  however,  to 
$8,000,000.  Whenever  the  legislature  should  contract  a  debt  in 
excess  of  $100,000,  it  was  required  at  the  same  time  to  provide 
means  for  its  liquidation  and  to  meet  the  interest  burden.  The  in- 
strument further  provided  that  "corporations  with  banking  or  dis- 
counting privileges  may  be  eitlier  created  by  special  acts  or  formed 
under  general  laws ;  but  the  legislature  shall  in  both  cases  provide 
for  the  registry  of  all  bills  or  notes  issued  or  put  in  circulation  as 
money,  and  shall  require  ample  security  for  the  redemption  of  the 
same  in  specie ;  the  legislature  shall  have  no  power  to  pass  any  law 
sanctioning  in  any  manner  directly  or  indirectly  the  suspension  of 
specie  payments  by  any  person,  association  or  corporation  issuing 
bank  notes  of  any  description." 

The  constitution  contained  some  impoi-tant  provisions  affecting 
the  educational  system  of  the  state.  The  former  constitution  had 
already  provided  for  a  superintendent  of  public  education,  and  the 
office  was  now  being  filled  by  the  scholar  and  historian  Alexander 
Dimitry.  The  legislature  was  now  prohibited  from  abolishing  the 
said  office  on  any  pretext.  The  legislature  was  required  to  estab- 
lish free  public  schools  throughout  the  state,  and  to  provide  means 
by  taxation  or  otherwise  for  their  proper  support.  The  proceeds  of 
land  previously  granted  to  the  state  for  the  use  of  schools  and  of 
lands  thereafter  granted  or  bequeathed  to  the  state,  and  the  pro- 
ceeds of  the  estates  of  deceased  persons  to  which  the  state  should 
become  entitled  by  law,  were  to  be  held  by  the  state  as  a  per- 
manent loan  for  the  benefit  of  the  free  public  schools,  the  state  to 
pay  an  annual  interest  of  6  per  cent  thereon.  In  like  manner  the 
lands  therefore  granted  for  the  benefit  of  a  seminary  of  learning 
were  to  be  sold,  and  the  proceeds  were  to  be  held  by  the  state,  the 
same  to  yield  interest  as  above.  All  moneys  raised  for  the  support 
of  free  public  schools  were  to  be  distributed  to  the  several  parishes 
in  proportion  to  the  number  of  free  white  children  therein  between 
such  ages  as  the  legislature  might  fix.  Furthermore,  the  interest 
of  the  trust  funds  deposited  with  Louisiana  by  the  United  States 
under  the  act  of  Congress,  approved  June  23,  1836,  and  all  the 
rents  of  unsold  lands,  were  appropriated  to  the  use  of  the  free 
public  schools. 

Still  other  provisions  of  the  instrument  extended  the  parish  of 
Orleans  so  as  to  embrace  the  whole  of  the  city  of  New  Orleans, 
and  included  in  the  city  of  Lafayette,  formerly  in  Jefferson  parish, 
in  the  city  limits.  The  elective  franchise  was  broadened  to  include 
free  white  males  over  21  vears  who  had  resided  in  the  state  a  year 


270  LOUISL\NA 

aud  iu  the  parish  6  months.  lu  addition  to  the  supreme  court  jus- 
tices and  the  other  judges  of  the  state,  the  secretary  of  state  and 
state  treasurer  -were  required  to  be  elected  by  the  qualified  electors 
of  the  state.  The  supreme  court  was  to  consist  of  a  chief  justice 
and  four  associate  justices,  and  the  legislature  was  directed  to 
divide  the  state  into  four  judicial  districts,  in  each  of  which  one  of 
the  supreme  court  justices  was  to  sit.  The  qualifications  for  gov- 
ernor and  lieutenant-governor  recited  that  they  were  to  be  at  least 
28  years  of  age,  and  must  have  been  citizens  of  the  United  States 
and  residents  of  the  state  for  4  years  next  preceding  their  election; 
the  former  age  limit  was  35  years  and  the  period  of  citizenship  and 
residence  was  15  years.  Candidates  for  office  who  were  con^-icted 
of  bribery  to  secure  their  election  were  disqualified  from  holding 
office.  Other  clauses  provided  that  the  seat  of  government  shoidd 
remain  at  Baton  Kouge,  unless  a  three-fourths  majority  of  the  leg- 
islature should  order  its  removal,  and  that  the  legislature  should 
meet  annually  for  a  period  not  to  exceed  60  days;  that  the  secre- 
tary of  the  senate  and  the  clerk  of  the  house  of  representatives 
should  be  familiar  with  both  the  French  and  English  languages, 
and  that  members  of  the  legislature  might  address  either  house  in 
French  or  English.  Any  officer  guilty  of  sending  or  accepting  a 
challenge  to  fight  a  duel  was  ipso  facto  deprived  of  his  right  to 
hold  office  longer.  All  funds  provided  by  the  state  for  drains  and 
levees  were  not  to  be  diverted  to  any  other  use :  a  board  of  public 
works  was  created  to  consist  of  four  commissioners,  and  the  leg- 
islature was  directed  to  divide  the  state  into  foiu-  improvement  dis- 
tricts; provision  was  made  for  the  election  and  compensation  of 
such  commissioners,  whose  powers  and  duties  were  detiiied,  and 
the  legislati;re  Avas  only  authorized  to  abolish  the  board  by  a  three- 
fifths  vote  when  in  their  opinion  it  was  no  longer  necessary. 

Constitution  of  1864    (See  Constitutional  Convention   of  1864). 

Constitution  of  1868. —  (See  Const.  Conv.  of  1867.  Reconstruc- 
tion, Administrations  of  Wells,  Flanders,  Baker.  ATarmoth,  etc.). 
The  convention  which  adopted  this  constitution  was  authorized 
by  popular  vote,  and  the  instrument  framed  was  ratified  in  the 
same  manner.  The  bill  of  rights  contains  features  indicative  of 
the  change  resiilting  from  the  war  and  was  the  first  to  be  enacted 
in  Louisiana.  The  constitution  opens  with  the  announcement  that, 
"All  men  are  created  free  and  eqiial  and  have  certain  inalienable 
rights;  among  these  are  life,  liberty  and  the  pursuit  of  happiness." 
It  then  went  on  to  state  that  "all  persons  without  regard  to  race, 
color  or  previous  condition,  residents  of  the  state  one  year,  were 
citizens  of  Louisiana,  and  that  they  owed  allegiance  to  the  United 
States,  and  that  this  allegiance  was  paramount  to  that  which  they 
owe  to  the  state."  It  prohibited  slavery  and  involimtary  servitude, 
and  declared  that  no  law  should  be  passed  fixing  the  price  of  man- 
ual labor.  In  the  effort  to  secure  certain  social  rights  to  all  citi- 
zens "without  regard  to  race  or  color,"  Article  13  stated,  "All 
persons  shall  enjoy  equal  rights  and  privileges  while  traveling  in 
this  state  upon  any  conveyance  of  a  public  character.    And  all  bus- 


LOUISIANA  271 

iness  places,  and  those  otherwise  carried  on  by  charter,  or  from 
which  a  license  is  required  by  either  state,  parish,  or  municipal 
authority,  shall  be  deemed  places  of  a  public  character,  and  shall 
be  open  to  the  accommodation  and  patronage  of  all  persons,  with- 
out distinction  or  discrimination  on  account  of  race  or  color." 

The  ordinance  of  secession  was  declared  to  be  null  and  void,  and 
all  former  constitutions  were  to  be  superseded,  but  all  laws  in 
force  and  contracts  subsisting,  not  inconsistent  with  the  new  con- 
stitution, were  pronounced  valid,  with  the  exception  of  certain 
specified  acts  of  the  late  legislati;re.  Citizens  of  the  United  States, 
who  had  been  residents  of  the  state  for  2  years  next  preceding  their 
election  were  made  eligible  to  the  offices  of  governor  and  lieuten- 
ant-governor. The  governor  was  ineligible  for  the  succeeding  4 
years  after  his  first  term  of  office,  and  the  salaries  of  the  two  officers 
were  fixed  at  $8,000  and  $3,000  per  annum,  respectively. 

The  chief  features  bearing  on  the  legislative  department  were  that 
the  legislature  should  meet  annually  on  the  first  Monday  in  January. 
The  members  of  each  branch  were  to  be  elected  for  a  term  of  2  years, 
and  their  eligibility  was  thus  defined  by  article  18:  "Every  elector, 
under  this  constitution,  shall  be  eligible  to  a  seat  in  the  house  of  repre- 
sentatives ;  and  every  elector  who  has  reached  the  age  of  25  years,  shall 
be  eligible  to  the  senate :  Provided,  That  no  person  shall  be  a  repre- 
sentative or  senator,  unless  at  the  time  of  his  election  he  be  a  qualified 
elector  of  the  representative  or  senatorial  district  from  which  he  is 
elected."  The  oath  required  of  members  before  they  could  enter  upon 
the  duties  of  their  offices,  also  applicable  to  all  other  state  officers, 
recited:  "I,  A.  B.,  do  solemnly  swear  (or  affirm)  that  I  accept  the 
civil  and  political  equality  of  all  men,  and  agree  not  to  attempt  to 
deprive  any  person  or  persons,  on  account  of  race,  color,  or  previous 
condition,  of  any  political  or  civil  right,  privilege,  or  immunity  en- 
joyed by  any  other  class  of  men ;  that  I  will  support  the  constitution 
and  laws  of  the  United  States,  and  the  constitution  and  laws  of  this 
state,  and  that  I  will  faithfully  and  impartially  discharge  and  perform 
all  the  duties  incumbent  on  me  as  according  to  the  best  of  my  ability 
and  understanding;  so  help  me  God." 

The  legislature  was  required  to  enact  adequate  laws  in  support  of 
free  sufi'rage;  it  might  levy  an  income  tax  and  might  exempt  from 
taxation  property  actually  used  for  school,  church  and  charitable  pur- 
poses, and  was  directed  to  levy  a  poll  tax  for  school  and  charitable 
purposes ;  no  law  requiring  a  property  qualification  for  office  was  to 
be  enacted,  and  due  provision  by  law  was  to  be  made  for  the  rights  of 
married  women. 

The  judicial  power  of  the  state  was  vested  in  a  supreme  eoui't,  dis- 
trict courts,  parish  courts  and  justices  of  the  peace.  The  supreme 
court,  except  in  certain  specified  cases,  was  given  only  an  appellate 
jurisdiction.  This  tribunal  was  to  consist  of  a  chief  justice  and  four 
associate  justices,  appointed  by  the  governor  for  a  term  of  8  years. 
The  judges  of  all  the  inferior  courts  were  to  be  elected  by  the  people. 

The  articles  relating  to  the  right  of  suffrage  and  the  right  to  hold 
office  excited  long  and  acrimonious  discussion.    They  were  so  framed 


272  LOUISIANA 

as  uot  to  exclude  any  person  ou  account  of  color,  and  there  were  em- 
bodied in  them  certain  requirements  and  disqualifications  which  were 
very  offensive  to  the  majority  of  the  white  population,  as  they  oper- 
ated to  disfranchise  many  of  this  element.  These  sections  were  as 
follows : 

"Article  98.  Every  male  person,  of  the  age  of  twenty-one  years 
or  upwards,  born  or  naturalized  in  the  United  States,  and  subject  to 
the  jurisdiction  thereof,  and  a  resident  of  the  state  one  year  next  pre- 
ceding an  election,  and  the  last  ten  days  within  the  parish  in  which 
he  offers  to  vote,  shall  be  deemed  an  elector,  except  those  disfran- 
chised by  this  Constitution,  and  persons  under  interdiction. 

Article  99.  The  following  persons  shall  be  prohibited  from  voting 
and  holding  any  ofSce :  All  persons  who  shall  have  been  convicted  of 
treason,  perjury,  forgery,  bribery,  or  other  crime,  punishable  in  the 
penitentiary,  and  persons  under  interdiction.  All  persons  who  are 
estopped  from  claiming  the  right  of  suff'rage  by  abjuring  their  alle- 
giance to  the  United  States  Government,  or  by  notoriously  levying  war 
against  it,  or  adhering  to  its  enemies,  giving  them  aid  and  comfort, 
but  who  have  not  expatriated  themselves,  nor  have  been  convicted  of  any 
of  the  crimes  mentioned  in  the  first  paragraph  of  this  article,  are  hereby 
restored  to  the  said  right,  except  the  following :  those  who  held  office, 
civil  or  military,  for  one  year  or  more  under  the  organization  styled 
'The  Confederate  States  of  America  ;'  those  who  registered  themselves 
as  enemies  of  the  United  States ;  those  who  acted  as  leaders  of  guerilla 
bands  during  the  late  rebellion ;  those  who.  in  the  advocacy  of  treason, 
wrote  or  published  newspaper  articles  or  preached  sermons  during  the 
late  rebellion;  and  those  who  voted  for  and  signed  an  ordinance  of 
secession  in  any  state.  No  person  included  in  these  exceptions  shall 
either  vote  or  hold  office  \intil  he  shall  have  relieved  himself  by  volun- 
tarily writing  and  signing  a  certificate  setting  forth  that  he  acknowl- 
edges the  late  rebellion  to  have  been  morally  and  politically  wrong, 
and  that  he  regrets  any  aid  and  comfort  he  may  have  given  it ;  and  he 
shall  file  the  certificate  in  the  office  of  the  secretary  of  state,  and  it 
shall  be  published  in  the  official  journal.  Provided,  that  no  person 
who,  prior  to  the  first  of  January.  1868.  favored  the  execution  of  the 
laws  of  the  United  States  popularly  known  as  the  Kecoustruetion  acts 
of  Congress,  and  openly  and  actively  assisted  the  loyal  men  of  their 
State  in  their  efforts  to  restore  Louisiana  to  her  position  in  the  LTnion. 
shall  be  held  to  be  included  among  those  herein  excepted.  Registrars 
of  voters  shall  take  the  oath  of  any  such  person  as  prima  facie  evidence 
of  the  fact  that  he  is  entitled  to  the  benefit  of  this  proviso."  These 
are  certainly  most  peculiar  provisions  to  be  found  in  the  organic  law 
of  a  state,  and  were  followed  by  article  100,  which  defined  the  oath  to 
be  taken  by  officers  and  heretofore  quoted. 

Among  the  provisions  affecting  the  general  policy  of  the  state  gov- 
ernment is  the  following,  relating  to  the  contraction  of  a  public  debt: 

Article  111.  "Whenever  the  general  assembly  shall  contract  a  debt 
exceeding  in  amount  the  sum  of  $100,000.  unless  in  case  of  war,  to 
repel  invasion  or  suppress  insurrection,  it  shall  in  the  law  creating 
the  debt  provide  adequate  ways  and  me<ins  for  the  payment  of  the 


LOUISIANA  273 

current  interest  and  of  the  principal  when  the  same  shall  become  due, 
and  the  said  law  shall  be  irrepealable  unless  principal  and  interest 
be  fully  paid,  or  unless  the  repealing  law  contains  some  adequate  pro- 
vision for  the  payment  of  the  principal  and  interest  of  the  debt." 

Other  features  of  the  constitution  required  that  the  public  records, 
laws,  judicial  and  legislative  proceedings  be  promulgated  in  the  Eng- 
lish language,  and  that  all  the  public  exercises  in  the  public  schools 
of  the  state  be  conducted  in  the  same  language.  The  salary  of  the 
state  superintendent  of  education  was  increased  to  $5,000  per  annum. 
The  successful  establishment  of  the  proposed  university  at  New  Or- 
leans was  made  impossible  by  the  offensive  requirement  that  the  same 
be  open  to  both  colored  and  white  students.  Other  sections  recited 
that  the  military  should  be  subordinate  to  the  civil  power;  that  all 
agreements  the  consideration  of  which  was  Confederate  money,  notes 
or  bonds,  should  be  null  and  void ;  that  the  state  should  never  assume 
any  debt  in  aid  of  the  rebellion,  nor  make  any  appropriation  by  way 
of  compensation  for  emancipated  slaves.  New  Orleans  was  again  made 
the  seat  of  government. 

By  the  year  1870  the  people  had  ratified  four  amendments  to  the 
above  constitution:  1.  Repealing  the  99th  article,  which  had  oper- 
ated practically  to  disfranchise  a  large  element  among  the  white  pop- 
ulation; 2.  Limiting  the  state's  indebtedness  prior  to  1890  to  $25,- 
000,000 ;  3.  Disqualifying  from  voting  or  holding  public  ofiSce  all  pub- 
lie  officials  until  they  could  furnish  receipts  in  full  from  the  proper 
authorities  for  the  funds  they  had  held;  4.  Removing  the  disability 
of  the  governor  to  reelection. 

Constitution  of  1879. — (See  Constitutional  Convention  of  1879, 
"Wiltz  Adm.).  This  constitution,  enacted  in  response  to  a  demand 
for  a  new  organic  law  to  replace  the  reconstruction  constitution  of 
1868,  was  adopted  July  23,  1879,  soon  after  the  close  of  the  recon- 
struction period,  and  was  ratified  by  the  people  on  Dec.  8,  1879.  It 
departed  from  all  former  constitutions  by  an  appeal  to  the  Deity  for 
guidance,  and  reenacted,  with  some  changes,  the  bill  of  I'ights  of  the 
former  constitution. 

Some  of  the  most  important  features  relating  to  the  legislative  de- 
partment were  as  follows:  The  legislature  was  to  meet  biennially 
instead  of  annually  and  the  membership  of  the  house  of  representa- 
tives was  reduced  from  101  to  99,  the  senate  remaining  at  the  same 
number,  36;  it  was  further  stated  that  no  change  in  the  size  of  the 
legislatui-e  was  to  be  made  prior  to  1890;  the  pay  of  members  was 
fixed  at  $4  per  diem;  the  legislature  was  inhibited  from  contracting 
any  indebtedness  on  behalf  of  the  state,  "except  for  the  purpose  of 
repelling  invasion  or  for  the  suppression  of  insurrection ' ' ;  and  it  was 
likewise  forbidden  to  pass  certain  enumerated  laws  of  a  local  or  special 
nature.  Generally  speaking,  the  powers  of  the  legislature  were  lim- 
ited in  many  particulars,  and  mandatory  instructions  were  laid  upon 
it  with  reference  to  the  enactment  of  a  great  variety  of  laws.  Louisi- 
ana, like  many  other  states,  was  showing  the  growing  distrust  of  the 
people  toward  their  representatives.  The  legislature  was  authorized 
to  regulate  the  sale  of  alcoholic  liquors,  was  directed  to  provide  for  a 
1—18 


274  LOUISIANA 

state  levee  system,  to  create  a  state  bureau  of  agriculture,  to  enact 
laws  exempting  homesteads  from  execution  process  and  safeguarding 
the  wages  of  laborers,  and  regulating  all  corporations. 

The  constitution  considerably  increased  the  powers  of  the  state  ex- 
ecutive. The  rules  of  eligibility  for  governor  and  lieutenant-governor 
were  also  changed.  They  must  have  attained  the  age  of  30  years,  have 
been  10  years  citizens  of  the  United  States,  and  residents  of  the  state 
for  a  like  period  next  preceding  their  election.  The  governor's  salary 
was  reduced  from  $8,000  per  annum  to  $4,000,  and  the  lieutenant- 
governor's  salary  was  made  double  that  of  a  member  of  the  legislature, 
instead  of  $3,000  per  annum.  Unlike  the  former  constitution,  the 
governor  was  permitted  to  succeed  himself  in  office. 

Many  important  alterations  were  made  in  the  judicial  system,  one 
of  the  most  noteworthy  being  the  establishment  of  appellate  courts. 
The  state  was  to  be  divided  into  4  supreme  court  districts,  5  circuits 
for  the  court  of  appeals,  not  less  than  20  nor  more  than  30  inferior 
court  districts  (the  number  of  such  districts  to  remain  at  26  until 
otherwise  provided),  the  parish  of  Orleans  excepted,  and  the  parish 
of  Orleans  and  the  city  of  New  Orleans  were  granted  certain  special 
courts.  The  salaries  of  the  supreme  court  justices  were  fixed  at  $5,000 
per  annum,  instead  of  $7,500  for  the  chief,  and  $7,000  for  each  of  the 
four  associate  justices  in  the  old  constitution. 

The  seat  of  government  was  once  more  changed  to  Baton  Rouge, 
and  the  legislature  was  ordered  to  make  provision  for  the  repair  of 
the  State-house.  Permission  was  also  given  to  the  legislature  to  pub- 
lish the  laws  in  the  French  language  and  to  direct  the  publication  of 
judicial  notices  in  certain  designated  cities  and  parishes  in  the  same 
language. 

Though  one  article  of  the  legislature  strongly  condemned  gambling 
as  a  vice  and  directed  the  legislature  to  suppress  the  same  by  adequate 
laws,  another  section  authorized  and  perpetuated  the  iniquitous  lot- 
tery privileges  which  had  so  long  cursed  the  state.  This  latter  article 
recited :  ' '  The  general  assembly  shall  have  authority  to  grant  lottery 
charters  or  privileges,  provided  that  each  charter  or  privilege  shall 
pay  not  less  than  $40,000  per  annum  in  money  into  the  treasury  of  the 
state ;  and  provided,  further,  that  all  charters  shall  cease  and  expire 
on  the  first  of  January,  1895.  from  which  time  all  lotteries  are  pro- 
hibited in  the  state.  The  $40,000  per  annum,  now  provided  by  law 
to  be  paid  by  the  Louisiana  State  Lottery  company  according  to  the 
provision  of  its  charter,  granted  in  the  year  1868,  shall  belong  to  the 
Charity  hospital  of  New  Orleans,  and  the  charter  of  said  company  is 
recognized  as  a  contract  binding  on  the  state  for  the  period  therein 
specified,  except  its  monopoly  clause,  which  is  hereby  abrogated,  and 
all  laws  contrary  to  the  provisions  of  this  article  are  hereby  declared 
null  and  void,  provided  said  company  shall  file  a  written  renun- 
ciation of  all  its  monopoly  features,  in  the  office  of  the  secretary  of 
state,  within  sixtj'  days  after  the  ratification  of  this  constitution. 
Of  the  additional  sums  raised  bj^  licenses  on  lotteries,  the  hospital  at 
Shreveport  shall  receive  $10,000  annually,  and  the  remaining  sum 


LOUISIANA  275 

fihall  be  divided  each  year  among  the  several  parishes  of  the  state  for 
the  benefit  of  their  schools." 

Another  provision  of  the  constitution  permitted  the  city  of  New  Or- 
leans to  modify  its  organic  law.  The  suffrage  provisions  were  modi- 
fied to  read:  "Every  male  citizen  of  the  United  States,  and  every 
male  person  of  foreign  birth  who  has  been  naturalized,  or  who  may 
have  legally  declared  his  intention  to  become  a  citizen  of  the  United 
States  before  he  offers  to  vote,  who  is  twenty-one  years  old  or  upward, 
possessing  the  following  qualifications,  shall  be  an  elector  and  shall 
be  entitled  to  vote  at  any  election  by  the  people,  except  as  hereinafter 
provided.  1.  He  shall  be  an  actual  resident  of  the  state  at  least  one 
year  next  preceding  the  election  at  which  he  offers  to  vote.  2.  He 
shall  be  an  actual  resident  of  the  parish  in  which  he  offers  to  vote  at 
least  six  months  next  preceding  the  election.  3.  He  shall  be  an  actual 
resident  of  the  ward  in  which  he  offers  to  vote  at  least  thirty  days  pre- 
ceding the  election." 

The  educational  provisions  embodied  in  the  constitution  are  numer- 
ous and  interesting.  The  public  school  system  was  still  further  ex- 
tended throughout  the  state.  Parish  superintendents  were  provided 
for,  and  the  school  fund  was  ordered  distributed  "to  each  parish  in 
proportion  to  the  number  of  children  between  the  ages  of  six  and 
eighteen  years."  All  funds  derived  from  the  poll-tax  were  to  be 
devoted  to  the  support  of  the  public  schools.  "The  school  fund  of 
this  state  shall  consist  of:  1.  The  proceeds  of  taxation  for  school 
purposes,  as  provided  in  this  constitiition.  2.  The  interest  on  the 
proceeds  of  all  public  lands  heretofore  granted  by  the  United  States 
for  the  use  and  support  of  the  public  schools.  3.  Of  lands  and  other 
property  which  may  hereafter  be  bequeathed,  granted,  or  donated  to 
the  state  or  generally  for  school  purposes.  4.  All  funds  or  property 
other  than  unimproved  lands,  bequeathed  or  granted  to  the  State, 
not  designated  for  other  purposes.  5.  The  proceeds  of  vacant  estates 
falling  iinder  the  laws  to  the  State  of  Louisiana."  It  was  ordered 
that  the  general  exercises  in  the  schools  be  conducted  in  the  English 
language,  and  that  the  same  language  be  taught  in  the  elementary 
branches ;  provided,  that  these  elementary  branches  may  also  be  taught 
in  the  French  language  in  those  parishes  in  the  state,  or  localities  in 
said  parishes,  where  the  French  language  predominates,  if  no  addi- 
tional expense  is  incurred  thereby."  It  recognized  the  Louisiana 
state  university  and  Agricultural  and  Mechanical  college  at  Baton 
Rouge,  and  the  University  of  Louisiana  at  New  Orleans;  established 
in  New  Orleans  the  ' '  Southern  university, ' '  for  persons  of  color,  and 
declared  that  the  state  owed  the  free  school  fund  $1,130,867.51,  the 
seminary  fund  $136,000,  and  the  agricultural  and  mechanical  college 
fund  $182,313. 

One  of  the  important  revenue  features  of  the  constitution  was  that 
the  state  mill  tax  on  property  for  all  purposes  whatever  was  not 
to  exceed  six  mills  on  the  dollar.  This  provision  was  deemed  impera- 
tive after  the  extravagant  expenditures  of  the  reconstruction  era. 


276  LOUISIANA 

Constitution  of  1898. — (See  Constitutional  Convention  of  1898, 
Foster's  Adm.,  and  Constitiitional  Commission  of  1893.) — We  sum- 
marize its  important  features  as  follows :  A  dependence  upon  Divine 
^idance  was  acknowledged.  Tlie  common  rights  of  the  people  were 
declared,  and  the  seem-ity  of  pereon  and  property  through  legal 
action  was  defined,  particularly  the  rights  of  those  under  criminal 
prosecution.  "Writs  of  habeas  corpus  were  privileged,  except  during 
rebellion  or  invasion.  The  militia  being  specifically  declared  subor- 
dinate to  civil  power. 

The  organization  of  the  legislature  was  effected  by  a  requirement 
that  a  reapportionment  of  Representatives  be  made,  following  the 
1900  census ;  some  slight  change  being  made  in  the  manner  of  appor- 
tionment. The  state  was  divided  into  30  Senatorial  districts  with  39 
Senators,  and  an  apportionment  of  104  Representatives.  This  appor- 
tionment to  cease  after  1902.  The  legislative  powers  of  the  General 
Assembly  were  defined :  no  essential  change  from  preceding  Constitu- 
tion being  noticeable.  The  Assembly  was,  however,  denied  the  right 
to  pass  laws  affecting  the  opening  or  conduct  of  elections,  or  to  fix 
or  change  the  place  of  voting.  It  was  also  barred  from  establishing 
the  price  of  manual  labor.  The  elegibUitj'  and  duties  of  the  various 
state  officials  were  prescribed.  The  manner  of  impeachment  was 
recited,  and  the  State  Treasurer  was  declared  non-eligible  as  his  own 
successor. 

With  i-eference  to  the  Judiciary  department,  the  state  was  divided 
into  four  supreme  court  districts ;  judgments  to  be  rendered  only  with 
the  concui'rence  of  three  justices;  concurrent  and  dissenting  opinions 
not  to  be  published.  Two  changes  in  the  personnel  of  the  Court  of 
Appeals  were  prescribed,  one  for  July,  1900,  and  one  for  July,  1904 ; 
after  latter  date  the  term  of  court  to  be  "as  prescribed  by  law." 

The  essential  legality  of  ordinary  contract  forms  was  given  empha- 
sis. The  holding  of  more  than  one  public  office  of  tmist  was  prohib- 
ited, except  in  the  case  of  justice  of  peace  and  notary  public.  The 
General  Assembly  was  empowered  to  pass  such  laws  as  might  be 
"proper  and  necessary  to  decide  differences  by  arbitration."  It  was 
also  prescribed  that  the  power  of  courts  to  punish  for  contempt  be 
limited,  and  salaried  officials  were  prohibited  from  the  collection  of 
fees  other  than  those  provided  for  by  the  Constitution. 

The  right  of  the  General  Assembly  to  enact  laws  regulating  the 
sale  of  alcoholic  and  spirituous  liquore  was  declared.  A  more  definite 
reiteration  of  the  ineligibility  to  public  office  of  any  person  convicted 
of  bribery  was  made.  A  more  stringent  law  was  autiorized  protect- 
ing labor  against  the  failure  of  contractors  and  making  those  for 
whom  the  work  was  done  ultimately  responsible. 

Gambling  was  declared  a  vice,  and  the  Legislature  was  instructed 
to  pass  laws  to  suppress  it.  In  this  category  was  included  the  dealing 
in  "futiires  on  agricultural  products  or  articles  of  necessity"  where 
delivery  was  not  intended.  Conspiring  to  force  prices  up  or  down 
was  also  declared  a  proper  subject  for  legislative  action. 

Voting  qualifications  and  restrictions  were  specified  in  some  de- 


LOUISIANA  277 

tail;  the  grandfather  clause  being  the  chief  addition.  The  right  of 
the  General  Assembly  to  tax  corporations  and  corporate  property  was 
declared.  Household  goods  to  the  value  of  $500  were  given  exemption. 
Mining  operaitions  and  certain  factory  products  were  likewise  specifi- 
cally released  from  "parochial  and  municipal  taxation  for  a  period 
of  ten  years  from  January  1,  1900."  Railroads  completed  prior  to 
January  1,  1904,  were  also  exempted  for  a  period  of  ten  years  from 
completion,  subject  to  certain  conditions  and  relinquishments.  Pro- 
vision was  made  that  firms  doing  business  within  but  domiciled  out- 
side the  state  sihould  be  taxed  unifonnly,  but  by  "a  mode  different 
from  that  provided  for  home  corporations  or  companies. ' ' 

The  method  and  basis  of  taxation  was  outlined,  with  maximum  and 
minimum  limitations  on  assessed  valuation.  A  special  tax  on  inherit- 
ances and  donations  exceeding  $10,000  was  authorized,  with  a  proviso 
that  the  aforesaid  tax  "shall  not  be  enforced  when  the  property 
•  *  *  shall  have  borne  its  just  proportion  of  taxes  prior  to  time 
of  such  donation  or  inheritance." 

The  continued  pressure  of  public  demand  for  something  more  ade- 
quate and  substantial  in  the  way  of  levee  protection  was  recognized 
by  a  more  thorough  and  comprehensive  consideration  of  the  subject. 
Methods  of  procedure  on  a  more  systematic  basis  were  provided,  and 
authority  was  given  the  Federal  government — through  the  Mississis- 
sippi  River  Commission — to  assume  permanent  control  of  the  levees 
of  the  state. 

Corporate  rights  were  given  considerable  attention.  "We  note  espe- 
cially the  following  provisions:  Both  domestic  and  foreign  corpora- 
tions were  required  to  have  one  or  more  places  of  business  and  an 
authorized  agent  upon  whom  process  might  be  served.  All  corpora- 
tions were  barred  from  holding  real  estate  for  a  longer  period  than 
ten  years,  except  that  legitimately  necessary  to  their  business.  Stocks 
or  bonds  issued,  except  for  labor  done  or  money  or  property  actually 
received,  were  declared  void,  and  the  corporation 's  charter  forfeited. 

All  railways  mthin  the  state  were  declared  public  highways,  and 
the  railroad  companies  common  carriers.  It  was  also  affirmed  that  any 
railroad  organized  under  the  laws  of  the  state  that  may  be  consoli- 
dated or  sold  to  any  like  company  organized  in  any  other  state,  was 
still  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  courts  of  Louisiana. 

As  a  whole,  the  Constitution  of  1898  may  be  considered  a  most  able 
document. 

Constitution  of  1913. — It  having  become  apparent  that  the  Con- 
stitution of  1898  in  certain  respects  inadequately  represented  the 
needs  of  the  people,  an  extra  session  of  the  state  legislature  was 
convened  at  Baton  Rouge  on  Sept.  10,  1913,  Act.  No.  1  of  which 
provided  for  "the  submission  to  the  people  of  a  proposition  to  hold 
a  convention"  for  the  election  of  delegates  thereto,  the  framing 
and  putting  into  effect  of  a  new  Constitution,  and  fixing  and  defin- 
ing the  powers  thereof.  The  election  of  delegates — one  from  each 
parish  and  one  from  each  representative  district  in  the  parish  of 
Orleans — occurred  Oct.  28.     These  delegates,  80  in  number,  assem- 


278  LOUISIANA 

bled  in  the  capital  city  on  Nov.  10,  and  enacted  a  Constitution — 
formally  adopted  Nov.  22 — more  in  accord  with  the  newly  de- 
veloped requirements  of  the  commonwealth. 

The  special  legislative  session  had  provided  the  convention  with 
full  power  to  frame  and  adopt  a  new  Constitution  without  the  ne- 
cessity of  submitting  same  to  the  people,  but  prohibited  its  enact- 
ing, ordaining  or  framing  any  article  or  ordinance  "(a)  inconsist- 
ent with  any  existing  constitutional  provision,  pro^-ided  that  this 
prohibition  shall  not  apply  to  any  article  *  *  *  that  may  be  en- 
acted in  relation  to.  or  on  the  subject  of  the  state's  bonded  debt  of 
$11,110,300 — maturing  the  first  day  of  Jan.,  1914,  or  respecting  the 
powers  and  duties  of  the  sewerage  and  water  board  of  the  city  of 
New  Orleans,  (b)  On  the  subject  of  the  state  debt  other  than  the 
bonded  debt  existing  provisions  in  regard  thereto  to  remain  in  full 
force  and  effect,  (c)  Changing  the  provisions  of  existing  laws 
touching,  relating  to,  or  in  any  manner  affecting  the  following  sub- 
jects: 1.  Any  public  board  or  commission  of  the  state  or  of  any 
political  subdivision  thereof.  2.  Any  educational  or  eleemosy- 
nary institution  of  the  state.  3.  The  educational  system  of  the 
state.  4.  Parochial  or  municipal  corporations.  5.  The  term  of 
office,  duties  or  compensation  of  any  existing  officer.  6.  Registra- 
tion or  elections.    7.    The  levee  system." 

The  Constitution  of  1898,  with  its  amendments,  was  declared 
superseded  by  the  new  Constitution,  "but  the  omission  from  this 
Constitution  of  any  article  of  the  Constitution  of  1898  and  the 
amendments  thereto  or  of  any  other  existing  Constitutional  pro- 
vision shall  not  amovmt  to  the  repeal  thereof,  unless  the  same  be 
inconsistent  with  this  Constitution."  "Writs,  proceedings  and  pros- 
ecutions, were,  under  like  condition,  made  valid. 

The  principal  that  "all  government,  of  right,  originates  with  the 
people,  is  founded  on  their  will  alone  and  is  instituted  solely  for 
the  good  of  the  whole,"  was  recited.  A  defiiiite  declaration  was 
made  that  "no  law  shall  ever  be  passed  to  curtail  or  restrain  the 
liberty  of  speech  or  of  the  press ;  any  person  may  speak,  write  and 
publish  his  sentiments  on  all  subjects,  being  responsible  for  the 
abuse  of  that  liberty."  A  reiteration  was  made  of  the  right  of 
man  to  worship  God  according  to  the  dictates  of  his  own  conscience, 
and  that  "no  law  shall  be  passed  respecting  an  establishment  of 
religion."  The  right  of  the  people  to  peaceably  assemble  and  ap- 
ply to  those  vested  with  the  powers  of  government  for  a  redress  of 
grievances,  by  petition  or  remonstrance,  was  again  guaranteed. 
The  courts  were  declared  open  to  all  and  that  "law  and  justice 
shall  be  administered  without  denial,  partiality  or  unreasonable 
delay."  Specific  reference  is  made  to  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus, 
that  it  shall  not  be  suspended,  unless,  in  case  of  rebellion  or  inva- 
sion, public  safety  may  require  it. 

The  General  Assembly  was  directed  to  meet  at  the  seat  of  gov- 
ernment "on  the  second  Monday  in  May,  1914,  at  twelve  o'clock 
noon,  and  biennially  thereafter,  and  the  sessions  thereof  shall  be 


LOUISIANA  279 

limited  to  60  days.  Should  a  vacancy  occur  in  either  House  the 
governor  shall  order  an  election  to  fill  such  vacancy."  Every 
elector  was  declared  eligible  to  a  seat  in  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives, and  every  elector  who  has  reached  the  age  of  25  years  shall 
be  eligible  to  the  Senate;  provided,  that  no  person  shall  be  eligible 
to  the  General  Assembly  unless  at  the  time  of  his  election  he  has 
been  a  citizen  of  the  state  for  5  years  and  an  actual  resident  of  the 
district  or  parish  or  ward  of  the  city  of  New  Orleans  from  which 
he  may  be  elected  for  2  years  immediately  preceding  his  election. 
The  seat  of  any  member  who  may  change  his  residence  from  the 
district  or  parish  or  ward  of  the  city  of  New  Orleans  which  he  rep- 
resents shall  thereby  be  vacated,  any  declaration  of  a  retention  of 
domicile  to  the  contrary  notwithstanding ;  and  members  of  the  Gen- 
eral Assembly  shall  be  elected  for  a  term  of  4  years. 

Members  of  the  state  Legislature  are  prohibited,  during  their 
term  of  office  and  for  1  year  thereafter,  from  holding  any  civil 
ofSce  of  profit  within  the  state  created  or  made  more  profitable 
during  their  terms  in  the  general  assembly.  All  revenue  or  appro- 
priation bills  must  originate  in  the  House  of  Representatives,  but 
the  Senate  may  propose  or  concur  in  amendments.  Legislators  are 
allowed  $5.00  per  day  during  attendance,  and  5  cents  per  mile  to 
and  from  the  seat  of  government. 

Profiting  by  lessons  of  the  past,  the  present  Constitution  limits 
the  power  of  the  Legislature  to  a  considerable  degree.  In  articles 
numbers  45,  46  and  47  we  find  that  "no  money  shall  be  drawn  from 
the  treasury  except  in  pursuance  of  specific  appropriation  made  by 
law;  nor  shall  any  appropriation  of  money  be  made  for  a  longer 
term  than  two  years.  A  regular  statement  and  account  of  receipts 
and  expenditures  of  all  public  moneys  shall  be  published  every 
3  months,  in  such  manner  as  shall  be  prescribed  by  law. 

"The  general  assembly  shall  have  no  power  to  contract,  or  to 
authorize  the  contracting,  of  any  debt  or  liability,  on  behalf  of  the 
State ;  or  to  issue  bonds  or  other  evidence  of  indebtedness  thereof, 
except  for  the  purpose  of  repelling  invasion,  or  for  the  suppression 
of  insurrection. 

"The  general  assembly  shall  have  no  power  to  grant  or  authorize 
any  parish  or  municipal  authority  to  grant  any  extra  compensa- 
tion, fee  or  allowance  to  a  public  officer,  agent,  servant,  or  con- 
tractor, nor  pay,  nor  authorize  the  payment  of  any  claim  against 
the  state  or  any  parish  or  municipality  thereof,  under  any  agree- 
ment or  contract  made  without  express  authority  of  law,  and  all 
such  unauthorized  agreements  or  contracts  shall  be  null  and  void." 

The  Legislature  among  numerous  other  restrictions,  was  denied 
authority  to  pass  "local  or  special  laws"  upon  the  following  sub- 
jects: Exempting  property  from  taxation;  fixing  the  rate  of  in- 
terest ;  granting  divorces ;  regulating  the  practice  or  jurisdiction  of 
any  court ;  authorizing  the  laying  out,  opening,  closing,  altering  or 
maintaining  roads,  highways,  streets  or  alleys,  or  relating  to  fer- 
ries and  bridges,  or  incorporating  bridge  or  ferry  companies,  ex- 


280  LOUISIANA 

cept  for  the  erection  of  bridges  crossing  streams  which  form  botin- 
daries  between  this  and  any  other  state. 

The  governor's  term  of  office  is  placed  at  4  years,  with  a  salary 
of  $5,000  per  annum.  The  lieutenant-governor's  services  are  valued 
at  $1,500  per  year;  while  ex-of6cio  president  of  the  Senate,  he  has 
no  voting  privilege,  and  a  member  of  the  Senate,  elected  by  that 
body,  presides  as  president  pro  tempore. 

The  duties  and  powers  of  the  governor  are  recited  in  some  detail. 
Article  70  states  that  "the  governor  shall  have  power  to  grant  re- 
prieves for  all  offenses  against  the  state ;  and,  except  in  cases  of 
impeachment,  or  treason,  shall,  upon  the  recommendation  in  writ- 
ing of  the  lieutenant-governor,  attoimey-general,  and  presiding 
judge  of  the  court  before  which  the  conviction  was  had,  or  of  any 
two  of  them,  have  power  in  his  discretion  to  grant  pardons,  com- 
mute sentences,  and  remit  fines  and  forfeitures,  after  conviction. 
In  ease  of  treason  he  may  grant  reprieves  until  the  end  of  the  next 
session  of  the  general  assembly,  in  which  body  the  power  of  par- 
doning is  vested." 

While  the  power  of  veto  is  granted,  it  is  carefully  restricted 
and  guarded.  The  chief  executive  being  charged,  particularly,  with 
the  exact  and  faithful  execution  of  the  laws  of  the  state.  The 
treasurer  (not  eligible  as  his  own  successor),  is  allowed  $4,000  per 
annum;  the  auditor,  attorney-general  and  secretary  of  state  are 
each  given  $5,000  per  annum,  and  no  fees  or  other  compensation 
are  permitted.  Appropriations  for  clerical  and  other  expenses 
are  limited — in  the  case  of  the  treasurer  to  $3,600  per  year;  in 
the  office  of  auditor  to  $8,000,  and  in  that  of  the  secretary  of  state 
(including  the  state  insurance  department)  at  not  exceeding  $10,- 
000.  The  term  of  office  of  the  above  officials  corresponding  with 
that  of  the  governor — 4  years. 

The  jurisdiction  of  the  supreme  court  is  carefully  defined;  its 
formation,  manner  of  supersedure,  the  qualifications  of  its  mem- 
bers, etc.,  are  thoroughly  outlined.  The  generic  principle  of  its 
control  and  general  supervision  over  inferior  courts,  with  power  to 
issue  writs  of  certiorari,  prohibition,  mandam\is,  and  qiio  warranto, 
is  declared.  Article  96  states  that  "except  as  herein  provided,  no 
duties  or  functions  shall  ever  be  attached  by  law  to  the  supreme 
court,  courts  of  appeal,  or  district  courts,  or  to  the  several  justices, 
or  judges  thereof,  except  such  as  are  judicial,  and  the  said  justices 
and  judges  are  prohibited  from  receiving  any  fees  of  office,  or  other 
compensation  than  their  salaries,  for  any  official  duty  performed 
by  them.  No  judicial  powers,  except  as  committing  magistrates 
in  criminal  cases,  shall  be  conferred  on  any  officer  other  than  those 
mentioned  in  tliis  title,  except  such  as  may  be  necessary  in  towns 
and  cities;  provided,  the  General  Assembly  shall  have  the  power 
to  abolish  justice  of  the  peace  courts  in  wards  containing  cities  of 
more  than  5.000  inhabitants,  and  to  create  in  their  stead  courts  with 
such  civil  jurisdiction  as  is  now  vested  in  justices  of  the  peace, 
and  with  criminal  jurisdiction  which  shall  not  extend  beyond  the 


LOUISIANA  281 

trial  of  offenses  not  punishable  by  imprisonment  at  hard  labor 
under  the  laws  of  this  state,  and  of  violations  of  municipal  and 
parochial  ordinances,  and  the  holding  of  preliminary  examinations 
in  cases  not  capital.  Provided,  the  compensation  of  the  judges  of 
such  courts  shall  be  paid  by  the  parishes  and  cities  in  vyhich  they 
are  established,  in  such  proportions  as  may  be  provided  by  law." 

As  may  be  noted,  the  Constitution  of  1913  has  definitely  under- 
taken the  restriction  of  certain  functionary  powers  heretofore  exer- 
cised by  the  higher  courts.  Some  change  in  the  circuit  apportion- 
ment of  the  court  of  appeals,  and  also  of  the  district  courts,  was 
made  necessary  through  the  institution,  recently,  of  new  parishes, 
and  in  some  degree  from  the  increase  of  population  in  certain 
districts. 

Juvenile  courts  were  established  throughout  the  state,  officials 
designated  and  their  remuneration  fixed.  Section  3  (Art.  118) 
states:  "The  Juvenile  Court  in  the  Parish  of  Orleans,  and  the 
district  courts  outside  of  said  parish,  sitting  as  juvenile  courts, 
shall  have  jurisdiction,  except  for  capital  crimes,  of  the  trial  of  all 
children  under  17  years  of  age  who  may  be  charged  in  said  courts 
as  neglected  or  delinquent  children,  and  of  all  persons  charged 
with  contributing  to  the  neglect  or  delinquency  of  children  under 
17  years  of  age,  or  with  a  violation  of  any  law  now  in  existence 
or  hereafter  enacted  for  the  protection  of  the  physical,  moral  or 
mental  well-being  of  children,  not  punishable  by  death  or  hard 
labor.  Said  court  shall  also  have  jurisdiction  of  all  cases  of  deser- 
tion or  non-support  of  children  by  either  parent.  The  term  'neg- 
lected' child  shall  mean  any  child  17  years  of  age,  and  under,  not 
now  or  hereafter  inmates  of  a  state  institution,  found  destitute, 
or  dependent  on  the  public  for  support,  or  without  proper  guard- 
ianship, or  whose  home,  by  reason  of  the  neglect,  cruelty,  deprav- 
ity or  indigence  of  its  parents,  guardians,  or  other  persons,  is  an 
luifit  place  for  such  child,  or  having  a  single  surviving  parent  un- 
dergoing punishment  for  crime,  or  found  wandering  about  the 
streets  at  night  without  being  on  any  lawful  business.  The  term 
'delinquent'  child  shall  mean  any  child  17  years  of  age  and  under, 
not  now  or  hereafter  inmates  of  a  state  institution,  found  begging 
or  receiving  alms,  or  being  in  any  street,  road  or  public  place  for 
the  purpose  of  begging  or  receiving  alms,  or  peddling  any  article 
or  singing  or  playing  any  musical  instrument  in  any  street,  road 
or  public  place,  for  alms  or  accompanying  any  person  so  engaged; 
or  found  Hving  in  any  house  of  prostitution  or  assignation  or  with 
any  vicious  or  disreputable  person  or  frequenting  the  company  of 
reputed  criminals  or  prostitutes,  or  visiting  any  saloon  or  place 
of  entertainment  where  spirituous  liquors  or  wines  or  intoxicating 
or  malt  liquors  are  sold,  exchanged  or  given  away,  or  found  in  any 
policy  shop,  pool  room,  bucket  shop,  race  track  or  where  any  gam- 
bling game  or.gambUng  device  is  operated,  or  found  habitually 
wandering  around  any  railroad  tracks  or  yards  or  jumping  or 
attempting  to  jump  on  any  moving  train  or  street  car  for  the  pur- 
pose of  stealing  a  ride,  or  entering  any  car  or  engine  without  law- 


282  LOUISIANA 

ful  authority;  or  foimd  to  be  incorrigible  or  habitually  using  vile, 
obscene  or  indecent  language  or  guilty  of  immoral  conduct  in  pub- 
lic places  or  around  school  houses,  or  growing  up  in.  idleness  and 
crime,  or  who,  without  the  consent  of  parents  or  guardians  or  cus- 
todians, absents  himself  from  his  home  or  place  of  abode,  or  runs 
away  from  any  state  institution  or  institutions  of  charity  to  which 
he  may  be  confined,  or  violates  any  law  of  the  state  or  any  ordi- 
nance of  any  village,  town,  city,  or  parish  of  the  state." 

Among  the  several  provisions  of  the  previous  constitution  again 
reiterated  were:  "The  subordination  of  the  militia  to  civil  power." 
The  principle  of  inviolate  rights  of  private  property.  The  lim- 
itation of  the  power  of  courts  to  punish  for  contempt.  Prohibiting 
the  sale  of  lottery  tickets.  Declaring  the  sale  of  alcoholic  and 
spirituous  liquors  a  police  regulation,  subject  to  the  laws  of  the 
General  Assembly.  Penalties  for  bribery.  The  protection  of  la- 
borers and  their  wages.  The  suppression  of  gambling;  defining 
its  legal  aspects.  Prohibiting  and  penalizing  the  issuance  or  ac- 
ceptance of  "free  transportation"  by  any  public  official  Regu- 
lating the  state  examination  of  banks.  As  some  agitation  of  the 
subject  has  occurred,  the  following  article  (No.  196)  is  quoted  ver- 
batim: "The  General  Assembly  may  authorize  the  employment 
under  state  supervision  and  the  proper  ofiScers  and  employes  of  the 
state,  of  convicts  on  public  roads  or  other  public  works,  or  convict 
farms,  or  in  manufactories  owned  or  controlled  by  the  state,  under 
such  provisions  and  restrictions  as  may  be  imposed  by  law,  and 
shall  enact  laws  necessary  to  carry  these  provisions  into  effect ;  and 
no  convict  sentenced  to  the  state  penitentiary  shall  ever  be  leased, 
or  hired  to  any  person,  or  persons,  or  corporation,  private  or  pub- 
lic, or  quasi-public,  or  board,  save  as  herein  aiathorized. " 

No  notable  change  in.  the  electoral  privilege  was  made.  The  right 
of  franchise  was  defined  at  some  length,  emphasis  being  given  to 
the  necessity  of  every  voter  being  properly  registered.  Art.  207 
declares  that,  "Parochial  elections,  except  in  the  city  of  New  Or- 
leans, shall  be  held  on  the  same  day  as  the  general  state  election, 
and  not  oftener  than  once  in  4  years. 

"In  the  city  of  New  Orleans  parochial  and  municipal  elections 
shall  be  held  on  the  Tuesday  following  the  first  Monday  of  No- 
vember, 1916,  and  of  every  fourth  year  thereafter,  but  the  Gen- 
eral Assembly  may  change  the  date  of  said  election,  provided,  that 
the  parochial  and  municipal  elections  shall  be  held  together,  and 
shall  always  be  on  a  day  separate  and  apart  from  the  general  state 
election  and  not  oftener  than  once  in  4  years.  The  municipal  and 
parochial  ofiicers  in  the  city  of  New  Orleans  shall  take  their  offices 
on  the  first  Monday  in  the  month  of  December  following  their  elec- 
tion, until  otherwise  provided  by  law."  . 

While  the  state  of  Louisiana  was  one  of  the  first  to  take  action  in 
regard  to  "pure  food,"  its  latest  constitution  has  not  overlooked 
its  importance,  in  connection  with  a  general  guarantee  against 
adulteration.  Art.  297  states  that  "the  General  Assembly  shall  pro- 


LOUISIANA  283 

vide  for  the  interest  of  state  medicine  in  all  its  departments;  for 
the  protection  of  the  people  from  unqualified  practitioners  of  med- 
icine and  dentistry;  for  protecting  confidential  communications 
made  to  medical  men  by  their  patients  while  under  professional 
treatment  and  for  the  purpose  of  such  treatment;  for  protecting 
the  people  against  the  sale  of  injurious  or  adulterated  drugs,  foods 
and  drinks,  and  against  any  and  all  adulterations  of  the  general 
necessaries  if  life  of  whatever  kinds  and  character." 

On  the  subject  of  taxation  the  constitution  makes  a  number  of 
clearly  defined  declarations:  Article  No.  225  recites  that  "Taxa- 
tion shall  be  equal  and  uniform  throughout  the  territorial  limits 
of  the  authority  levying  the  tax,  and  all  property  shall  be  taxed 
in  proportion  to  its  value,  to  be  ascertained  as  directed  by  law; 
provided,  the  assessment  of  all  property  shall  never  exceed  the 
actual  cash  value  thereof;  and,  provided  further,  that  the  tax- 
payers shall  have  the  right  of  testing  the  correctness  of  their  assess- 
ments before  the  courts  of  justice.  In  order  to  arrive  at  this  equal- 
ity and  iiniformity,  the  General  Assembly  shall  provide  a  system 
of  equality  and  uniformity  in  assessments  based  upon  the  relative 
value  of  property  in  the  different  portions  of  the  state.  The  val- 
uations put  upon  property  for  the  purposes  of  state  taxation  shall 
be  taken  as  the  proper  valuation  for  purposes  of  local  taxation,  in 
every  sub-division  of  the  state." 

Again,  the  purposes  of  taxation  are  thus  defined:  "The  taxing 
power  shall  be  exercised  only  to  carry  on  and  maintain  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  state  and  the  public  institutions  thereof,  to  educate 
the  children  of  the  state,  to  preserve  the  public  health,  to  pay  the 
principal  and  interest  of  the  public  debt,  to  suppress  insurrection, 
to  repel  invasion  or  defend  the  state  in  time  of  war,  to  provide 
pensions  for  indigent  Confederate  soldiers  and  sailors  and  their 
widows,  to  establish  markers  or  monuments  upon  the  battlefields 
of  the  coimtry  commemorative  of  the  services  of  Louisiana  soldiers 
on  such  fields,  to  maintain  a  memorial  hall  in  New  Orleans  for  the 
cellection  and  preservation  of  relics  and  memorials  of  the  late  Civil 
war,  and  for  levee  purposes,  as  hereinafter  provided."    (Art.  227.) 

The  guarantees  of  free  and  equal  education  were  substantially 
reproduced  from  former  constitution;  and  the  debts  due  various 
colleges  and  seminaries  were  declared. 

Corporate  rights  were  treated  at  some  detail,  but  no  notable 
changes  were  made. 

In  reference  to  the  city  of  New  Orleans,  the  General  Assembly 
legalized  the  great  work  of  its  sewerage  and  water  board,  and  rat- 
ified and  approved  the  issuance  of  the  "Public  Improvement 
Bonds,"  authorized  in  1906  and  1908.  A  re-financing  of  the  Public 
Belt  R.  R.  was  authorized,  with  certain  restrictions.  A  re-funding 
of  the  state  debt,  amounting  to  .$11,108,300,  was  authorized,  and 
plans  instituted  looking  to  its  final  payment ;  some  little  space  being 
given  to  an  outline  of  the  method  of  procedure.  The  Constitution, 
as  a  whole,  is  the  most  lengthy  one  ever  given  the  state. 


2S4  LOUISIANA 

Convent,  the  parish  seat  of  St.  James  parish,  is  located  in  the 
western  part  of  the  parish  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Mississippi  river 
and  the  Yazoo  &  Mississippi  Valley  R.  R.  The  original  parish  seat 
was  on  the  west  side  of  the  Mississippi,  nearly  opposite  the  present 
courthouse,  but  in  1869  it  was  removed  to  the  east  bank,  near  the 
Convent  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  from  which  the  town  takes  its  name. 
The  chief  objects  of  historic  interest  are  the  convent  and  Jefferson 
college,  the  latter  being  located  near  the  town.  Convent  has  sev- 
eral good  mercantile  establishments,  two  hotels,  a  large  sugar  mill, 
a  money  order  postoffice,  express  and  telegraph  offices,  and  a  pop- 
ulation of  600. 

Convention  of  1861. — (See  Secession.) 

Converse,  a  village  situated  in  the  northwestern  part  of  Sabine 
parish,  is  a  station  on  the  Kansas  City  Southern  R.  R.,  about  20 
miles  directly  northwest  of  Many,  the  parish  seat.  It  is  one  of  the 
towns  that  has  grown  up  along  the  line  of  the  railroad  and  has 
lumber  industries,  a  money  order  postoffice,  an  express  office,  tele- 
phone and  telegraph  facilities,  and  a  population  of  200. 

Conway,  a  post-hamlet,  in  the  northern  part  of  Union  parish,  is 
about  4  miles  west  of  Marion,  which  is  the  most  convenient  railroad 
station,  and  10  miles  north  of  Farmersville,  the  parish  seat. 

Cook,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  southwestern  part  of  DeSoto  parish, 
is  situated  on  a  small  confluent  of  the  Sabine  river,  about  7  miles 
southwest  of  Mansfield,  the  parish  seat  and  nearest  railroad  town. 
It  is  a  rich  lumber  district. 

Cooper,  a  post-village  and  station  in  the  central  part  of  Vernon 
parish,  is  on  the  Kansas  City  Southern  R.  R.,  about  6  miles  soutli 
of  Leesville,  the  parish  seat.  It  has  lumber  industries,  is  the  ship- 
ping and  supply  point  for  a  considerable  district,  and  has  a  popula- 
tion of  300. 

Coosa,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  extreme  northeastern  part  of  Con- 
cordia parish,  is  situated  on  Lake  St.  John,  about  3  miles  west  of 
the  Mississippi  river,  and  5  miles  south  of  Listonia,  the  most  con- 
venient railroad  station. 

Cora  (R.  R.  name  Hueston),  a  money  order  post-village  in  the 
eastern  part  of  Vernon  parish,  is  situated  on  Ten  Mile  creek,  about 
25  miles  east  of  Leesville,  the  parish  seat,  and  is  a  station  on  the 
Woodworth  &  Louisiana  Central  R.  R. 

Corleyville,  a  post-hamlet  of  Sabine  parish,  is  situated  in  the 
southeastern  corner  of  the  parish  on  a  branch  of  Bayou  Toro,  about 
5  miles  east  of  Fisher,  the  nearest  railroad  station,  and  10  miles 
southeast  of  Many,  the  parish  seat. 

Com. — In  many  parts  of  the  country  the  impression  prevails  that 
the  soil  and  climate  of  Louisiana  are  adapted  onh'  to  such  crops  as 
cotton,  sugar-cane,  rice  and  tobacco.  This  is  an  erroneous  notion. 
A  bulletin  of  the  state  board  of  agriculture  and  immigration  says: 
"Corn  can  be  grown  easily  all  over  the  state,  and  if  the  same  atten- 
tion and  methods  of  cultivation  were  given  it  here  as  in  the  corn- 
growing  states  of  the  West,  the  average  yield  per  acre  would  be 
but  little  under  that  produced  there.    But  corn  is  a  side  issue  with 


LOUISIANA  285 

the  cotton  and  cane  planter,  and  is  cultivated  as  little  as  possible." 
In  1850  the  corn  crop  of  Louisiana  amounted  to  over  10,000,000 
bushels,  and  ten  years  later  it  had  increased  to  nearly  17,000,000. 
After  the  Civil  war  the  high  prices  of  cotton  diverted  attention 
from  corn,  and  in  1870  the  yield  was,  in  round  numbers,  7,600,000 
bushels.  Since  that  time  each  U.  S.  census  has  shown  an  increase 
in  the  production  of  corn,  the  crop  of  1880  being  nearly  10,000,000, 
that  of  1890s  over  13,000,000,  and  in  1900  of  the  115,969  farms  in 
the  state  101,961  reported  corn  as  one  of  the  crops,  the  total  yield 
being  22,062,580  bushels.  One  advantage  of  growing  corn  in  Lou- 
isiana is  that  it  can  be  followed  with  a  crop  of  cow-peas  or  other 
forage  after  the  harvest,  as  there  are  several  varieties  of  corn  that 
can  be  planted  as  early  as  February  and  gathered  in  May.  Cli- 
matic conditions  are  favorable,  not  only  for  harvesting  the  grain, 
but  also  for  saving  the  stalks  and  blades  for  silage.  To  quote 
again  from  the  bulletin  referred  to  above:  "By  proper  rotation, 
fertilization  and  cultivation,  this  yield  could  easily  be  doubled. 
Upon  the  alluvial  lands  of  south  Louisiana  the  sugar  experiment 
station  has  for  several  years  averaged  over  100  bushels  per  acre 
upon  a  field  of  8  or  10  acres.  Sixty  to  90  bushels  have  been  ob- 
tained at  the  state  experiment  station  at  Baton  Rouge  upon  the 
bluff  lands,  and  30  to  60  bushels  are  the  average  yields  upon  the 
rotation  fields  of  the  north  Louisiana  experiment  station,  situated 
at  Calhoun,  upon  the  yellow  sandy  loams  of  the  oak  and  short-leaf 
pine  hills."     (See  also  Agriculture.) 

Comerview  (R.  R.  name  Witten),  a  post-village  in  the  northern 
part  of  Ascension  parish,  is  situated  on  the  line  of  the  Louisiana 
Railway  &  Navigation  company,  about  8  miles  east  of  the  Missis- 
sippi river. 

Corporations.- — Under  the  general  laws  of  Louisiana,  any  num- 
ber of  persons,  exceeding  6,  may  form  themselves  into  corporations 
for  literary,  scientific,  religious,  and  charitable  purposes,  for  works 
of  public  improvement,  and  generally  all  works  of  public  utility 
and  advantage;  any  number  of  persons  not  less  than  3  may  form 
themselves  into  a  corporation  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  on  any 
mechanical,  mining,  or  manufacturing  business,  except  distilling 
or  manufacturing  intoxicating  liquors,  with  a  capital  of  not  less 
than  $5,000  nor  more  than  $1,000,000;  and  any  number  of  persons, 
not  less  than  25,  may  form  themselves  into  a  corporation  for  ath- 
letics, military,  gun  practice,  or  social  purposes.  The  act  of  in- 
corporation may  be  drawn  by  a  notary  public  residing  in  this  state, 
or  by  the  incorporators  themselves  by  private  act  duly  acknowl- 
edged before  a  commissioner  of  this  state  residing  in  the  place 
where  the  act  is  drawn.  The  act  of  incorporation  must  contain  the 
name  and  title  of  the  corporation;  the  place  of  its  domicile,  which 
must  be  in  this  state,  where  all  the  meetings  of  its  ofiicers,  di- 
rectors, and  stockholders  are  required  to  be  held,  under  pain  of 
nullity ;  the  duration  of  its  existence ;  the  purposes  and  objects  for 
which  it  is  established  and  the  nature  of  its  business ;  the  names  of 
its  oJKcers  upon  whom  legal  process  may  be  served;  the  amount 


286  LOUISIANA 

of  the  capital  stock ;  the  number  of  shares  and  the  anioimt  of  each 
share ;  the  time  when,  and  the  manner  in  which,  payments  shall  be 
made  on  stock;  the  mode  in  which  the  elections  of  directors  or 
managers  shall  be  conducted ;  and  the  mode  of  its  liquidation.  The 
act  of  incorporation  must  be  approved  by  the  district  attorney  at 
the  domicile  of  the  corporation,  the  whole  recorded  in  the  mort- 
gage office  of  the  same  parish  with  the  original  subscriptions,  and, 
excepting  the  names  of  the  subscribers,  published  in  a  newspaper 
at  the  domicile  of  the  corporation  once  a  week  for  30  days.  Amend- 
ments to  the  act  of  incorporation  may  be  made  with  the  assent  of 
three-fourths  of  the  stock  represented  at  a  general  meeting  con- 
vened for  that  purpose.  The  amending  act  must  contain  the  altera- 
tions, improvements,  or  amendments  desired,  and  the  same  formal- 
ities must  be  compiled  with  as  pursued  in  perfecting  the  original 
act  of  incorporation. 

Any  railroad,  canal,  elevator,  warehouse,  drainage,  sewerage, 
land  reclamation,  levee,  building,  electric  light  and  poM^er,  or  water- 
works company  established  under  the  laws  of  this  state,  may  bor- 
row such  sums  of  money  as  may  be  required  for  construction,  re- 
pairs, acquisition  of  property  or  franchises,  and  issue  bonds  or  other 
obligations  secured  by  mortgage  or  pledge  on  its  property,  income, 
etc.,  on  such  terms  as  it  may  direct,  with  power  to  dispose  of  the 
same. 

Whenever  any  corporation  desires  to  increase  its  stock,  the  di- 
rectors are  required  to  publish  a  notice  for  30  days  that  a  meeting 
of  the  stockholders  will  be  held  for  that  purpose  at  the  office  of 
the  corporation,  and  also  deposit  a  written  or  printed  copy  of  such 
notice  in  the  postoffice  addressed  to  each  stockholder  at  his  usual 
place  of  residence  at  least  40  days  before  the  date  fixed  for  such 
meeting.  If  the  majority  of  the  stockholders,  or  their  proxies,  at 
such  meeting  vote  in  favor  of  the  proposed  increase  of  the  stock,  a 
certificate  of  the  proceedings  shall  then  be  made  showing  a  com- 
pliance with  the  law,  the  amount  of  the  original  capital  stock  and 
the  number  of  the  holders,  the  amount  and  number  of  shares  whose 
holders  have  voted  in  favor  of  said  change,  also  against  said  change, 
and  the  whole  amount  of  the  debts  and  liabilities  of  said  corpora- 
tion, which  must  be  signed  and  sworn  to  by  the  chairman  and  sec- 
retary of  the  meeting  and  filed  in  the  office  of  the  secretary  of  state, 
and  when  the  certificate  is  so  filed  the  capital  stock  shaU  be  in- 
creased as  therein  set  forth.  No  stockholder  can  be  held  liable  or 
responsible  for  the  contract  or  fault  of  corporations  so  organized 
in  any  further  sum  than  the  unpaid  balance  due  to  the  company 
♦  on  the  shares  owned  by  him. 

Any  number  of  persons,  not  less  than  3,  may  form  themselves 
into  a  corporation  on  complying  with  the  general  corporation  laws, 
for  the  purpose  of  carrying  on  any  lawful  business  or  enterprise  not 
otherwise  specially  provided  for,  except  stock  jobbing.  The  capi- 
tal stock  must  not  be  less  than  $5,000,  and  the  word  "limited"  must 
be  used  as  the  last  word  of  the  name  of  every  such  corporation. 
Its  name  must  be  affixed  in  legible  letters  and  in    a     conspicuous 


LOUISIANA  287 

place  outside  of  every  place  of  business  of  the  corporation,  and  in 
all  notices,  publications,  and  writings  used  in  its  business.  The 
omission  of  the  word  "limited"  in  the  use  of  the  name  renders 
each  participant  and  those  acquiescing  therein  liable  for  any  dam- 
age or  liability  arising  therefrom.  Stockholders  are  not  respon- 
sible for  the  contracts  or  faults  of  such  corporations  beyond  the 
unpaid  balance  due  on  their  shares  except  as  stated  above. 

Foreign  corporations  doing  business  in  this  state,  except  mer- 
cantile corporations,  must  file  with  the  secretary  of  state  a  declara- 
tion of  domicile  and  the  name  of  the  resident  agent  upon  whom 
service  of  process  can  be  made.  In  case  of  failure  to  comply  with 
this  provision  suit  can  be  filed  against  such  corporation  upon  any 
cause  of  action  in  the  parish  where  the  cause  arises,  and  service 
can  be  made  on  any  person,  firm  or  company  acting  or  transact- 
ing such  business  for  such  corporations,  who  shall  be  deemed  the 
agent  of  such  corporations  for  that  purpose. 

Cossinade,  a  village  in  the  northern  pai-t  of  Vermilion  parish,  is 
situated  on  a  branch  of  the  Bayou  Queue  de  Tortue,  about  5  miles 
northwest  of  Kaplan,  the  nearest  railroad  station,  and  12  miles 
northwest  of  Abbeville,  the  parish  seat. 

Cotton. — The  cotton  of  commerce  is  the  fibrous  product  of  sev- 
eral varieties  of  plants  of  the  genus  gossypium,  which  belongs  to 
the  natural  order  malacete.  The  most  important  species  is  the 
gossypium  barbarense,  which  is  the  one  cultivated  in  the  United 
States,  and  of  which  there  are  two  varieties — the  long-staple,  or 
sea-island,  and  the  short-staple,  or  upland  cotton.  The  former  is 
grown  exclusively  upon  the  islands,  and  in  a  few  places  on  the 
mainland,  along  the  coast  of  South  Carolina,  Georgia  and  Florida. 
The  latter  is  grown  in  every  state  of  the  Union  south  of  the  35th 
parallel  of  latitude,  and  a  small  quantity  is  raised  north  of  that 
line. 

The  oldest  cotton  producing  country  is  India,  where  it  has  been 
grown  and  manufactured  for  centuries.  Herodotus,  the  early  Greek 
historian,  gave  it  the  name  of  "tree-wool,"  and  described  the  cloth 
manufactured  from  it  as  being  of  "better  quality  and  finer  fibre 
than  that  made  from  the  wool  of  sheep."  Pliny  also  mentions 
cotton  several  times.  The  manufacture  of  cotton  cloth  was  intro- 
duced into  Spain  by  the  Mohammedans  from  Africa  in  the  early 
part  of  the  7th  century.  From  there  it  spread  to  Italy,  and  finally 
to  the  whole  of  Europe.  Columbus  found  the  cotton-plant  grow- 
ing wild  in  some  of  the  West  India  islands  and  South  America. 
Soon  after  his  discoveries  the  inhabitants  of  Mexico  were  found  to 
be  wearing  clothing  made  of  cotton.  The  first  effort  to  raise  cot- 
ton in  the  United  States  was  made  in  Virginia  in  1721.  Its  easy 
growth  attracted  attention  in  England  and,  strange  as  it  may  now 
seem,  the  attempt  was  made  to  extend  its  culture  northward  in- 
stead of  southward.  The  colonies  of  Maryland,  Delaware,  New 
Jersey  and  Pennsylvania  all  tried  the  experiment  of  cotton  culture, 
and  as  late  as  1776  it  was  grown  near  Philadelphia  in  quantities 


288  LOUISLINA 

sufficient  for  home  consumption.  Cotton  was  first  planted  in  the 
Carolinas  and  Georgia  in  1733,  and  in  Louisiana  in  1742. 

The  U.  S.  census  report  for  1900  says:  "While  Virginia  was  the 
original  state  of  cotton  production  and  exportation  of  the  United 
States,  there  are  only  a  few  countries  of  the  state  that  will  grow 
cotton  profitably.  The  northern  line  of  economic  cotton  culture 
crosses  it  from  east  to  west  just  north  of  the  most  southern  tier  of 
counties.  The  high  altitude  of  the  western  counties  of  this  strip 
is  prohibitive,  and  leaves  only  a  few  counties  along  the  south  and 
southeastern  border  in  which  the  plant  can  attain  an  economic 
growth.  The  first  expansion  of  cotton  production  was  therefore 
forced  by  natural  conditions  to  the  south  and  westward,  and  by 
1849  the  median  point  of  cotton  production  was  28  miles  southwest 
of  Birmingham,  Ala.  *  *  *  Since  1889  it  has  been  rapidly 
attracted  toward  the  Mississippi  river  by  the  opening  of  new  lands 
in  the  Indian  reservations,  and  by  the  remarkable  increases  in  the 
production  of  the  states  west  of  that  river,  notably  Texas.  Of  the 
entire  crop,  34.05  per  cent  was  grown  west  of  the  Mississippi  river 
in  1879 ;  38.44  per  cent  in  1889 ;  and  43.80  per  cent  in  1899.  At 
this  rate  of  increase  the  median  point  of  production  will,  by  the 
next  census,  have  crossed  the  Mississippi  river  and  be  found  at 
some  point  in  northeastern  Louisiana." 

Authorities  differ  as  to  when  the  first  cotton  was  exported  from 
the  United  States.  The  census  report  above  referred  to  (Vol.  vi.,  p. 
405)  sajs  it  was  in  1784.  when  8  bags,  weighing  1.200  pounds,  were 
sent  from  Virginia.  Other  authorities  place  the  first  exportation  as 
early  as  1747,  and  mention  shipments  in  1770  from  New  York,  Mary- 
land, Virginia  and  North  Carolina,  aggregating  about  10  bales.  Nor- 
man, in  his  "New  Orleans  and  Environs,"  tells  of  the  seizure  of  an 
American  vessel,  with  80  bales  on  board,  at  Liverpool  in  1784,  on  the 
ground  "that  so  large  an  amount  of  cotton  could  not  have  been  pro- 
duced in  the  United  States. ' '  The  same  author  gives  the  exportations 
for  the  next  five  years  as  14,  6,  109,  389  and  842  bales,  respectively. 

The  great  difficulty  in  the  early  days  of  cotton  cultiire  in  the  United 
States  was  to  separate  the  seed  from  the  fiber.  Various  expedients 
were  tried,  but  it  was  not  until  the  invention  of  the  cotton  gin  by  Eli 
Whitney  in  1793  that  the  problem  was  solved.  The  cotton  crop  of 
1790  was  8,889  bales.  Ten  years  later  the  number  of  bales  was  177,- 
778,  and  by  1810  the  production  had  increased  to  320,000  bales,  much 
of  which  was  due  to  Whitney's  invention.  The  average  weight  of  the 
bale  during  these  years  was  about  230  pounds.  By  1859  the  crop 
amounted  to  5,387.552  bales,  the  average  weight  of  which  was  445 
pounds.  Then  came  the  Civil  war,  which  cheeked  the  cotton-planting 
industry  in  the  South  and  introduced  its  cultivation  into  the  states  of 
Illinois,  Indiana,  West  Virginia,  Nevada,  Utah  and  California,  these 
states  reporting  about  275,000  pounds  in  1869.  The  entire  crop  of  the 
country  for  that  year  was  3,011,996  bales,  a  decrease  in  weight  of  over 
50  per  cent  from  the  crop  of  1859.  The  average  price  in  1869  was  29 
cents  a  pound,  the  highest  in  the  history  of  cotton  culture  in  the 
United  States.   This  was  due  chiefly  to  the  enormous  demand  of  Eng- 


LOUISIANA  289 

land,  where  a  cotton  famine  had  been  produced  by  the  blockading  of 
the  Southern  ports.  The  inordinately  high  prices  in  the  years  im- 
mediately following  the  war  offered  an  inducement  to  the  planters  of 
the  South  to  devote  all  their  attention  and  energies  to  cotton  raising. 
Consequently  the  production  of  cotton  increased  at  the  rate  of  nearly 
225,000  bales  annually  until  1889.  Louisiana  was  no  exception  to  the 
rule,  her  crop  increasing  during  the  20  years  from  350,832  bales  to 
659,180  bales.  But  as  the  quantity  of  cotton  increased  the  price  de- 
clined in  an  inverse  ratio  until  in  1889  it  was  only  11  cents.  Soon 
after  that  date  a  movement  was  started  in  several  of  the  Southern 
states  to  protect  the  industry  against  this  constant  sinking  of  prices. 
In  March,  1893,  a  convention  of  Louisiana  cotton  planters  met  at  New 
Orleans  upon  the  call  of  the  commissioner  of  agriculture,  "to  take 
such  action  as  shall  seem  best,  looking  to  the  decrease  in  acreage  de- 
voted to  cotton  the  present  year,  and  to  consider  the  propriety  of 
sending  delegates  to  a  general  interstate  convention  to  be  held  at  an 
early  date  for  a  similar  purpose. ' ' 

The  convention  was  well  attended  and  the  resolutions  adopted 
urged  upon  the  planters  of  the  entire  cotton  growing  section  of  the 
country  "the  folly  of  pursuing  the  old  methods  of  planting  mostly 
cotton,  to  the  exclusion  of  cereal  and  other  crops,  and  upon  such 
planters  as  individuals  and  citizens,  to  set  the  personal  example  of 
raising  first  such  crops  as  will  give  support  to  home  and  family,  and 
then  to  plant  sufficient  cotton  to  furnish  the  luxuries  of  life."  An- 
other convention  of  cotton  growers,  held  at  Shreveport  in  Jan.,  1895, 
advocated  the  same  policy,  and  further  adopted  a  resolution  "that  it 
is  the  sense  of  this  convention  that  the  legislatures  of  the  cotton  grow- 
ing states  make  appropriations  with  a  view  of  creating  a  fund  to  be 
paid  to  the  successful  inventor  of  a  plantation  cottonseed  oil  mill." 
On  Dec.  14, 1897,  a  convention  of  cotton  growers  assembled  at  Atlanta, 
Ga.,  several  states  being  represented.  At  this  convention  the  initial 
steps  were  taken  to  organize  the  Southern  Cotton  Growers'  associa- 
tion, the  principal  objects  of  which  were  to  be  the  protection  and  pro- 
motion of  the  cotton  industry.  The  delegates  present  favored  a  reduc- 
tion in  the  acreage  to  keep  up  the  price  of  the  staple,  opposed 
gambling  in  futures,  and  recommended  the  extension  of  the  organiza- 
tion to  all  sections  of  the  cotton  belt. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the  influence  of  the  cotton  growers'  associa- 
tion has  been  to  diversify  the  agriculture  of  the  South,  but  with  the 
influx  of  immigration  and  the  opening  of  new  farms  the  production  of 
cotton  has  gone  steadily  foi'ward  until  the  crop  of  1899  was  larger  by 
2,000,000  bales  than  that  reported  by  any  previous  census,  Louisiana's 
share  of  it  being  709,041  bales.  Of  the  115,969  farms  in  the  state, 
88,328  produced  more  or  less  cotton.  The  acreage  was  1,376,254,  the 
largest  in  the  history  of  the  state  up  to  that  time,  and  the  value  of  the 
fiber  (at  the  low  price  of  7  cents  a  pound)  was  $23,523,143,  in  addition 
to  which  the  sum  of  $3,481,669  was  realized  from  the  sale  of  the  seed. 
The  proximity  of  New  Orleans — probably  the  greatest  cotton  port 
in  the  world — to  the  cotton  fields  of  the  state  has  encouraged  the 
1—19 


290  LOUISIANA 

growing  of  this  crop,  and  tlie  chances  are  that  in  the  realm  of  Lou- 
isiana agriculture  cotton  will  be  king  for  years  to  come. 

Cottonplant,  a  post-hamlet  of  Caldwell  parish,  is  situated  on  a 
branch  of  Bayou  Castor,  about  9  miles  west  of  Columbia,  the  parish 
seat  and  nearest  railroad  station. 

Cottonport,  an  incorporated  town  of  Avoyelles  parish,  is  sitiiated 
in  the  southwestern  part,  in  a  rich  cotton  country,  from  which  it 
takes  its  name.  It  is  on  the  Texas  &  Pacific  R.  R.,  about  12  miles 
south  of  Marksville,  the  parish  seat,  is  a  prominent  shipping  point, 
has  a  money  order  postoffice  with  2  free  rural  delivery  routes,  a  bank, 
express  office,  telegraph  and  telephone  facilities,  and  in  1910  had  a 
population  of  866. 

Cotton  Seed  Oil. — According  to  Darby's  Emigrant's  Guide,  pub- 
lished in  ISIS,  the  London  society  for  the  encouragement  of  the 
arts,  manufactures  and  commerce,  learning  that  oil  might  be  ex- 
pressed from  cotton  seed,  and  that  after  the  extraction  of  the  oil 
the  residue  ati'orded  a  good  food  for  cattle,  offered  in  1783  a  gold 
medal  to  "the  planters  in  any  of  the  British  islands  of  the  West 
Indies  who  shall  express  oil  from  the  seed  of  cotton,  and  make  from 
the  remaining  seed,  hard  and  dry  cakes  for  cattle,"  Darby  does 
not  mention  that  am'  planter  ever  claimed  or  received  the  offered 
medal.  In  1799  William  Dunbar,  a  planter  of  the  Natchez  district, 
made  an  attempt  to  manufacture  oil  from  cotton  seed,  but  his  ex- 
periments ended  in  failure.  About  the  same  time  a  Dr.  Hunter 
of  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  took  a  lot  of  machinery  to  New  Orleans  with 
a  view  of  establishing  an  oil  mill  there,  but  for  some  reason  he  failed 
to  carry  out  his  intention.  The  first  distinctive  cotton  seed  oil  mill 
in  the  United  States  was  built  at  Natchez  in  1834,  but  it  was  not  a 
commercial  success.  Similar  attempts  were  made  at  other  places 
in  the  cotton  growing  states,  and  by  1840  several  mills  had  been 
erected.  But  the  quantity  of  oil  prodiiced  was  very  small  and  the 
process  of  extracting  it  so  expensive  that  none  of  these  mills  proved 
to  be  a  good  investment.  In  1847  an  effort  was  made  to  establish 
a  mill  at  New  Orleans — in  fact  a  mill  was  erected — but  the  under- 
taking was  attended  by  no  better  results  here  than  it  had  been  else- 
where. It  is  related  that  Frederick  Good  of  that  city  iised  to  show 
his  friends  an  ounce  bottle  of  the  crude  oil  which  he  said  had  cost 
him  .$12,000," 

The  great  ti-ouble  with  these  pioneer  mills  was  the  lack  of  suit- 
able machinery,  especially  some  kind  of  a  machine  for  removing  the 
linters.  The  hullers  were  so  imperfect  that  but  little  over  half  the 
oil  was  extracted.  In  1855  a  man  named  Knapp  invented  a  ma- 
chine for  separating  the  hulls  from  the  kernels,  and  in  the  same 
year  the  manufacture  of  the  oil  was  established  for  the  first  time  in 
this  country  on  a  profitable  basis,  the  first  really  successful  mill  be- 
ing erected  then  by  the  Union  Oil  company  of  Providence,  R.  I. 
The  company  then  organized  is  still  in  existence  as  a  part  of  the 
American  Oil  company.  The  father  of  the  industry  in  the  South 
was  a  ilr.  Aldige  of  New  Orleans,  who  visited  Europe,  where  oil 
was  manufactured  from  Egyptian  cotton  seed,  and  obtained  «iodels 


LOUISIANA  291 

for  his  crushing  machinery.  In  1860  there  were  7  mills  in  operation 
in  the  United  States.  Then  came  the  Civil  war,  during  which  the 
business  was  prostrated,  but  while  the  Southern  ports  were  in  a 
state  of  blockade  necessity  forced  the  use  of  oil  cake  and  meal  as 
food  for  cattle.  In  this  way  a  new  value  of  the  by-products  of 
cotton  seed  became  known,  and  since  the  war  this  knowledge  has 
been  made  to  contribute  to  the  general  economy  of  wealth.  The 
census  report  for  1900  says:  "The  result  is  that  from  a  product 
that  was  deemed  a  nuisance  in  1857  there  was  produced  in  1900  a 
value  of  .$42,-411,835,  and  only  53.1  per  cent  of  the  available  raw 
material  was  utilized." 

Edward  E.  Lemmond,  of  the  De  Soto  cotton  oil  company  of 
Mansfield,  La.,  in  an  article  published  in  the  Shreveport  Times  in 
1906,  in  speaking  of  the  mills  then  in  operation,  says:  "These  mills 
may  be  divided  into  two  classes — the  independent  mills  and  those 
in  combines.  The  number  of  independent  mills  exceed  those  in 
trusts,  and  are  principally  owned  and  controlled  by  individuals 
forming  stock  companies.  Great  many  of  the  independent  mills 
have  fertilizer  plants  in  connection  with  the  main  factories  and  use 
a  portion  of  their  cotton  seed  meal  as  a  nitrog^enous  ingredient  in 
preparing  a  fertilizer  for  the  local  trade.  Their  products  are  prin- 
cipally sold  through  the  broker  to  the  fertilizer,  manufacturer,  re- 
finer and  exporter.  The  larger  cotton  seed  oil  companies  are  the 
Southern  cotton  oil  company  of  New  York,  controlling  more  than 
120  mills;  the  American  cotton  oil  company  of  New  York,  and  the 
Interstate  cotton  seed  crushers'  association,  having  about  500  mem- 
bers. All  of  these  are  engaged  in  manufacturing  everything  ob- 
tainable from  cotton  seed." 

Briefly  described,  the  pi'ocess  of  manufacture  is  as  follows:  Upon 
reaching  the  mill  the  seed  is  screened  to  remove  all  foreign  sub- 
stances, such  as  sand,  sticks,  leaves,  pieces  of  bolls,  etc.  After  be- 
ing thus  cleaned  it  goes  through  the  delinting  machinery,  which 
removes  all  the  short  fiber  or  lint  that  remains  clinging  to  it  after 
ginning.  Fi'om  the  delinter  the  seed  passes  to  the  grinders,  where 
it  is  cut  into  pieces,  after  which  it  is  run  through  a  revolving 
screen,  so  con.strued  that  the  kernels  drop  through  the  ime'shes, 
while  the  hulls  roll  out  at  the  end  of  the  screen  as  "tailings."  Sup- 
plementary shakers  make  the  separation  more  complete.  The  clean 
kernels  are  then  heated  and  subjected  to  a  heavy  hydraulic  pressure 
to  extract  the  oil,  which  is  the  most  valuable  product  of  the  cotton 
seed.  The  average  yield  of  oil  per  ton  of  seed  is  about  38  gallons, 
though  actual  analyses  show  that  a  ton  of  well  matured  seed  con- 
tains oVer  50  gallons,  and  it  is  pi-obable  that  through  the  use  of  im- 
proved machinery  this  amount  will  ultimately  be  attained.  The 
first  refining  process  eliminates  the  water,  sediment  and  alkali,  and 
changes  the  crude  oil  into  what  is  known  as  "summer  yellow  oil." 
By  chilling  this  oil  until  it  is  partially  crystalized,  the  stearin  is 
separated  by  presses,  and  "winter  yellow  oil"  is  obtained.  The 
stearin  is  utilized  in  making  butter  and  salad  oils,  etc.  Sximmer 
yellow  oil  is  also  mixed  with  a  small  quantity  of  fuller's  earth  and 


292  LOUISIANA 

filtered,  the  refined  product  being  known  to  commerce  as  "summer 
•white  oil,"  from  which  is  obtained  lard  compound  and  cottolene. 
The  residue  obtained  from  the  refining  processes  contains  50  per 
cent  or  more  of  fatty  acids,  and  is  known  as  "soap  stock."  Mixed 
with  animal  fats  it  makes  a  fine  grade  of  laundr.y  soap,  and  it  is  also 
used  in  making  cylinders  for  phonographs.  By  treating  the  sum- 
mer yellow  oil  with  sulphuric  acid  a  white  oil  is  obtained  which  is 
known  as  "miners'  oil,"  as  its  chief  use  is  to  mix  with  petroleum 
for  miners'  lamps. 

Cotton  seed  oil  was  first  exported  from  the  United  States  in 
1870,  the  value  of  the  oil  exported  that  year  being  a  little  less  than 
$15,000.  At  that  time  the  oil  was  regarded  only  as  an  adulterant 
and  was  \ised  chiefly  in  Prance,  Holland  and  Italy  for  that  pur- 
pose. Since  then  it  has  rapidly  gained  ground  upon  its  merits,  as 
may  be  seen  from  the  fact  that  in  1901  the  exports  amounted  to 
49,356,741  gallons,  valued  at  $16,541,321.  Alfred  A.  Winslow,  U.  S. 
consul  at  Valparaiso,  Chile,  in  a  report  at  the  beginning  of  the  j'ear 
1909,  says:  "The  countries  supplying  the  most  of  the  cotton  seed 
oil  are  Italy  and  the  United  States,  which  have  supplied  about  75 
per  cent  of  the  table  oils  for  Chile  during  the  years  1905,  1906  and 
1907,  of  which  from  75  to  80  per  cent  was  cotton  seed  oil,  I  am  led 
to  believe.  Quite  a  portion  of  that  from  the  United  States  was  pure 
cotton  seed  oil  put  up  in  tin  cans.  A  large  portion  of  this  is  mixed 
with  imported  olive  oil  and  sold  in  these  markets  as  pure  olive  oil, 
according  to  the  best  information  I  could  get.  *  *  •  The  open- 
ing for  the  sale  of  more  cotton  seed  oil  in  Chile  seems  good.  The 
Chilean  people  are  fond  of  salad  oils,  and  many  of  them  are  satis- 
fied with  the  cheaper  grades,  and  are  in  no  way  opposed  to  cotton 
seed  oil  under  some  other  name. ' '  / 

Accordins  to  the  same  authority  the  sales  of  American  cotton 
seed  oil  in  Chile  increased  from  $84,206  in  1905  to  $405,226  in  1907. 
Vice-Consul-General  Oscar  S.  Heizer  of  Constantinople  reports 
sales  of  American  cotton  seed  oil  in  that  city  amounting  to  $260.- 
000  for  the  year  1908,  and  adds:  "It  is  thought  that,  owing  to  a 
poor  olive  crop,  these  figures  will  be  about  doubled  during  1909." 
With  these  conditions  prevailing  in  foreign  countries,  the  future  of 
American  cotton  seed  oil  is  assured,  and  a  product  which  was  once 
regarded  as  a  nuisance  will  become  a  source  of  even  greater  reve- 
nue to  the  Southern  states  than  it  is  at  present. 

Cotton  Valley,  a  village  in  the  northwestern  part  of  Webster 
parish,  is  a  station  on  the  Louisiana  &  Arkansas  R.  R.,  about  16 
miles  northwest  of  Minden.  the  parish  seat.  It  is  the  shipping  point 
and  supply  town  for  a  rich  agricultural  district,  has  a  money  order 
postoflice.  an  expi-ess  office,  telephone  and  telegraph  facilities,  and 
a  population  of  400. 

Cottonwood,  a  post-village  in  the  southwestern  part  of  Vernon 
parish,  is  situated  about  6  miles  west  of  Neame,  the  nearest  railroad 
town. 

Couley,  a  post-village  in  the  western  part  of  Winn  parish,  is  about 


LOUISIANA  293 

a  mile  east  of  Saline  lake,  8  miles  south  of  Coldwater,  the  nearest 
railroad  station,  and  15  miles  southwest  of  Winnfield,  the  parish  seat. 

Council,  Superior. — (See  Superior  Council.) 

Counties. — The  first  legislative  council  of  the  Territory  of  Or- 
leans, which  convened  in  New  Orleans  on  Dee.  2,  1804,  divided  the 
territory  into  the  twelve  following  counties:  Orleans,  comprehend- 
ing all  that  portion  of  the  territory  situated  on  both  sides  of  the 
Mississippi  river,  from  the  Balize  to  the  beginning  of  the  parish  of 
St.  Charles,  including  the  parishes  of  St.  Bernard  and  St.  Louis; 
German  Coast,  including  the  parishes  of  St.  Charles  and  St.  Joh»a 
the  Baptist,  commonly  termed  the  first  and  second  German  Coasts; 
Acadia,  composed  of  St.  James  and  Ascension  parishes,  ordinarily 
known  as  the  first  and  second  Acadian  coasts;  Lafourche,  embrac- 
ing the  parishes  of  Assumption,  Iberville,  St.  Gabriel  and  as  much 
of  St.  Bernard  as  is  situated  within  the  Territory  of  Orleans;  Pointe 
Coupee,  made  up  of  the  parish  of  St.  Francis;  Concordia,  including 
all  the  territory  lying  within  the  following  boundaries,  to-wit: 
"Beginning  at  the  mouth  of  the  Red  river,  then  ascending  the  same 
to  the  Black  river,  then  along  the  Black  river  to  the  Tensa  river, 
along  the  same  to  the  Tensa  lake,  thence  by  a  right  line  easterly 
to  the  Mississippi  river,  and  thence  down  the  same  to  the  point  of 
beginning;"  Ouachita,  including  the  territory  known  in  those  days 
as  the  Ouachita  settlements;  Rapides,  embracing  the  settlements 
of  Rapides,  Avoyelles,  Catahoula,  Bayou  Boeuf  and  Bayou  Robert; 
Natchitoches,  including  the  parishes  of  St.  Francis,  Opelousas  and 
St.  Landry;  and  the  county  of  Attakapas,  including  St.  Martin 
commonly  known  in  those  days  as  the  parish  of  Attakapas.  On 
March  16,  1809,  the  legislative  council  of  Orleans  passed  an  act  to 
the  effect  "that  the  line  dividing  the  county  and  parish  of  Natchi- 
toches and  the  county  and  parish  of  Rapides  shall  intersect  the  Red 
river  at  the  confluence  of  the  Rigolet  de  Bon  Dieu,  and  shall  run 
from  thence  on  the  west  in  a  direct  line  to  the  nearest  corner  of  the 
county  of  Opelousas,  and  on  the  east  side  to  the  nearest  corner  of 
the  county  of  Ouachita,  so  as  to  include,  in  the  county  and  parish 
of  Rapides,  all  of  the  settlements  below  the  Rigolet  de  Bon  Dieu 
on  the  Red  river."  Two  days  later  the  council  passed  an  enactment 
"to  remove  certain  doubts  as  to  the  northern  limits  of  the  county 
of  Concordia,"  to-wit:  "In  place  of  running  east  from  Tensa  lake 
to  the  Mississippi  river,  the  line  shall  continue  northerly,  so  as  to 
include  the  inhabitants  lying  on  and  in  the  vicinity  of  the  west  side 
of  the  Mississippi,  as  far  north  as  "Walnut  hills,  thence  down  the 
said  river  to  the  place  of  beginning. ' ' 

An  ordinance  by  the  territorial  governor,  W.  C.  C.  Claiborne,  on 
Dec.  10,  1810,  created  an  additional  county,  to-wit:  "I  do  hereb3' 
order  and  ordain  that  so  much  of  the  territory  of  Orleans  as  lies 
south  of  Mississippi  territory,  and  eastward  of  the  river  Mississippi, 
and  extending  to  the  Perdido  shall  constitute  one  county,  to  be 
known  by  the  name  of  Feliciana." 

The  legislative  council  on  March  11, 1811,  enacted  that  "the  limits 
of  the  county  of  Concordia  shall  continue  from  Tensa  lake  to  Bayou 


294  LOUISIANA 

Macon,  and  ascending  the  said  bayou,  which  shall  be  the  dividing 
line  between  the  counties  of  Concordia  and  Ouachita,  to  the  33d 
degree  of  north  latitude,  thence  east  to  the  ilississippi  river,  and 
thence  down  the  same  to  the  place  of  beginning." 

On  Sept.  5,  1812,  the  legislature,  in  order  that  the  limits  of  the 
county  of  Natchitoches  might  be  mere  definite,  enacted  that  this 
county  be  bo\inded  "on  the  north  by  the  33d  degree  of  north  lat- 
itude, on  the  south  by  the  county  of  Kapides,  and  on  the  east  by 
the  county  of  Ouachita,  and  on  the  west  by  the  Sabine  river  and  a 
line  running  north  from  the  32d  degree  of  north  latitude  on  the 
said  Sabine  river  to  the  point  where  it  intersects  the  northermost 
part  of  the  33d  degree  of  latitude. 

A  legislative  enactment  of  Feb.  29,  1816,  more  definitely  estab- 
lished the  boundary  between  Opelousas  and  Rapides  counties  by 
"a  line  to  commence  above  the  mouth  of  Elm  bayou  on  Bayou 
Crocodile,  so  as  to  include  the  settlements  on  each  side  of  the  said 
Elm  baj^ou,  thence  by  straight  line  to  the  upper  end  of  the  ripple 
on  the  Bayo\i  Boeuf:  thence  across  the  same  to  head  of  Hutf- 
power's  bayou,  so  as  to  include  the  settlements  on  each  side  of  the 
said  bayou." 

By  the  act  of  Feb.  7,  1817.  the  boundaries  between  the  counties 
of  Opelousas  and  Attakapas  were  defined  as  follows:  "beginning 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Chafalaya  river  at  a  point  where  it  is  inter- 
sected by  the  south  boundary  of  township  number  7,  south  of  the 
31st  degree  of  north  latitude,  the'nee  with  said  towu.ship  line  due 
west  to  the  bayou  known  as  the  Bayou  Portage  of  Fusilier,  then 
lip  the  said  bayou  to  the  northeast  corner  of  the  land  conceded  to 
Charles  de  Villers,  the  title  whereof  has  been  confirmed  to  him  by 
a  certificate  of  the  land  commissioners  for  the  western  district, 
marked  B.  number  173.  thence  along  the  upper  or  northeast 
boundary  of  the  said  tract  to  the  river  Teche;  thence  up  the  Teche 
to  the  junction  of  Bayou  Fusilier;  thence  up  the  latter  bayou  to 
the  Vermillion  river:  thence  along  the  Bayou  Vermillion  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Bayou  Caranerow;  thence  up  the  latter  to  the  north- 
east corner  of  the  land  of  Augustine  Nizat:  thence  by  a  right  line 
to  the  head  of  the  Bayou  Queue  de  Tortue;  thence  down  the  said 
bayou  to  the  river  Mermentou,  by  its  most  western  branch  to  the 
sea;  that  part  of  the  country  to  the  right  of  the  said  line  from  its 
departure  on  the  Crafalaya  river  being  hereby  deerared  to  be  with- 
in the  eoimty  of  Opelousas,  and  that  to  the  left  of  said  line  being 
hereby  declared  to  be  \\'ithin  the  county  of  Attakapas." 

Courts. — While  Louisiana  was  still  a  French  colony,  judicial 
functions  were  exercised  by  the  Superior  Council,  whose  jurisdic- 
tion at  least  in  the  later  period  was  chiefly  appellate,  and  by  numer- 
ous inferior  courts,  possessing  both  civil  and  criminal  jurisdiction. 
From  the  judgment  of  the  inferior  tribunals,  an  appeal  lay  to  the 
Superior  Council  at  New  Orleans.  The  French  administrative  and 
judicial  system  was  superseded  in  the  time  of  Gov.  O'Reilly  by  the 
Spanish  system,  and  there  was  established  in  the  king's  royal  name 


LOUISIANA  295 

a  city  council,  or  eabildo  (q.  v.),  for  the  administration  of  justice 
and  order. 

After  Louisiana  was  acquired  by  the  United  States  and  became 
the  Orleans  Territory,  Gov.  Claiborne  announced  at  first  that  he 
intended  to  leave  the  administration  of  the  province  as  it  had  existed 
under  the  Spanish  domination.  Portier  says,  however,  that  as 
Laussat  had  abolished  the  eabildo  and  established  in  its  place  a 
municipal  body,  the  officers  of  the  principal,  provisional,  and  or- 
dinary alcades  were  wiped  out,  and  there  only  remained,  therefore, 
in  the  city  of  New  Orleans  the  governor  and  the  alcades  de  barrio 
with  judicial  functions.  Hence,  Claiborne  established  Dee.  30, 
180.3,  a  Court  of  Pleas,  composed  of  seven  justices.  "Its  civil  juris- 
diction was  limited  to  cases  which  did  not  exceed  in  value  $3,000, 
with  an  appeal  to  the  governor  in  cases  where  it  exceeded  $500. 
Its  criminal  jurisdiction  extended  to  all  eases  in  which  the  punish- 
ment did  not  exceed  a  fine  of  $200  and  imprisonment  during  60 
days.  The  justices  individually  had  summary  jurisdiction  of  debts 
under  the  sum  of  $100,  but  from  ill  their  judgments  an  appeal  lay 
to  the  Court  of  Pleas. 

By  act  of  Congress,  March  26,  1804,  relating  to  the  Territory  of 
Orleans,  "The  judicial  powers  were  vested  in  a  superior  court  and 
such  inferior  courts  and  justices  of  the  peace  as  the  legislature 
of  the  territory  might  establish."  The  superior  court  was  to  con- 
sist of  three  justices,  one  of  whom  was  a  quorum.  There  was  like- 
wise established  a  district  court,  to  consist  of  one  judge,  who  was 
required  to  hold  four  sessions  annually  in  New  Orleans.  The 
judges  of  the  superior  court  and  the  justices  of  the  peace  were  to 
serve  four  years.  The  legislative  council  at  its  first  session  estab- 
lished certain  courts  of  inferior  jurisdiction,  and  for  each  of  the 
12  counties  into  which  the  territory  was  divided,  the  governor  was 
to  appoint  a  judge,  who  was  to  act  as  justice  of  the  peace,  and 
might  also  appoint  as  many  other  justices  of  the  peace  as  he  saw 
fit.  On  June  20,  180.5,  the  council  also  established  a  Court  of  Pro- 
bate for  the  territory.  In  March,  1805,  Congress  passed  another 
act  further  providing  for  the  government  of  the  territory,  whereby 
the  judges  of  the  superior  court  were  to  be  appointed  by  the  presi- 
dent of  the  United  States,  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  sen- 
ate, said  judges  to  hold  office  during  good  behavior.  The  courts 
were  furnished  with  interpreters  of  the  French,  Spanish  and  Eng- 
lish languages. 

The  first  constitution  of  the  state  vested  the  judicial  power  in  a 
supreme  court  and  such  inferior  courts  as  the  legislature  might 
establish.  The  supreme  court  was  given  appellate  jurisdiction 
only,  and  in  civil  cases  an  appeal  lay  where  the  amount  in  coti- 
troversy  was  $300  and  upwards.  The  court  was  to  consist  of  not 
less  than  three  nor  more  than  five  members,  a  majority  to  form  a 
quorum,  and  the  salary  of  the  judges  was  fixed  at  $5,000  per  annum. 
The  state  was  divided  into  an  Eastern  and  a  "Western  district,  and 
the  court  was  to  sit  in  both  New  Orleans  and  Opelousas.  After  the 
period  of  5  years,  the  legislature  was  given  the  power  to  designate 


296  LOUISIANA 

another  seat  for  the  court  than  Opelousas.  The  legislature  organ- 
ized a  supreme  court  of  3  members,  the  first  justices  being  Hall, 
Matthews  and  Derbigny. 

The  act  of  Congress  admitting  Louisiana  to  statehood  also  pro- 
vided for  the  appointment  of  a  U.  S.  district  judge,  who  was  to 
hold  four  sessions  of  court  at  New  Orleans  each  year. 

By  the  constitution  of  1845  the  judicial  power  was  vested  in  a 
supreme  court,  in  district  courts  and  in  justices  of  the  peace.  The 
supreme  court  was  made  to  consist  of  a  claief  justice  and  three  asso- 
ciate justices,  appointed  by  the  governor  for  a  term  of  8  years;  it 
was  to  sit  at  Is^ew  Orleans  and  elsewhere  as  determined  by  the 
justices;  the  district  judges  were  to  hold  office  for  six  years.  The 
result  was  a  great  simplification  of  the  judiciary  system  of  the  state, 
whereby  there  was  created  in  place  of  the  former  numerous  courts 
three  degrees  of  jurisdiction — the  inferior  courts,  or  justices  of  the 
peace;  the  district  courts,  and  the  appellate  or  supreme  court. 

The  constitution  of  1852  made  the  ofiBces  of  the  judges,  including 
those  of  the  supreme  court,  elective;  the  membership  of  the  supreme 
court  was  increased  to  five,  and  the  state  was  divided  into  four 
judicial  districts,  in  each  of  which  one  of  the  justices  of  the  supreme 
court  was  required  to  sit. 

During  the  military  administration  of  Gen.  Shepley,  courts  of 
justice  were  established  in  New  Orleans.  Gen.  Shepley  revived 
three  of  the  civil  district  courts,  and  criminal  jurisdiction  was 
vested  in  a  provost  court.  On  Jan.  1,  1863,  a  provisional  court 
went  into  operation.  "It  had  been  constituted  by  President  Lin- 
coln, and  consisted  of  a  judge  appointed  by  the  president,  with 
power  to  appoint  all  other  officers.  The  judge  was  Charles  A. 
Peabody  of  New  York,  and  he  and  all  the  other  officers  of  the  court 
were  men  fi'om  the  North.  The  powers  and  jurisdiction  of  the 
court  were  luilimited.  In  April,  1863,  the  supreme  court  was  reor- 
ganized with  Charles  A.  Peabody  as  chief  justice,  and  later  a  court 
of  criminal  jurisdiction,  a  probate  court  and  recorders'  courts  were 
opened.  Outside  of  the  city  there  were  parish  courts  of  general 
jurisdiction.  It  was  fortunate  that  the  number  of  provost  courts 
in  the  parishes  was  at  last  diminished;  they  had  been  but  too  often 
incompetent,  despotic,  and  corrupt."  (Fortier,  His.  of  La.,  Vol.  4, 
p.  38.) 

Under  the  constitution  of  1868  the  judicial  power  was  vested  in 
a  supreme  court,  district  courts,  parish  courts  and  justices  of  the 
peace. 

The  constitution  of  1879  extended  the  judiciary  system  of  the 
state  by  the  creation  of  certain  new  tribunals  known  as  courts  of 
appeal,  and  directed  the  legislature  to  provide  for  their  organiza- 
tion. It  also  defined  the  nature  and  duties  of  certain  special  courts 
provided  for  the  parish  of  Orleans  and  the  city  of  New  Orleans. 

The  nature,  organization  and  powers  of  the  present  judiciary 
system  of  the  state,  including  the  special  courts  provided  for  the 
parish  of  Orleans  and  the  city  of  New  Orleans,  is  elaborately  set 
forth  in  the  constitution  of  1913. 


LOUISIANA  297 

Coushatta,  the  parish  seat  of  Red  River  parish,  is  located  on  the 
east  bank  of  the  Red  river  in  the  central  part  of  the  parish,  and  on 
the  line  of  the  Louisiana  Railway  &  Navigation  company.  This 
location  was  formerly  known  as  Coushatta  Chute,  but  the  name 
was  changed  to  Coushatta  when  it  became  the  seat  of  parochial 
government  in  1871.  The  town  was  incorporated  on  April  22, 
1872;  is  the  principal  market  for  one  of  the  richest  agricultural 
districts  of  the  state ;  has  a  number  of  stores  and  factories  and  one 
bank.  The  first  telegraph  line  was  completed  between  Minden  and 
Coushatta  in  1875,  and  in  July  of  the  same  year  the  line  was  com- 
pleted as  far  as  Natchitoches.  The  first  church  dates  back  to  1850, 
when  a  Baptist  society  was  organized  at  Coushatta  Chute.  Two 
years  later  a  church  was  built  upon  government  land,  but  as  the 
Baptists  had  no  claim  to  the  land  a  Methodist  preacher  named  Read 
settled  here  and  used  the  building  as  a  dwelling,  and  it  was  not 
until  1880  that  the  church  proper  was  started  in  Coushatta,  and 
completed  in  October.  In  the  same  year  the  Coushatta  Male  and 
Female  seminary  was  chartered.  The  Armistead  oil  mill  across 
the  river  from  the  town  is  one  of  the  leading  manufactures  of  this 
district.     The  population  is  564. 

Covington,  the  seat  of  St.  Tammany  parish,  is  beautifully  located 
in  the  western  part  of  the  parish,  between  the  Bogue  Falia  and  the 
Tehefuncte  river  just  above  their  junction,  and  on  a  dry,  sandy  soil 
that  is  easily  drained,  which  make  the  site  an  ideal  one  for  a  city. 
The  town  was  first  incorporated  under  the  name  of  Wharton  on 
March  19,  1813,  when  it  "was  dedicated  to  Thomas  Jefferson  by 
his  fellow  citizen,  John  "W.  Collins."  By  the  act  of  the  legislature, 
approved  March  11,  1816,  the  name  was  changed  to  Covington, 
and  in  1829  it  was  made  the  parish  seat.  Covington  is  well  pro- 
vided with  transportation  facilities.  A  branch  of  the  New  Orleans 
Great  Northern  R.  R.  passes  through  the  town  and  connects  with 
the  Queen  &  Crescent  at  Slidell,  a  branch  of  the  Illinois  Central 
system  connects  Covington  with  Baton  Rouge,  the  St.  Tammany 
&  New  Orleans  Railroad  and  Ferry  company  has  an  electric  line 
connecting  Covington  with  Mandeville,  from  which  point  steamers 
run  to  New  Orleans  across  Lake  Pontchartrain,  and  there  is  a  line 
of  steamers  running  direct  from  Covington  to  New  Orleans.  As 
Covington  is  situated  in  the  long  leaf  pine  district,  lumbering  is  the 
principal  business  interest,  though  there  are  other  manufactures, 
including  ice,  brick,  etc.  Being  surrounded  by  open  pine  woods 
and  well  supplied  with  a  fine  quality  of  artesian  water,  the  town  is 
popular  as  a  health  resort,  and  is  visited  annually  by  over  100,000 
visitors.  There  are  two  banks,  three  newspapers,  a  public  library, 
a  good  fire  department,  a  beautiful  public  park,  recently  opened, 
•  overlooking  the  Bogue  Falia  river,  a  good  public  school  system, 
several  private  educational  institutions,  including  Dixon  academy 
and  St.  Joseph's  college,  a  well  conducted  electric  light  plant,  and 
churches  of  all  the  leading  religious  denominations.  The  city's 
trade  in  groceries  and  grain  amount  to  over  $1,200,000  annually, 
and  the  business  in  other  mercantile  lines  is  in  proportion.     Gov- 


298  LOUISIANA 

ington  is  preeminently  a  city  of  homes,  and  the  two  building  and 
loan  associations  are  both  doing  a  good  business  in  building  up  the 
place  by  increasing  the  number  of  home  owners.  The  population 
is  2,601. 

Coxe,  Daniel,  was  the  son  of  an  English  physician,  and  inherited 
from  his  father  a  claim  to  all  the  territory  lying  between  the  31st 
and  36th  parallels  of  north  latitude  extending  from  the  Atlantic 
coast  westward  to  the  South  Sea.  (See  Explorations,  Early.)  This 
claim  included  all  that  portion  of  the  present  State  of  Louisiana 
lying  west  of  the  ilississippi  river  and  north  of  the  31st  parallel. 
There  is  some  evidence  that  Coxe  made  two  attempts  to  found  set- 
tlements under  the  claim,  but  that  evidence  is  not  fully  authen- 
ticated. Winsor  says  that  the  English  ship  met  and  turned  back 
by  Bienville  at  the  place  known  as  the  English  Turn  was  one  of 
a  fleet  sent  by  Coxe  to  establish  his  claim.  Coxe  was  at  one  time 
a  member  of  the  New  Jersey  council  and  was  the  leader  of  a  polit- 
ical party  to  secure  the  removal  of  Gov.  Hunter  of  that  colony 
about  1716.  His  grandson,  Tench  Coxe,  has  been  called  "the  father 
of  cotton  growing  in  the  I'uited  States." 

Craighead,  Edwin  B.,  educator,  was  bom  at  Ham's  Prairie,  Mo., 
IMareh  3,  1861.  In  1883  he  graduated  at  Central  college,  Fayette, 
Mo.,  after  which  he  took  post  graduate  studies  in  Vanderbilt  uni- 
versity of  Nashville,  Tenn.  He  then  spent  two  years  in  Europe, 
chiefly  at  Paris  and  Leipsic,  where  he  finished  his  studies.  On 
Aug.  6,  1889,  he  married  ]\Iiss  Kate  Johnson,  and  from  1890  to  1893 
was  professor  of  Greek  in  Woft'ord  college,  Sj^artanburg,  S.  C.  He 
was  elected  president  of  the  South  Carolina  Agricultural  and  Me- 
chanical college  at  Clemson  in  1893  and  remained  there  until  1897, 
when  he  went  to  Central  college,  Fayette,  i\Io.,  with  which  institu- 
tion he  was  connected  until  1904,  when  he  was  elected  president  of 
the  Tulane  university  of  Louisiana,  which  he  held  iintil  1913. 

Crane,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  northwestern  part  of  Rapides  parish, 
is  about  4  miles  south  of  Boyce,  the  most  convenient  railroad  sta- 
tion, and  about  10  miles  west  of  Alexandria,  tlie  parish  seat. 

Cravens,  a  village  in  the  southeastern  part  of  Yernon  parish,  is 
a  station  on  the  Gulf,  Colorado  &  Santa  Fe  R.  R.,  about  20  miles 
southeast  of  Leesville,  the  parish  seat.  It  has  a  money  order  post- 
office,  an  express  office,  and  is  the  trading  center  for  a  considerable 
district. 

Crawford,  a  post-hamlet  and  station  in  the  western  part  of  St. 
Mary  parish,  is  on  a  branch  of  the  Southern  Pacific  R.  R.,  in  a  rich 
sugar  district,  and  is  a  trading  and  shipping  point  of  some  conse- 
ciuence. 

Creole,  a  post-village  in  the  southeastei-n  part  of  Cameron  par- 
ish, is  about  3  miles  from  the  coast  and  12  miles  directly  east  of 
Cameron,  the  parish  seat.  It  has  some  oyster  industries  and  a 
population   of   125. 

Creoles. — Webster  defines  the  word  creole  as  meaning  "One 
born  in  America  or  the  West  Indies  of  European  ancestors." 
Charles  Gayarre,  in  a  lecture  on  "Creoles  of  History  and  Creoles 


LOUISIANA  299 

of  Romance,"  at  Tiilane  university,  on  April  25,  1885,  stated  that 
the  word  Creole  originated  from  the  Spanish  word  "crioUo,"  from 
the  verb  criar  (to  create)  ;  that  this  word  was  invented  by  the 
Spaniards  to  distinguish  their  cliildren,  natives  of  their  conquered 
colonial  possessions,  from  the  original  inhabitants,  and  that  to  be 
a  "criollo"  was  considered  a  sort  of  honor.  The  transition  from 
the  Spanish  "criollo"  to  the  French  " Creole"  was  easy,  and  in 
time  the  term  was  extended  to  cover  animals  and  plants,  hence 
such  expressions  as  Creole  horses,  Creole  chickens,  creole  figs,  etc. 
Negroes  born  in  tropical  countries  are  also  sometimes  called  Cre- 
oles, but,  according  to  the  definition  above  quoted,  this  is  an 
erroneous  use  of  the  term,  as  the  negro's  ancestors  were  not 
European. 

Among  the  white  people  of  Louisiana  during  the  French  and 
Spanish  dominations  this  use  of  the  word  was  never  tolerated. 
The  colonial  troops  were  divided  into  four  distinct  classes:  1 — reg- 
ulars, or  troops  sent  from  Europe ;  2 — the  militia,  which  was  com- 
posed of  European  descendants  called  Creoles;  3 — friendly  Indians; 
4 — negroes,  who  were  called  upon  to  perform  military  duty  in 
emergencies.  The  last  two  classes  were  separate  from  and  were 
never  considered  as  forming  part  of  the  militia.  In  1794  Gov.  Vau- 
dreuil  said:  "It  is  to  be  regretted  that  there  are  not  more  Creoles. 
They  are  the  best  to  fight  the  Indians,"  etc.  Amalgamation  or 
commingling  of  the  races  was  discouraged ;  priests  were  forbidden 
to  marry  blacks  and  whites,  and  in  1751  Gov.  Vaudreuil  issued  a 
decree  that  "Any  Frenchman  harboring  a  black  slave  for  the  pur- 
pose of  inducing  him  or  her  to  lead  a  scandalous  life,  shall  be 
whipped  by  the  public  executioner  and  sentenced  to  the  galleys 
for  life." 

In  1767,  when  the  Marchioness  of  Abrado  came  from  Peru  to 
"  marry  Gov.  Ulloa,  to  whom  she  had  been  previously  betrothed, 
she  brought  with  her  a  number  of  Peruvian  women  who  were  her 
personal  friends.  Owing  to  the  dark  complexions  of  these  women, 
the  white  women  (creoles)  of  Louisiana  took  them  for  mulattoes 
and  for  a  time  refused  all  social  recognition  to  the  marchioness, 
because  of  her  association  with  wliat  they  regarded  as  members  of 
an  inferior  race.  In  view  of  these  historic  facts,  it  is  neither  proper 
nor  just  to  apply  the  term  creole  to  any  member  of  the  colored 
race,  and  the  use  of  the  word  in  that  sense  is  very  properly  resented 
by  the  French  and  Spanish  descendants  of  Louisiana.  Among  the 
real  Creoles  were  many  who  achieved  prominence  in  the  fields  of 
art,  science  and  literature,  or  who  occupied  high  positions  in  the 
social  world.  Abbe  Viel  was  a  creole.  So  were  Audubon,  Aubert 
Dubayet,  Paul  Murphy,  the  great  chess  player,  Gottschalk,  the 
musician,  Mrs.  Gen.  Wilkinson,  Mrs.  Edward  Livingston,  two  of 
Gov.  Claiborne's  wives,  and  the  list  of  distinguished  Creoles  might 
be  multiplied  indefinitely. 

Crescent,  a  village  in  the  eastern  part  of  Iberville  parish,  is  a 
station  on  the  Texas  &  Pacific  R.  R.,  about  3  miles  south  of  Plaque- 
mine,  the  parish  seat.     It  lies  in  a  fine  agricultural  country,  has 


300  LOUISL\NA 

lumber  industries,  a  money  order  postoffiee  and  a  population  of 
200. 

Creston,  a  village  and  station  in  the  northern  part  of  Natchitoches 
parish,  is  on  the  Louisiana  &  Northwest  R.  R.,  about  15  miles  north 
of  Natchitoches,  the  parish  seat.  It  has  a  money  order  postoflBce 
and  is  a  trading  center  for  the  surrounding  country. 

Crew  Lake,  a  money  order  postofiSee  in  the  western  part  of  Rich- 
land parish,  is  situated  on  Bayou  Lafourche  and  the  Yicksburg, 
Shreveport  &  Pacific  R.  R.,  about  8  miles  west  of  Rayville,  the 
parish  seat.  It  has  an  express  office  and  is  a  shipping  point  of 
some  importance.  ' 

Crichton,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  western  part  of  Red  River  parish, 
is  situated  on  the  line  of  the  Louisiana  Railway  &  Navigation  com- 
pany, about  8  miles  northwest  of  Coushatta,  the  parish  seat. 

Crop  Pest  Commission. — The  Louisiana  crop  pest  commission' 
was  called  into  existence  by  Act.  No.  6,  of  the  special  session  of 
the  general  assembly  held  in  Dec,  1903,  which  was  promptly  ap- 
proved by  Gov.  Heard,  who  had  siiggested  such  legislation  in  his 
proclamation  calling  the  extraordinary  session.  Under  the  pro- 
visions of  the  act  the  commission  was  made  to  consist  of  the  gov- 
ernor, who  was  to  be  ex-officio  chairman,  the  commissioner  of 
agriculture,  the  director  of  the  state  experiment  station,  the  station  > 
entomologist,  and  two  experienced  cotton  planters,  residents  of  the 
state,  to  be  appointed  by  the  governor  for  a  term  of  four  years. 
The  main  reason  for  the  establishment  of  such  a  commission  was 
to  combat  the  ravages  of  the  Mexican  boll  weevil  upon  the  cotton 
crop  of  Louisiana,  though  the  commission  was  given  "full  and 
plenary  power  to  deal  with  all  crop  and  fruit  pests  and  such  con- 
tagious and  infectious  crop  and  fruit  diseases  as,  in  the  opinion 
of  the  commission,  may  be  prevented,  controlled  or  eradicated." 
The  commission  was  also  given  power  to  make,  publish  and  en- 
force rules  to  prevent  the  introduction  or  spread  of  the  Mexican 
boll  weevil,  and  it  was  further  provided  that  any  firm,  corporation 
or  individual,  except  a  duly  recognized  state  or  Federal  entomolo- 
gist, having  in  possession  Mexican  boll  weevil  in  any  form — pupa, 
larva  or  egg — might  be  fined  in  any  sum  from  $25  to  $1,000,  to 
which  might  be  added  imprisonment  from  10  days  to  6  months. 
Every  violation  of  the  commission's  rules  and  regulations  was  like- 
wise punishable  by  a  fine  of  not  less  than  $25  nor  more  than  $1,000, 
with  imprisonment  at  the  discretion  of  the  court  from  30  days  to  6 
months,  all  fines  to  be  placed  to  the  credit  of  the  commission,  the 
funds  to  be  used  in  the  prosecution  of  its  work.  An  appropriation 
of  $25,000  was  made  as  a  beginning  and  the  commission  did  its 
first  practical  work  during  the  crop  season  of  1904.  Since  that  time 
a  great  deal  has  been  accomplished,  not  only  in  making  warfare  on 
the  boll  weevil,  but  also  in  educating  the  farmers  of  the  state  as 
to  the  nature  and  habits  of  the  varioiis  insects  that  act  as  crop  pests, 
the  value  of  birds  as  insect  exterminators,  etc.  In  July,  1908,  Prof. 
"Wilmon  Newell,  state  entomologist  and  secretary  of  the  commis- 
sion, announced  the  discovery  of  a  poison  more  effective  than  Paris 


LOUISIANA  301 

green  in  the  destruction  of  the  weevil  and  less  injiirious  to  the 
cotton  plants  to  which  it  may  be  applied.  The  planters  of  the  state 
have  learned  many  useful  lessons  from  the  work  of  the  commission, 
and  the  indications  are  that  it  will  be  continued  as  a  permanent 
institution. 

Crosskeys,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  extreme  southeastern  part  of 
Caddo  parish,  is  situated  on  the  Red  river,  about  2  miles  north  of 
Howard,  the  nearest  railroad  station,  and  25  miles  southeast  of 
Shreveport,  the  parish  seat. 

Crowley,  the  "Rice  City  of  America,"  and  the  capital  of  Acadia 
parish,  has  an  ideal  location,  about  midway  between  New  Orleans 
and  Houston,  with  neither  of  these  important  centers  too  far  away 
to  interfere  with  quick  shipments  necessary  with  large  distributing 
markets,  nor  too  near  to  detract  from  the  commercial  importance 
of  Crowley.  In  1885  the  site  of  this  town  was  a  prairie  over  which 
cattle  and  stunted  Acadian  ponies  roamed  at  will,  and  as  far  as  the 
eye  could  see  there  stretched  the  rolling  prairie  unbroken  save 
here  and  there  by  a  growth  of  trees  along  some  bayou  or  coulee. 
Near  the  water  courses,  the  Acadian  farmers  planted  rice  on  a 
small  scale,  but  the  broad  stretches  between  the  streams  were  given 
over  to  grazing,  as  cattle  raising  had  been  the  most  important  in- 
dustry on  these  prairies  from  the  earliest  settlement  of  Louisiana. 
The  value  of  the  land  was  extremely  low,  as  shown  by  the  fact  that 
in  1886,  the  174-acre  tract  upon  which  the  business  district  of  Crow- 
ley has  grown  up,  was  sold  for  the  sum  of  $80.00,  or  a  little  less 
than  45  cents  an  acre.  The  parish  of  Acadia  was  created  out  of  the 
southwestern  part  of  St.  Landry  parish  in  1886  and  Crowley  was 
chosen  as  the  parish  seat.  The  town  was  laid  out  with  broad 
streets  and  avenues  and  has  over  20  miles  of  well  graded  and  cared 
for  public  thoroughfares.  The  avenues  all  run  north  and  south 
and  the  streets  east  and  west.  In  Jan.,  1888,  the  town  was  incor- 
porated, and  it  enjoys  one  of  the  finest  climates  in  the  country,  as 
the  warm  months  of  the  summer  are  cooled  by  the  gulf  breezes, 
which  make  it  equal  to  Florida  or  California  as  a  resort. 

One  of  the  finest  courthouses  in  southwestern  Louisiana  is  located 
here,  built  at  a  cost  of  $75,000  in  1902.  The  city  owns  the  electric 
light  and  waterworks  systems,  and  has  built  an  excellent  drainage 
and  sewerage  system.  It  has  a  $25,000  city  hall  and  public  market, 
and  one  of  the  best  equipped  fire  departments  of  any  city  of  its 
size  in  the  country.  The  financial  affairs  of  Crowley,  which  amount 
to  millions  of  dollars  annually,  are  taken  care  of  by  the  3  substan- 
tial banks  of  the  city,  the  First  National,  the  Bank  of  Acadia  and 
the  Crowley  State  bank.  All  of  them  own  their  own  banking 
houses,  some  of  the  finest  business  blocks  in  the  city.  Employment 
is  given  to  hundreds  of  men  in  the  machine  shops,  3  iron  working 
shops,  and  in  the  branch  houses  of  3  of  the  largest  harvesting  ma- 
chinery and  engine  manufacturers,  3  implement,  wagon  and  buggy 
houses,  ice  factory,  bottling  works,  3  lumber  yards,  brick  yards, 
wood  working  shops,  sash,  door  and  blind  factories,  and  many 
other  institutions. 


302  LOUISLVNA 

The  offices  of  the  Crowley  Oil  &  Mineral  company,  the  majority 
pf  the  stock  being  held  by  residents  of  Crowley,  are  located  in  the 
city.  The  mercantile  houses,  which  care  for  the  trade  of  the  city 
and  suri-ounding  country,  are  excellent  and  numerous.  Today  the 
city  of  Crowley  can  boast  of  being  the  greatest  rice  milling  center 
in  America.  It  has  10  of  the  largest  rice  mills  in  the  country,  with 
a  combined  capacity  of  over  15,000  barrels  of  rice  a  day,  and  handle 
each  season  over  half  a  million  bags  of  this  cereal.  Crowley  is  the 
home  of  the  Rice  Association  of  America,  the  official  organization 
lof  all  the  rice  growers  in  the  country,  and  the  offices  of  the  presi- 
dent and  secretary  of  the  Rice  Millers'  and  Distributors'  association 
of  Louisiana  and  Texas.  In  addition  to  this  the  city  is  the  head- 
quarters for  2  of  the  rice  milling  and  irrigating  companies,  having 
mills  at  Crowley  and  nearby  points,  whose  canal  system  covers  the 
southwestern  part  of  Louisiana  like  a  net  work,  and  8  ware  houses 
with  selling  agencies  are  located  here.  A  large  oil  and  feed  mill  is 
established  in  the  town  for  the  purpose  of  using  the  rice  by-prod- 
ucts. Earl.y  in  its  history  the  city  recognized  the  necessity  of  good 
schools,  and  the  first  buildings,  which  were  of  wood,  were  replaced 
in  1902  by  siibstantial  brick  and  stone  structures.  There  are  3 
private  institutions,  in  addition  to  the  public  schools  of  the  city, 
the  Acadia  college,  which  has  a  number  of  fine  buildings,  another 
Protestant  institution,  and  the  convent  of  Perpetual  Adoration  un- 
der charge  of  the  Catholic  Sisters  of  i\Iercy.  There  are  1  Catholic 
and  7  Protestant  chiu-ches  located  at  Crowley.  There  is  a  telegraph 
office,  local  and  long  distance  telephone  stations,  express  offices, 
and  in  1910  the  town  had  a  population  or  5,099.  Transportation 
facilities  are  excellent  and  Crowley  may  be  regarded  as  a  consid- 
erable railroad  center.  It  is  on  the  Southern  Pacific,  the  Colorado 
Southern,  New  Orleans  &  Pacific  and  the  Opelousas,  Gulf  &  North- 
eastern, all  of  which  bring  the  city  in  close  touch  with  the  great 
markets  of  the  country  and  facilitate  transportation  of  the  immense 
rice  crops,  as  Crowley  is  practically  the  clearing  house  for  the  en- 
tire product  of  the  parish. 

CrowvUle,  a  money  order  postoffice  in  the  northeastern  part  of 
Franklin  pari.sh,  is  on  the  St.  Louis,  Iron  ^Mountain  &  Southern 
R.  R.,  aboiit  9  miles  northeast  of  Winnsboro,  the  parish  seat,  and 
has  a  population  of  200. 

Crozat,  Antoine  (or  Anthony),  the  son  of  a  French  peasant,  Avas 
born  about  1655.  Being  the  foster  brother  of  the  onl.y  son  of  his 
feudal  lord,  he  received  a  good  rudimentary  education  and  at  the 
age  of  15  years  was  placed  in  a  commercial  house  as  a  clerk.  He 
soon  developed  an  aptitude  for  mercantile  affairs  and  in  time  came 
to  be  one  of  the  richest  merchants  in  France.  By  loaning  money  to 
-the  government  he  won  the  favor  of  Louis  XIV,  was  made  ilarquis 
du  Chatel,  and  was  further  rewarded  by  being  granted  the  exclusive 
trade  with  Louisiana.     (See  Crozat  Grant.)     He  died  in  1738. 

Crozat  Grant. — For  more  than  ten  years  after  the  first  French 
colony  was  planted  in  Louisiana  the  settlements  on  the  Gulf  coast 
did  not  prosper  as  had  been  anticipated.     France  was  engaged  in 


LOUISIANA  303 

wars  with  other  European  nations  and  the  colony  was  neglected. 
In  the  winter  of  1710  provisions  were  so  scarce  that  the  men  were 
given  permission  to  go  and  live  among  the  neighboring  Indian 
tribes  in  order  to  obtain  food.  Most  of  the  early  settlers  had  come 
to  America  imbued  with  the  idea  that  it  was  a  land  of  vast  wealth, 
which  was  easily  to  be  obtained,  and  they  spent  their  time  in  vain 
search  for  mines  or  pearl  fisheries  instead  of  opening  up  plantations. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  year  1712  there  were  not  more  than  400 
people  in  the  colony,  of  whom  20  were  negroes.  Every  vessel  that 
went  to  France  carried  complaints  from  the  governor,  Bienville, 
that  he  needed  more  soldiers,  horses  to  work  the  few  plantations 
that  had  been  opened,  various  supplies  in  the  way  of  utensils,  etc. 
He  also  urged  that  those  who  had  prospered  should  be  compelled 
to  remain  in  the  colony  instead  of  returning  to  France,  and  asked 
permission  to  exchange  his  Indian  slaves  for  West  Indian  negroes 
at  the  rate  of  three  Indians  for  two  negroes,  but  to  all  these  and 
many  similar  requests  the  French  ministry  paid  no  heed.  So  far 
the  colony  had  been  a  great  expense  to  the  crown,  and  had  brought 
no  revenue  in  return.  Therefore,  in  order  to  relieve  himself  of 
the  necessity  of  giving  further  support  to  the  settlements  in  Louisi- 
ana, the  king  decided  to  entrust  the  management  of  the  colony  to 
private  hands.  Accordingly,  on  Sept.  14,  1712,  Antoine  Crozat  was 
given  a  monopoly  of  the  Louisiana  trade  for  a  period  of  15  years 
from  that  date. 

By  the  provisions  of  the  charter  Crozat  granted  the  exclusive 
privilege  of  trading  in  the  territory  between  Old  and  New  Mexico 
on  the  west  and  the  Carolinas  on  the  east;  to  all  the  settlements, 
roads,  ports  and  rivers  therein ;  principally  the  port  and  road  of 
Dauphine  (formerly  Massacre)  island,  the  river  of  St.  Louis  (here- 
tofore known  as  the  Mississippi),  from  the  sea  to  the  river  Illinois; 
together  with  the  river  St.  Philip  (previously  the  iMissouri),  and 
the  St.  Jerome  (heretofore  known  as  the  Wabash),  together  with 
all  lands,  lakes,  and  the  rivers  flowing  directly  or  indirectly  into 
the  St.  Louis  or  the  Mississippi.  The  territory  was  to  remain  in- 
cluded under  the  style  of  the  government  of  Louisiana ;  to  be  a  de- 
pendency of  and  subordinate  to  New  France;  the  king's  territory 
beyond  the  Illinois  river  to  be  and  continue  a  part  of  the  govern- 
ment of  New  France ;  and  the  king  reserved  the  riglit  to  enlarge 
the  government  of  Louisiana.  Crozat  was  given  the  right  to  ex- 
port from  France  to  Louisiana  all  sorts  of  goods  during  the  life 
of  his  charter,  and  all  other  persons  and  corporations  were  prohib- 
ited from  such  exportation,  under  penalty  of  having  their  ships 
and  merchandise  confiscated,  the  king's  officers  being  pledged  to 
assist  and  protect  Crozat  in  his  rights  by  the  seizure  of  his  compet- 
itors' vessels  and  wares. 

Permission  was  given  the  grantee  to  open  and  work  mines  and 
ship  the  ore  to  France.  Of  all  gold  and  silver  the  king  was  to  have 
one-fourth,  one-tenth  of  all  other  metals,  and  one-fifth  of  all  pearls 
and  precious  stones,  all  of  which  were  to  be  sent  to  France  at  Cro- 
zat's  expense.     Mines  remaining  unworked  for  three  years  were 


304  LOUISIANA 

to  revert  to  the  crown.  No  one  was  to  trade  with  the  colonists 
or  Indians  of  Louisiana  except  upon  the  written  permission  of 
Crozat,  whose  monopoly  was  complete,  the  only  restriction  being 
that  he  was  not  to  trade  in  beaver  skins.  All  land  under  cultiva- 
tion, and  all  factories  or  establishments  erected  for  the  maniifac- 
ture  of  silk,  indigo,  wool  and  leather,  were  to  become  the  absolute 
property  of  Crozat  in  fee  simple,  the  title  to  continue  in  him  so  long 
as  the  cultivation  or  manufacture  was  maintained,  but  to  become 
forfeited  at  the  end  of  three  years  of  idleness.  All  his  goods  were 
to  be  exempt  from  duty ;  he  was  to  be  permitted  to  draw  100  quin- 
tals of  powder  from  the  royal  magazines  each  year  at  actual  cost ; 
was  given  the  privilege  of  using  the  king's  boats  to  load  and  unload 
his  ships,  provided  that  the  boats  were  returned  in  good  condition ; 
and  was  granted  permission  to  send  every  year  a  vessel  to  Guinea 
for  negroes,  whom  he  might  sell  in  Louisiana  "to  the  exclusion  of 
all  others." 

In  return  for  all  these  rights  and  privileges  Crozat  was  required 
to  send  annually  two  vessels  to  Lovusiana,  on  which  he  was  to 
carry  free  25  tons  of  provisions  and  ammunition  for  the  colonists 
and  garrisons,  and  to  send  on  each  ship  "ten  young  men  or  women 
at  his  o^vn  selection."  After  the  expiration  of  nine  years  he  was 
to  pay  the  salaries  of  the  officers  and  garrisons  in  Louisiana,  and 
in  ease  of  vacancies  he  was  to  nominate  officers  to  fill  the  same, 
commissions  to  be  issued  to  these  officers  on  approval  by  the  king. 
The  king's  expenses  for  salaries  during  the  first  nine  years  were 
fixed  at  $10,000  annually,  to  be  paid  to  Crozat  in  France,  and  the 
drafts  of  the  commissaire  ordonnateur  were  to  be  paid  in  Crozat 's 
stores,  in  cash  or  in  goods  within  an  advance  of  50  per  cent.  Sales 
in  all  other  cases  were  to  be  at  an  advance  of  100  per  cent.  The 
laws,  edicts  and  ordinances  of  France  and  the  custom  of  Paris  were 
extended  to  Louisiana. 

On  March  13,  1713,  the  frigate  Baron  de  la  Fosse  arrived  at 
Mobile,  ha-\-ing  on  board  Antoine  de  la  Motte  Cadillac,  whom  Crozat 
had  appointed  governor-general,  M.  Duclos,  intendant,  M.  Le  Bas, 
comptroller  of  the  finances,  25  young  women  from  Brittany,  and  a 
number  of  other  passengers,  among  whom  were  the  governor's 
family.  The  vessel  also  brought  a  bountiful  supply  of  arms,  ammu- 
nition and  provisions,  all  of  which  were  deposited  in  the  public 
stores  for  future  distribution.  The  spirits  of  the  old  colonists  rose. 
They  felt  that  their  season  of  trials  and  hardships  was  at  an  end, 
and  all  went  to  work  with  better  heart  to  build  up  homes  in  Louisi- 
ana. But  their  hopefulness  was  destined  to  end  in  disappointment. 
Bienville,  who  had  been  retained  in  office  as  lieutenant-governor, 
and  who  was  well  acquainted  with  conditions,  looked  upon  Cadillac 
as  a  usurper.  He  felt  that  the  governorship  of  Louisiana  should 
have  been  given  to  him.  Consequently  friction  soon  arose  and 
there  were  two  parties  struggling  for  the  mastery.  It  might  have 
been  better  had  Cadillac  listened  to  the  suggestions  of  the  vet- 
eran Bienville  and  given  more  attention  to  agriculture,  but  un- 
fortunately, he  was  not  inclined  to  submit  to  dictation,  either  from 


LOUISIANA  305 

Bienville  or  from  Crozat  himself.  Althougli  Crozat  employed 
every  means  at  his  command  to  make  his  patent  profitable,  he  made 
the  same  mistakes  as  others  in  supposing  the  great  returns  could 
be  realized  from  mines  of  gold,  silver  and  precious  stones,  or  from 
the  trade  in  furs.  He  believed  that  King  Louis  had  given  him  a 
veritable  treasure-land,  and  had  accordingly  ordered  his  governor 
to  search  for  mines  of  precious  metals,  and  to  seek  the  far  oft'  and 
elusive  trade  of  Mexico.  Under  these  orders  it  was  perhaps  only 
natural  that  Cadillac  should  assume  a  dictatorial  attitude,  and  when 
later  he  was  urged  to  give  encouragement  to  agriculture  he  wrote 
to  the  ministry:  "Give  the  colonists  as  much  land  as  they  please. 
Why  stint  the  measure?  The  lands  are  so  bad  that  there  is  no 
necessity  to  care  for  the  number  of  acres.  A  coi^ious  distribution 
of  them  would  be  cheap  liberality." 

Agents  were  sent  up  the  Mississippi  with  instructions  to  visit 
all  the  Indian  tribes  and  open  up  the  fur  trade.  Others,  among 
whom  were  M.  Jonquiere,  M.  Dirigoin  and  St.  Denis,  were  author- 
ized to  open  up  the  trade  with  Llexico,  and  a  central  depot  for  this 
trade  was  established  on  Dauphine  island.  But  the  project  failed 
because  the  Spaniards  had  entered  into  a  commercial  treaty  with 
England  soon  after  the  peace  of  Utrecht,  and  the  ports  of  Mexico 
were  closed  to  the  French.  Towards  the  close  of  the  year  1714 
some  Canadians  arrived  from  the  Illinois  country  with  specimens 
of  ore,  which  iipon  analysis  proved  to  be  lead  with  traces  of  silver. 
This  encouraged  Cadillac  to  lead  an  expedition  to  that  section, 
where  he  found  lead  and  iron  ores,  but  not  the  silver  he  had  ex- 
pected. Trading  posts  had  previously  been  established  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Arkansas  and  near  the  mouth  of  the  Red  river. 
French  traders  in  passing  xip  and  down  the  ]\Iississippi  were  fre- 
quently robbed  and  sometimes  murdered  by  the  Indians.  To  pro- 
tect these  traders  and  stimulate  the  traffic  in  furs  Fort  Rosalie 
(q.  v.)  was  built  at  Natchez  l)y  Bienville.  Posts  were  also  estab- 
lished among  the  Natchitoches  and  west  of  the  Sabine  river  to 
guard  against  the  Spaniards  on  the  west,  and  Fort  Toulouse  on  the 
Coosa  river  as  a  protection  against  the  English  on  the  east.  In  the 
meantime  the  friction  between  Bienville  and  Cadillac  and  their 
adherents  had  increased  to  such  an  extent  that  the  governor  could 
not  rely  on  any  expedition  he  sent  out.  Those  whom  he  despatched 
to  look  for  gold  and  silver  went  their  ways  as  they  pleased  and 
nothing  was  accomplished.  This  condition  of  affairs  could  not 
long  endiire,  and  in  the  summer  of  1716  Cadillac  was  recalled.  He 
was  succeeded  by  L'Epinay,  but  with  no  better  residts,  as  it  was 
not  long  until  a  quarrel  arose  between  him  and  Bienville  that  added 
to  the  general  demoralization. 

Added  to  all  this,  the  monopoly  granted  to  Crozat  was  more  in 
name  than  in  fact.  The  Canadians  from  the  north  invaded  his 
territory  at  their  pleasure,  the  Spaniards  of  the  southwest  did  like- 
wise, and  irregular  traders  were  to  be  found  everywhere.  The  king 
failed  utterly  to  protect  his  chartered  privileges  and  when  called 
upon  to  do  so  admitted  his  inability  to  grant  the  request.  The 
1—20 


306  LOUISIANA 

colonists  themselves  were  opposed  to  the  monopoly  and  petitioned 
for  free  trade  -with  all  nations.  When  told  that  they  must  not 
trade  with  Pensaeola  they  easily  fonnd  methods  to  evade  the  re- 
striction by  becoming  smugglers,  and  many  engaged  in  illicit  trade 
with  the  Indians.  Under  such  circumstances  Crozat  grew  discour- 
aged. In  less  than  tive  years  he  had  expended  about  425,000  li^Tes 
and  had  received  in  return  less  than  300,000.  Seeing  no  probabil- 
ities of  improvement  in  the  near  future,  he  surrendered  his  charter 
in  Aug.,  1717,  and  was  soon  after  succeeded  by  the  Western  Com- 
pany,  (q.  V.) 

Cruzat,  Francisco,  who  was  prominent  in  Louisiana  affairs  under 
the  Spanish  domination,  was  born  in  1739.  In  May,  1775,  he  suc- 
ceeded Don  Pedro  Piernas  as  lieutenant-governor  of  Upper  Louisi- 
ana and  held  the  office  until  1778.  when  he  was  in  turn  succeeded 
by  Capt.  Fernando  de  Leyba.  The  latter  died  in  June.  1780.  when 
Cruzat  was  reappointed  and  served  until  Nov.  27,  1787,  at  which 
time  Capt.  Manuel  Perez  was  appointed  by  Gov.  Miro.  Cruzat  has 
been  described  as  "a  very  estimable  man,"  and  it  appears  that  he 
enjoyed  the  confidence  of  his  superioi-s  as  well  as  those  over  whom 
he  was  appointed  lieutenant-governor.     He  died  about  1798. 

Curry,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  eastern  part  of  Winn  parish,  is  situ- 
ated on  Beech  creek,  about  14  miles  east  of  Winnfield,  the  parish 
seat,  and  5  miles  east  of  Smith,  which  is  the  nearest  railroad  station. 

Curtis,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  southern  part  of  Bossier  parish,  is 
a  station  on  the  line  of  the  Louisiana  Railway  &  Navigation  com- 
pany, about  8  miles  southeast  of  Shreveport. 

Cut  Off,  a  money  order  postoffiee  in  the  central  part  of  Lafour- 
che parish,  is  situated  on  Bayou  Lafourche,  about  30  miles  south- 
east of  Thibodaux,  the  parish  seat.  It  has  telegraph  and  telephone 
facilities  and  a  population  of  450. 

Cutter,  a  post-hamlet  of  Pointe  Coupee  parish,  is  situated  in  the 
extreme  western  part  on  a  branch  of  the  Atchafalaya  river,  about 
3  miles  northeast  of  Elba,  the  nearest  railroad  station. 

Cypress,  a  village  and  station  in  the  southeastern  part  of  Natchi- 
toches parish,  is  at  the  jimction  of  two  branches  of  the  Texas  & 
Pacific  R.  R..  aboiit  10  miles  south  of  Natchitoches,  the  parish  seat. 
It  is  in  the  rich  Red  river  valley  and  is  the  shipping  and  supply 
town  for  this  productive  agrieultiiral  district.  It  has  a  money 
order  postoffiee,  an  express  office,  telephone  and  telegraph  facilities, 
and  a  population  of  100. 

D 

D'Abbadie,  one  of  the  last  officials  appointed  for  Louisiana  by 
the  French  government  prior  to  the  establishment  of  the  Spanish 
domination,  arrived  in  New  Orleans  on  June  29,  1763,  with  the  title 
of  director  and  commandant,  and  Gov.  Kerlerec  immediately  there- 
after departed  for  France.  In  a  short  time  D'Abbadie  informed 
his  government  that  the  colony  was  in  a  state  of  complete  destitu- 


LOUISIANA  307 

tion  and  was  a  chaos  of  iniquities.  This  was  a  severe  reflection  on 
a  government  Avhich  had  ruled  the  destinies  of  Louisiana  for  more 
than  60  years,  during  which  time  it  had  expended  in  the  interests 
of  tlie  colony  some  40,000,000  or  50,000,000  livres.  "On  April  6, 
1764,"  says  Fortier,  in  his  History  of  Louisiana,  "D'Abbadie  an- 
nounced the  arrival  in  New  Orleans  of  four  Acadian  families,  20 
persons." 

About  this  time  the  rumor  became  rife  among  the  colonists  that 
they  were  soon  to  pass  under  the  domination  of  Spain.  In  Oct., 
1764,  D'Abbadie  published  a  letter,  signed  by  Louis  XV  and  his 
minister,  the  Duke  de  Choiseul,  dated  April  21,  1764,  wherein  the 
director-general  was  informed  of  the  cession  to  Spain  by  the  secret 
treat/  of  1762,  and  ordering  him  to  deliver  to  representatives  of 
that  country,  whenever  they  should  present  themselves,  "the  said 
country  and  colony  of  Louisiana,  and  dependent  posts,  together 
with  the  island  of  New  Orleans,  such  as  they  shall  be  on  the  day  of 
said  cession."  The  instructions  in  the  letter  further  directed  him 
"to  withdraw  all  the  ofScers,  soldiers  and  employes  at  my  service 
who  shall  be  in  garrison  there,  and  to  send  to  France,  or  to  my 
other  colonies  of  America,  those  who  would  not  wish  to  remain 
under  the  Spanish  domination,"  though  this  was  not  to  be  done 
until  the  Spanislr  governor  and  troops  had  been  given  full  pos- 
session. 

D'Abbadie  did  not  live  to  see  Louisiana  pass  into  the  hands  of 
Spain,  as  his  death  occurred  at  New  Orleans  on  Feb.  4,  1765,  greatly 
beloved  and  sincerely  mourned  by  every  one  in  the  colony,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Charles  Aubry,  the  senior  captain  of  the  troops  in 
Louisiana,  to  whom  fell  the  lot  of  making  the  formal  transfer  of 
the  province  to  the  Spanish  officials  a  few  months  later.  (See  Au- 
bry, and  the  Revolution  of  1768.) 

Dagobert,  Father,  a  Capuchin  priest,  came  to  Louisiana  as  a 
young  man,  some  years  before  the  beginning  of  the  Spanish  domi- 
nation. He  was  not  learned,  but  his  charity  and  sympathetic  na- 
ture made  him  a  universal  favorite.  In  1752  he  was  engaged  in  the 
"war  of  the  Jesuits  and  Capuchins,"  as  it  has  been  called,  and  after 
the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits  was  appointed  vicar-general  of  Louisi- 
ana by  the  bishop  of  Quebec.  In  1768  he  was  a  witness  against 
UUoa  in  the  investigation  conducted  by  Huchet  de  Kernion  and 
Louis  Piot  de  Launay,  yet  notwithstanding  this  fact  O'Reilly  rec- 
ommended his  stay  in  the  colony.  Later,  when  Father  Cirilo  de 
Barcelona  arrived  to  investigate  the  religious  situation  in  the  col- 
ony, a  warfare  was  begun  on  Father  Dagobert.  Gov.  Unzaga  up- 
held his  course  and  wrote  to  Bishop  Echevarria  at  Havana:  "He 
is  beloved  by  the  people,  and,  on  the  grounds  that  I  have  stated,  I 
consider  him  entitled  to  the  favor  of  your  Grace."  Again  he  was 
permitted  to  remain  in  the  colony,  where  he  continued  to  exercise 
his  religious  functions  until  he  died  at  an  advanced  age,  beloved 
by  all  who  knew  him.  Gayarre  says:  "He  was  emphatically  a 
man  of  peace,  and  if  there  was  anything  which  Father  Dagobert 
hated  in  this  world,  if  he  could  hate  at  all,  it  was  trouble — trouble 


308  LOUISIANA 

of  any  kind — but  particularly  of  that  sort  which  arises  from  inter- 
meddling and  contradiction."     (See  Catholic  Church.) 

Dairying. — Butter  and  cheese  were  among  the  early  exports  from 
the  American  colonies  along  the  Atlantic  coast,  but  dairying  did 
not  appear  as  a  special  branch  of  agriculture  until  about  the  middle 
of  the  nineteenth  century.  Prior  to  that  time  New  York,  Vermont 
and  I\Iassachusetts  were  the  only  states  that  were  especially  known 
for  their  dairy  products,  but  with  the  growth  of  cities  and  the 
introduction  of  improved  transportation  facilities  the  dairy  indus- 
try came  into  greater  prominence  and  extended  westward,  so  that 
today  Ohio,  Illinois,  ^Michigan,  Wisconsin  and  Iowa  are  among  the 
leading  states  in  the  production  of  butter  and  cheese.  The  first 
cheese  factory  in  the  United  States  was  established  in  Oneida 
county,  N.  Y.,  in  1851,  and  the  first  creamery  in  Orange  county, 
N.  Y.,  ten  years  later.  In  1899  the  output  of  the  cheese  factories  of 
the  country  was  281,972,324  pounds,  and  the  amoiint  reported  as 
having  been  manufactured  by  farmers  16,372,330  pounds.  The 
total  butter  production  for  the  same  year  was  nearly  1,500,000,000 
pounds,  less  than  one-third  of  which  was  turned  out  by  the  cream- 
eries. 

It  is  only  within  recent  years  that  any  attention  has  been  paid  to 
dairying  by  the  farmers  of  Louisiana,  where  sugar  and  cotton  have 
been  the  principal  agricultural  products.  A  handbook  issued  by  the 
Louisiana  state  board  of  agriculture  and  immigration  a  few  years 
ago  says:  "Dairying,  while  in  its  infancy,  has  many  advantages 
in  Louisiana.  The  natural  conditions  of  climate,  cheap  feed,  and 
native  pastures,  pm-e  water,  and  plenty  of  cool  shade,  are  all  pro- 
vided liberally  by  nature  in  Louisiana.  The  selection  of  the  proper 
dairy  cow,  improved  dairy  machinery  and  appliances,  the  necessary 
knowledge  to  operate  the  dairy  and  to  make  good  butter,  become 
the  only  considerations.  Dairies  are  now  operated  in  all  the  cities 
and  towns  of  the  state,  while  farm  dairying  is  rapidly  gaining 
ground  in  the  rural  districts  where  limited  quantities  of  good  b\it- 
ter  are  made  in  the  family,  and  much  of  it  is  supplied  to  the  home 
markets.  There  is  great  need  for  creameries  in  Louisiana,  and  the 
growth  of  this  industry  will  iiltimatel.y  give  rise  to  their  introduc- 
tion. *  *  *  Fqj.  fiig  entliusiastic,  expert  dairyman,  Louisiana 
is  a  most  inviting  field." 

Daisy,  a  post-village  in  the  central  ]>art  of  Plaquemines  parish,  is 
situated  on  the  east  bank  of  the  IMississippi  river,  just  across  the 
river  from  Homeplace,  the  nearest  railroad  station,  and  about  10 
miles  soiitheast  of  Pointe  a  la  Hache,  the  parish  seat.  Population 
100. 

Dalcour  (R.  R.  name  Stella),  a  post-village  in  the  northern  part 
of  Plaquemines  parish,  is  situated  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Missis- 
sippi river,  and  is  a  station  on  the  Louisiana  Southern  E.  R.,  about 
14  miles  southeast  of  New  Orleans.  It  is  the  shipping  point  for 
fruit  and  garden  vegetables,  has  telegraph  and  telephone  facilities. 

Dalley,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  central  part  of  Jackson  parish,  is 
about  4  miles  west  of  Avard,  the  nearest  railroad  station,  and  9 


LOUISIANA  309 

miles  soiitheast  of  Vernon,  the  parish  seat.  It  has  telephone  and 
telegraph  facilities. 

Danville,  a  post-hamlet  and  station  in  the  southeastern  part  of 
Bienville  parish,  is  on  a  confluent  of  the  Dugdemona  river  and  the 
North  Louisiana  &  Gulf  K.  R.,  about  20  miles  south  of  Arcadia,  the 
parish  seat. 

D'Arges  Colony. — While  Gardoqui  was  serving  as  Spanish  min- 
ister to  the  United  States  he  employed  agents  to  solicit  and  encour- 
age emigration  from  the  states  to  the  Spanish  possessions  of  Lou- 
isiana and  Florida.  One  of  his  principal  agents  was  Don  Pedro 
"Wouver  d'Arges,  who  visited  New  Orleans  late  in  the  year  1787  to 
make  arrangements  for  the  location  of  some  1,500  families  from 
Kentucky  at  some  point  in  the  Spanish  domain,  if  the  promises  of 
Gardoqui  were  fulfilled.  About  that  time  Gen.  Wilkinson  began 
negotiations  with  the  Spanish  authorities  for  the  delivery  of  Ken- 
tucky to  His  Catholic  Majesty,  and  on  Jan.  8,  1788,  Gov.  Miro  wrote 
to  Valdez,  minister  and  secretary  of  state  for  the  department  of  the 
Indies,  as  follows:  "I  have  been  reflecting  many  days  whether  it 
would  be  proper  to  inform  d'Arges  of  the  ideas  of  Wilkinson,  and 
the  latter  of  the  errand  of  the  former  in  order  to  unite  them,  that 
they  might  work  in  accord  with  each  other;  but  I  do  not  dare  to 
adopt  the  first  idea,  because  dArges  may  consider  that  the  great 
projects  of  Wilkinson  might  destroy  the  merits  of  his  own  and 
precipitate  (a  thing  which  is  possible)  the  confiding  of  them  to 
some  one  capable  of  having  Wilkinson  arrested  as  a  criminal,  and 
also  because  the  latter  Avould  be  greatly  disgusted  that  another 
person  should  share  a  confidence  on  which  depend  his  life  and 
honor,  as  he  himself  says  in  his  memoir.  For  these  reasons  I  am  not 
able  to  declare  the  matter  to  d'Arges,  nor  could  I  confide  the  er- 
rand of  the  latter  to  the  former  before  knowing  the  intentions  of 
His  ^Majesty  about  Wilkinson.  Tlie  delivery  of  Kentucky  to  His 
Majesty,  the  principal  object,  to  which  Wilkinson  has  promised  to 
devote  himself  entirely,  would  assiire  forever  this  province  as  a 
rampart  to  New  Spain,  for  which  reason  I  consider  the  project  of 
d'Arges  a  misfortune." 

This  is  the  first  time  that  Gen.  Wilkinson's  name  appears  in  the 
Spanish  documents.  Notwithstanding  Gov.  Miro's  dilemma  as  to 
what  course  was  best  to  pursue  under  the  circumstances,  in  Febru- 
ary he  sent  to  Spain  a  copy  of  his  instructions  to  Col.  Grandpre, 
commandant  at  Natchez,  regarding  the  proposed  Kentucky  colony. 
Each  family  not  owning  negroes  was  to  have  a  concessoin  of  land, 
6  arpents  fronting  on  a  water-course  by  40  in  depth ;  families  with 
from  2  to  4  negroes,  or  composed  of  4  to  6  adult  males — \mmarried 
sons — 10  arpents  in  front  by  40  deep,  and  those  with  more  than  20 
slaves  were  to  receive  a  concession  20  arpents  by  40.  The  religious 
opinions  of  the  immigrants  were  to  be  respected,  though  they  were 
not  to  build  churches  nor  have  salaried  ministers.  Every  immigrant 
was  to  take  an  oath,  the  principal  clause  of  which  obligated  them 
to  take  up  arms  against  "those  who  may  come  as  enemies  from  the 
settlements  above."     They  were  to  pay  no  taxes  and  the  royal 


310  LOUISIANA 

treasury  -was  to  purchase  all  the  tobacco  they  might  raise.  Grand- 
pre  was  about  this  time  sxicceeded  by  Gayoso.  and  if  any  of  the 
Kentucky  colonists  ever  came  to  Louisiana  their  numbers  were  so 
few  that  no  authentic  record  of  them  has  been  preserved.  In  a  des- 
patch to  Valdez,  dated  Aug.  7,  1788,  Miro  acknowledges  the  re- 
ceipt of  orders  to  pay  d'Arges  $100  a  month,  dated  from  Jan.  1.  A 
few  days  after  this  communication  was  sent,  d'Arges  asked  permis- 
sion to  go  to  Kentucky,  or,  if  that  coiild  not  be  granted,  to  Martin- 
ique, where  his  family  was.  Permission  was  given  him  to  go  to 
i\Iartinique,  provided  he  would  agree  to  return  to  Louisiana  by 
Feb.,  1789.  He  promised  to  ret\irn  in  March,  but  the  promise  was 
never  kept.  He  left  an  iinsavory  history,  the  chief  interest  in 
which  is  that  it  shows  how  Miro  was  trying  to  protect  Spain  from 
the  encroachments  of  the  United  States. 

Darlington  is  a  village  in  the  northwestern  part  of  St.  Helena 
parish,  is  situated  on  Darling's  creek,  aboiit  10  miles  northwest  of 
Greensburg,  the  parish  seat,  and  is  a  station  on  the  Kentwood, 
Greeusburg  &  Southwestern  R.  R.    It  has  a  money  order  postoffice. 

Darrall,  C.  B.,  planter  and  member  of  Congress,  was  born  in 
Somerset  county,  Pa.,  June  24,  1842.  He  was  ediicated  in  the 
common  schools ;  studied  medicine  and  graduated  at  the  Albany 
medical  college.  When  the  war  broke  out  he  entered  the  Union 
army  as  assistant  surgeon  of  the  86th  N.  Y.  volimteers;  was  pro- 
moted to  surgeon,  but  resigned  from  the  army  Avhile  in  Louisiana 
to  engage  in  mercantile  pursuits  and  planting.  He  was  a  delegate 
to  the  Republican  national  convention  at  Philadelphia  in  1872,  and 
to  the  Cincinnati  convention  in  1876;  was  elected  to  the  state  sen- 
ate of  Louisiana  in  1868 ;  and  a  representative  to  the  41st,  42d,  43d, 
44th,  45th  and  47th  Congresses  as  a  Republican.  After  leaving 
Congress  he  served  as  registrar  of  the  U.  S.  land  office  at  New 
Orleans,  and  engaged  in  planting. 

Darrow,  a  village  in  the  southern  part  of  Ascension  parish,  is 
situated  on  the  east  bank  of  the  ^Mississippi  river  about  3  miles 
north  of  Donaldsonville,  the  parish  seat.  It  is  in  a  rich  agricul- 
tural district,  has  sugar  and  rice  industries,  a  money  order  post- 
office,  and  a  population  of  200. 

D'Artaguette.— Among  the  conspicuous  names  identified  with 
the  early  French  period  in  Louisiana  is  that  of  D'Artaguette.  The 
first  mention  of  his  name  occurs  in  1708,  when  there  arrived  at 
Dauphine  island  on  Feb.  10  of  that  year  Diron  D'Artaguette,  who 
had  come  to  succeed  Nicholas  de  la  Salle  in  tlie  office  of  inteudant 
commissary,  a  post  second  in  importance  only  to  that  of  governor. 
The  colony  at  this  period  was  at  a  very  low  ebb,  consisting  of  only 
14  officers,  76  soldiers,  13  sailors,  3  priests.  6  mechanics,  1  Indian 
interpreter,  24  laborers,  28  women,  25  children  and  80  Indian  slaves, 
all  the  rest  having  been  cut  off  by  sickness.  The  new  commissary 
was  especially  charged  by  the  French  minister  to  investigate  and 
report  on  the  past  conduct  of  all  the  officers  of  the  colony,  includ- 
ing Bienville:  to  examine  the  port  of  Mobile  and  decide  on  the 
propriety  of  maintaining  headquarters  there,  or  of  removing  them 


LOUISIANA  311 

according  to  new  plans  prepared  by  the  ministry.  D'Artaguettff 
was  a  man  of  high  character  and  later  rendered  a  report  to  the 
French  minister  which  entirely  exonerated  the  young  governor, 
though  it  set  forth  the  deplorable  condition  of  the  colony.  D  'Arta- 
guette  remained  in  the  colony  until  Nov.,  1711,  when  he  returned 
to  France  "carrying  with  him  the  regrets  of  the  colony."  During 
his  stay  the  first  settlement  on  the  Mobile  was  flooded  by  a  dis- 
astrous rise  in  the  river,  and  D'Artaguette  and  Bienville,  after  con- 
sultation, moved  the  headquarters  nearer  the  sea,  to  the  present 
site  of  Mobile.  Diron  D'Artaguette  subsequently  obtained  a  large 
concession  on  the  Mississippi  at  Baton  Rouge.  His  son  arrived  in 
Louisiana  in  1717  on  the  same  vessel  that  brought  Gov.  De  I'Epi- 
nay.  In  1719  he  was  commissioned  inspector-general  of  the  troops 
of  the  colony.  Father  Charlevoix,  on  his  journey  down  the  Missis- 
sippi, spent  New  Year's  day  in  1721  at  D 'Artaguette 's  grant,  which 
he  described  as  very  well  situated,  but  not  as  yet  very  much  im- 
proved, "and  which  they  call  le  Baton  Rouge  (the  red  stick)." 
While  serving  as  inspector-general  of  Louisiana,  according  to  la 
Harpe,  and  Penicaut,  the  younger  D'Artaguette  was  ordered  by 
the  council  to  remove  the  colony  from  Dauphine  island  to  Biloxi 
and  the  Mississippi,  as  it  was  the  wish  of  the  king  to  have  the  lands 
on  the  river  cultivated  for  the  support  of  the  colony,  the  coast  lands 
being  regarded  as  sterile.  Diron  was  later  appointed  royal  lieuten- 
ant of  the  province  (1732),  and  Dumont  says  that  he  was  command- 
ant at  Fort  Conde  de  la  Mobile  in  1735.  He  finally  died  at  Cape 
Frangois,  in  the  island  of  St.  Domingo,  where  he  was  filling  the  po- 
sition of  king's  lieutenant.  A  younger  brother  of  D'Artaguette, 
Pierre,  was  also  prominent  in  the  early  annals  of  Louisiana.  This 
brother  was  commissioned  captain  of  a  company  of  troops  destined 
for  the  Illinois  post  in  1718,  afterward  served  with  distinction  in 
the  Natchez  wars,  and  was  rewarded  by  the  appointment  of  com- 
dandant  of  the  Illinois  district  with  headquarters  at  Fort  Chartres. 
He  was  thus  serving  when  ordered  by  Bienville  to  lead  an  auxiliary 
force  to  his  assistance,  during  the  latter 's  disastrous  campaign  of 
1736  against  the  Chiekasaws,  and  was  burned  at  the  stake.  Says 
Fortier:  "The  unhappy  fate  of  D'Artaguette  struck  the  imagina- 
tion of  the  colonists,  and  his  name  has  been  connected  with  a 
proverb  in  Louisiana.  In  speaking  of  something  very  old,  one 
says:  'As  old  as  the  time  of  D 'Artagiiette — vieux  comme  du  temps 
D'Artaguette.'  " 

Davey,  Robert  C,  tlie  popular  congressman  from  the  second 
district  of  Louisiana  for  several  years,  was  born  on  Oct.  22,  1853, 
in  New  Orleans,  where  he  received  his  elementary  education,  and 
graduated  at  St.  Vincent's  college  at  Cape  Girardeau,  Mo.,  in  1871. 
He  was  elected  to  the  state  senate  from  New  Orleans  in  1879,  1884 
and  1892,  and  during  the  senatorial  sessions  of  1884  and  1886  he 
acted  in  the  capacity  of  president  protempore  of  that  body.  In 
1880,  1882,  1884  and  1886,  he  was  elected  to  the  judgeship  of  the 
first  recorder's  court  in  Ncm'  Orleans;  was  defeated  for  the  mayor- 
alty of  his  native  city  in  1888;  in  1892  the  Democrats  of  his  Con- 


312  LOUISLIXA 

gressional  district  selected  him  as  their  candidate  for  representa- 
tive, and  at  the  election  which  followed  he  was  overwhelmingly 
successful.  He  acquitted  himself  with  credit  as  a  member  of  the 
53d  congress,  but  absolutely  refused  to  become  a  candidate  for 
reelection  in  1894.  But  two  years  later  he  yielded  to  the  demands 
of  his  former  constituents  and  became  a  suceessfiil  candidate  for  a 
seat  in  the  55th  Congress.  He  assidiioiisly  and  zealously  continued 
to  represent  the  people  of  his  state  and  district  to  the  day  of  his 
death,  which  occurred  on  Dec.  26,  1908. 

Davezac,  Castera,  was  a  Creole  of  St.  Domingo,  but  at  the  time 
of  the  war  of  1812  was  a  resident  of  New  Oi'leans.  He  volunteered 
his  services  and  became  an  aide-de-camp  to  Gen.  Jackson,  who  in  a 
letter  to  the  secretary  of  war  dated  Dee.  27,  ISl-l,  says  that  Davezac 
"faced  danger  wherever  it  was  to  be  met,  and  carried  my  orders 
with  the  utmost  promptitude."  In  his  report  of  Jan.  21,  1815, 
Jackson  speaks  of  ^laj.  Davezac,  who  as  .judge  advocate  "has  mer- 
ited the  thanks  of  the  general  by  the  calm  and  deliberate  courage 
he  has  displayed  on  every  occasion,  etc."  He  also  acted  as  inter- 
preter for  Jackson,  and  was  a  witness  before  the  committee  to  in- 
vestigate the  charge  that  the  legislature  was  about  to  turn  the 
country  over  to  the  enemj*. 

Davidson,  Thomas  G.,  lawyer  and  member  of  Congress,  was  born 
in  Jefferson  eoiinty.  iliss.,  Aug.  6,  1805.  He  received  a  liberal  edu- 
cation; studied  and  began  the  practice  of  law  at  Baton  Rouge.  La.; 
was  a  member  of  the  lower  house  of  the  state  legislature  from  1833 
to  18'46 ;  was  elected  a  representative  from  Louisiana  to  the  Sith 
Congress  as  a  Democrat,  and  reelected  to  the  35th  and  36th  Con- 
gresses. He  died  on  his  farm  in  Livingston  parish,  La.,  Sept.  11, 
1883. 

Davis,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  northwestern  part  of  Catahoula  par- 
ish, is  near  the  northern  boundary  on  a  branch  of  Little  river,  about 
4  miles  southeast  of  Standard,  the  nearest  railroad  station,  and  23 
miles  uorthwest   of  Harrisonburg,  the  parish   seat. 

Davis,  Jefferson,  soldier  and  president  of  the  Southern  Confed- 
eracy, was  born  in  what  is  now  Todd  county,  Ivy.,  June  3,  ISOS,  the 
youngest  of  ten  children  born  to  Samuel  and  Jane  (Co'ok)  Davis, 
the  former  of  Welsh  and  the  latter  of  Scotch-Irish  descent.  While 
still  in  his  infancy  the  familj--  removed  to  Bayou  Teche,  La.,  and 
thence  to  Wilkinson  county,  Miss.,  where  Jefferson  received  his 
elementary  education.  At  an  early  age  he  entered  Transylvania 
university  at  Lexington,  Ky.,  but  on  Sept.  1,  1824,  he  was  appointed 
a  cadet  in  the  U.  S.  military  academy  at  West  Point,  where  he 
gradiJated  on  July  1,  1828,  and  entered  the  army  as  brevet  second 
lieutenant  of  infantry.  After  serving  at  various  places  on  the  fron- 
tier, he  was  made  first  lieiitenant  of  dragoons  on  ilarch  .4,  1833, 
and  ordered  to  Fort  Gibson,  I.  T.  He  resigned  his  commission  in 
the  army  on  June  30,  1835,  and  returned  to  Mississippi ;  was  a  presi- 
dential elector  from  that  state  in  1844;  elected  to  Congress  in  1845; 
and  in  the  War  with  ^lexico  was  colonel  of  the  1st  Mississippi  in- 
fantry.    He  participated  in  the  battle  of  ilonterey,  where  he  was 


LOUISIANA  313 

appointed  on  the  commission  to  arrange  the  terms  of  eapitvilation, 
and  was  severely  wounded  at  Buena  Vista.  Prom  1847  to  1851  he 
was  a  member  of  the  U.  S.  senate  from  Mississippi;  was  secretary 
of  war  from  1853  to  1857 ;  and  was  then  again  in  the  senate  imtil 
the  breaking  out  of  the  Civil  war  in  1861.  On  Jan.  21,  he  with- 
drew from  the  senate ;  was  inavigurated  at  ^lontgomery,  Ala.,  as 
the  provisional  president  of  the  Confederacy  on  Feb.  18,  and  four 
days  later  as  president  under  the  permanent  organization.  Prom 
that  time  until  April,  1865,  Mr.  Davis'  career  was  a  part  of  the 
history  of  the  Confederacy.  During  this  period  he  resided  at  Rich- 
mond, Va.,  the  Confederate  capital,  and  when  the  evacuation  of 
that  city  was  seen  to  be  inevitable,  he  advised  his  wife  to  take 
their  children  and  go  to  North  Carolina,  saying:  "If  I  live  you  can 
come  to  me  when  the  struggle  is  ended,  but  I  do  not  expect  to  sur- 
vive the  destrizction  of  constitutional  liberty."  After  the  surrender 
of  Gen.  Johnston's  army  in  North  Carolina  Mr.  Davis  rejoined  his 
family  in  Georgia  and  made  an  effort  to  reach  the  Trans-Missis- 
sippi country.  A  reward  of  $100,000  had  been  offered  for  his  appre- 
hension on  a  charge  of  complicity  in  the  j)lot  to  assassinate  Presi- 
dent Lincoln,  and  early  on  the  morning  of  May  10,  1865,  he  was 
captured  near  Irwinville,  Ga.  He  was  taken  to  Fortress  Monroe, 
where  he  was  kept  in  confinement  until  May  14,  1867,  when  he 
was  delivered  to  the  civil  authorities  on  a  writ  of  habeas  corpus 
and  admitted  to  bail,  the  bond  being  furnished  by  Horace  Greeley, 
Gerrit  Smith  and  Cornelius  Vanderbilt.  In  the  meantime  he  had 
been  indicted  for  treason  in  IMay,  1866,  and  although  he  repeatedly 
asked  for  a  trial  his  request  was  not  granted.  The  case  was  finally 
dismissed.  After  his  release  Mr.  Davis  spent  some  time  in  Canada, 
and  after  a  trip  to  Europe  located  at  Memphis,  Tenn.,  where  he 
became  president  of  a  life  insurance  company.  This  was  consoli- 
dated with  another  Memphis  company  in  1874,  when  he  made  an- 
other trip  to  Europe,  and  upon  his  return  to  this  country  rented 
a  cottage  at  Beauvoir,  Miss.,  and  began  writing  "The  Rise  and 
Fall  of  the  Confederate  Government,"  which  was  published  in  1881. 
During  the  years  succeeding  liis  discharge  by  the  U.  S.  supreme 
court  he  made  numerous  adtlresses  throughout  the  Southern  States, 
two  of  these  being  at  New  Orleans  on  the  occasions  of  the  dedica- 
tion of  the  monuments — to  Albert  Sidney  Johnston  and  Stonewall 
Jackson.  Mr.  Davis  died  on  Dec.  6,  1889,  at  the  residence  of  Jiidge 
Charles  E.  Fenner  in  New  Orleans.  His  body  was  taken  to  the  city 
hall,  where  it  lay  in  state  in  the  council  chamber,  many  people 
coming  to  take  a  last  look  at  the  features  of  the  man  who  had 
presided  over  the  Southern  Confederacy  during  its  existence.  He 
was  finally  buried  at  Richmond,  Va. 

Davis,  Mary  Evelyn  ("MoUie  Moore"),  was  born  at  Talladega, 
Ala.,  in  1852.  She  was  the  daughter  of  Dr.  John  and  Marion  Lucy 
(Crutchfield)  Moore  and  was  reared  and  educated  on  a  plantation 
in  Texas.  In  1874  she  married  Maj.  Thomas  E.  Davis,  and  is  known 
as  the  author  of  "Minding  the  Gap,  and  Other  Poems,"  "In  War 


314  LOUISIANA 

Times  at  La  Rose  Blanche,"  "An  Elephant's  Track,"  "Under  Six 
Flags,"  "The  Price  of  Silence,"  and  other  novels. 

Dawson,  John  B.,  planter  and  member  of  Congress,  was  born  at 
Nashville,  Tenn.,  in  1800.  He  removed  to  Louisiana  and  became 
a  planter;  was  elected  to  the  lower  house  of  the  state  legislature, 
where  he  served  for  several  years;  was  judge  of  the  parish  court; 
was  elected  a  representative  from  Louisiana  to  the  27th  Congress 
as  a  Democrat,  and  reelected  to  the  28th.  He  died  on  June  26, 
1845,  at  St.  Francisville,  La. 

Deaf  and  Dumb  Institute. — The  state  school  for  educating  and 
training  industrially  the  deaf  youth  of  Louisiana  was  established 
as  a  part  of  the  free  school  system  in  the  year  1852,  and  has  been 
in  continuous  operation  ever  since.  The  school  started  with  an 
enrollment  of  only  12  pupils,  but  there  are  now,  according  to  the 
last  report  of  Superintendent  S.  T.  "Walker,  148  pupils  attending 
the  school — 87  boys  and  61  girls.  The  total  number  who  have  re- 
ceived instruction  since  the  organization  of  the  school  is  608. 
Practically  all  of  these  pupils  have  now  become  self-supporting, 
and  many  are  heads  of  families.  There  was  held  in  1908  at  the 
institute  in  Baton  Rouge  a  large  reunion  of  the  former  pupils  and 
their  friends,  when  a  permanent  organization  was  effected,  and 
similar  reunions  will  doubtless  be  held  at  stated  intervals  in  the 
years  to  come. 

The  curricvilum  of  this  school  embraces  common  school  studies, 
and  the  boys  in  addition  are  given  a  very  fair  working  knowledge 
of  the  following  trades;  cabinet-making  and  carpentry,  printing 
and  type-setting,  shoe-making,  harness  making,  house  painting  and 
decorating.  The  girls  are  taught  plain  and  fancy  sewing  and  cook- 
.ing.  The  course  of  stiady  requires  from  10  to  12  years,  as  a  be- 
ginner has  absolutely  no  written  or  spoken  laug^iage  to  start  with. 
Classes  therefore  are  necessarily  small.  Not  more  than  10  can  be 
well  taught  by  a  single  teacher.  Superintendent  Walker  states  in 
his  last  report  that  48  new  pupils  were  enrolled  during  the  past  two 
years,  and  the  corps  of  teachers  was  increased  from  8  to  12  in 
number.  He  says,  "to  put  the  school  where  it  should  be  to  do  good 
work,  especially  in  the  industrial  department,  tlie  state  should 
appropriate  sufficient  money  to  meet  the  imperative  demands.  The 
whole  plant,  also,  for  safety  and  economy  and  comfort,  should 
have  a  modern  heating  and  lighting  system  instead  of  the  danger- 
ous fireplaces  now  used.  The  school  has  progressed  in  the  last 
two  years,  but  there  is  yet  much  to  accomplish  to  place  it  on  the 
plane  it  should  occupy,  namely,  that  of  the  best  average  schools  of 
its  kind  in  the  nation." 

To  the  honor  of  the  state,  the  school  is  entirely  free,  and  there  is 
no  reason  why  every  deaf  child  in  the  state  should  not  avail  him- 
self of  its  splendid  privileges. 

De  Blanc,  Alcibiade,  jurist  and  patriot,  was  a  native  of  Louisiana 
and  a  descendant  of  St.  Denis,  who  figured  so  prominently  in  the 
early  history  of  the  colony.  He  was  born  in  the  parish  of  St.  Mar- 
tin, Sept.  16,  1821,  and  there  grew  to  manliood.     After  a  liberal 


LOUISIANA  315 

education  along  general  lines,  lie  took  up  the  study  of  law  and  rose 
to  eminence  in  that  profession.  In  1873  he  successfully  led  the  cit- 
izens of  St.  Martin  parish  in  opposition  to  Gov.  Kellogg 's  tax  col- 
lectors and  metropolitan  brigade,  and  the  following  spring  was  one 
of.  the  leading  spirits  in  the  organizations  of  the  White  League 
which  temporarily  overthrew  the  carpet-bag  government  in  Sept., 
1874.  Judge  De  Blanc  was  not  merely  an  agitator,  but  possessed 
many  of  the  attributes  of  the  true  hero.  He  loved  justice  and  fair 
play,  and  his  actions  during  the  period  above  mentioned  were  dic- 
tated by  his  sincere  desire  to  improve  the  conditions  of  the  people 
of  the  state.  From  1877  to  1880  he  was  one  of  the  justices  of  the 
Louisiana  supreme  court,  having  been  appointed  to  that  position 
by  Gov.  Francis  T.  Nicholls,  and  while  a  member  of  that  tribunal 
his  decisions  showed  him  to  be  well  versed  in  the  law.  He  died  at 
his  home  in  St.  IMartinville  on  Nov.  8,  1883. 

Debouchel,  Victor,  historian  and  legislator,  was  the  author  of  a 
work  entitled  "Histoire  de  la  Louisiane,  depuis  les  premieres  decou- 
vertes  jusqu  en  1840,"  which  was  published  in  1841.  A  review  of 
the  history  says:  "The  work  is  interesting  and  the  style  clear  and 
concise.  The  aim  of  the  author  was  to  write  a  history  for  schools, 
but  which  might  be  read  with  profit,  even  by  men  of  culture.  The 
dates  are  very  carefully  given  at  the  beginning  of  every  paragraph 
treating  of  a  different  subject,  and  the  contents  of  each  chapter  are 
indicated  by  a  well-chosen  title."  Mr.  Debouchel  was  a  member 
of  the  Loiiisiana  legislature  which  met  on  Feb.  9,  1846, — the  first 
under  the  constitution  of  1845 — and  was  otherwise  prominent  in 
the  public  affairs  of  the  state. 

De  Bow,  James  Dunwoody  Brownson,  for  many  years  editor  of 
the  "Commercial  Review"  of  New  Orleans,  and  a  prominent  politi- 
cal economist,  was  born  in  Charleston,  S.  C,  July  10,  1820.  In  his 
young  manhood  he  was  employed  for  seven  years  in  a  commercial 
house  in  his  native  city,  and  graduated  from  Charleston  college  in 
1843.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  of  his  state  in  1844,  but  did  not 
engage  in  the  practice  of  the  legal  profession  to  any  great  extent. 
In  1845  he  went  to  New  Orleans,  and  very  soon  after  his  arrival 
there  he  commenced  to  make  preparations  for  the  issue  of  the  above 
mentioned  periodical.  Mr.  De  Bow  was  active  in  other  fields  than 
the  editorial  while  a  resident  of  New  Orleans.  In  1848  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  political  economy  and  commercial  statistics 
at  the  University  of  Louisiana.  At  the  same  time  he  was  active 
in  assisting  in  the  founding  of  the  Louisiana  Historical  society — 
which  organization  was  the  genesis  of  the  academy  of  science  of 
the  present  day.  He  left  his  chair  at  the  university  in  1850  to  as- 
sume charge  of  the  census  bureau  in  the  state,  in  which  capacity 
he  continued  to  act  for  three  year.s.  He  was  made  superintendent 
of  the  census  bureau  by  Pres.  Pierce  in  1853,  and  continued  in  tliis 
office  for  about  two  years,  and  at  the  same  time  actively  editing 
the  "Review."  He  was  also  very  active  on  the  platform,  his  main 
addresses  being  along  the  lines  of  political  economy,  and  were  in 
the  main  delivered  before  literary,  commercial,   and  agricultural 


316  LOUISDVNA 

associations,  tlii'ougliout  the  country.  He  contribi;ted  many  arti- 
cles of  interest  on  American  topics  to  the  Encj-clopedia  Brittanica. 
In  1853  he  published  a  two-volume  work  entitled  "Encyclopedia  of 
the  Trade  and  Commerce  of  the  United  States."  During  the  same 
year  he  edited  a  three-volume  publication  entitled  "Industrial 
Resources  and  Statistics  of  the  Southwest."  In  the  year  1854  he 
collected  and  compiled  for  publication  a  greater  part  of  the  mate- 
rial of  a  three-volume  edition  of  the  "Statistical  Review  of  the 
United  States."  which  was  a  compendium  of  the  seventh  U.  S. 
census.  So  highly  did  Congress  esteem  this  work  that  it  ordered 
150,000  copies  printed.  "The  Southern  States,  their  Commerce, 
Agriculture,  etc.,"  by  De  Bow,  appeared  in  1856,  as  did  his  treat- 
ise on  "Mortality  Statistics."  His  earthly  existence  was  termi- 
nated on  Feb.  27,'l867,  at  Elizabeth,  N.  J. 

De  Bow's  Review. — For  many  years  prior  to  the  Civil  war  this 
publication  was  one  of  the  leading  commercial,  industrial  and  lit- 
erary magazines  in  the  United  States.  The  initial  number  made 
its  appearance  in  Jan.,  1846,  the  title  page  of  Volume  1,  Number 
1,  announcing  that  it  was  "The  Commercial  Review  of  the  South 
and  West ;  a  monthly  journal  of  Trade.  Commerce,  Commercial 
Polity,  Agriculture,  Manufactures,  Internal  Improvements  and 
General  Literature."  The  main  ofiSce  of  publication  was  at  New 
Orleans,  ^ritli  J.  D.  B.  De  Bow  as  the  principal  editor,  though  a 
branch  office  under  the  charge  of  B.  F.  De  Bow  was  established  at 
Charleston,  S.  C.  The  first  number  contained  articles  on  cotton 
culture,  tariff,  education,  railroads,  a  number  of  historical  papers 
on  various  topics,  etc.  Among  the  contributors  Avere  Hon.  J.  R. 
Poinsett  and  Col.  Gadsden  of  South  Carolina :  Judah  P.  Benjamin, 
T.  H.  :McCaleb,  E.  J.  Forestall  and  Prof.  J.  L.  Riddell  of  Louisiana, 
and  a  number  of  prominent  men  of  the  Northern  and  Eastern 
states. 

The  magazine  quickly  won  its  way  to  popularity,  and  was  the 
medium  through  which  the  leading  spirits  in  the  nation's  various 
industries  and  professions  gave  their  views  to  the  public.  In  1853 
the  scope  of  the  Review  was  widened  and  an  office  was  estab- 
lished in  Washington,  D.  C,  in  order  to  be  near  the  sources  of 
official  information.  The  war  forced  a  suspension  of  the  magazine 
in  1864,  but  in  1866  it  was  revived,  the  main  office  being  at  that 
time  changed  to  Nashville,  Tenn.,  where  it  was  published  regularly 
until  sometime  in  1870,  when  its  publication  was  discontinued  al- 
together. There  are  but  very  few  complete  files  of  De  Bow's  Re- 
view in  existence,  and  he  who  is  fortunate  enough  to  gain  access  to 
one  of  these  files  will  find  therein  a  wealth  of  historical,  commer- 
cial, and  political  information  such  as  no  other  magazine  in  the 
country  ever  attempted  to  collect  or  piiblish. 

Decatur,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  southeastern  part  of  Union  parish, 
4  miles  southwest  of  Hobson's  River  Junction,  the  nearest  railroad 
station,  and  12  miles  southeast  of  Farmerville,  the  parish  seat. 

Deeds. — Any  deed  or  instrument  may  be  acknowledged  before 
a  commissioner  of  Louisiana,  whose  certificate  under  seal  will  admit 


LOUISIANA  317 

it  to  record.  This  officer  may  also  certify  to  the  official  character 
and  functions  of  all  public  officers  in  the  state  for  which  he  is  ap- 
pointed. All  instruments  should  be  attested  by  2  male  witnesses 
beside  the  Louisiana  commissioner  or  officer  taking  the  acknowl- 
edgement, who  should  assign  and  affix  his  seal  at  the  same  place 
the  witnesses  sign.  Any  acknowledgment  made  in  conformity 
with  the  laws  of  the  state  where  the  act  is  passed  is  valid  here. 
The  official  character  of  the  person  before  whom  the  acknowledg- 
ment is  made,  however,  must  be  properly  verified.  Every  acknowl- 
edgment or  proof  of  any  deed,  conveyance,  mortgage,  sale,  trans- 
fer or  assignment,  oath,  or  affirmation,  taken  or  made  before  a  com- 
missioner, minister,  charge  d'affaires,  consul-general,  consul,  vice- 
consul  or  commercial  agent,  and  every  attestation  or  authentication 
made  by  them,  when  duly  certified  as  above  provided,  shall  have 
the  force  and  effect  of  an  authentic  act  executed  in  this  state. 
When  they  are  not  executed  or  acknowledged  before  a  commis- 
sioner of  Louisiana,  they  must  be  authenticated,  if  public  records, 
in  the  manner  prescribed  by  U.  S.  Rev.  Stat.  sec.  906,  otherwise 
in  the  manner  prescribed  for  affidavits.  Acknowledgment  of  deeds 
executed  witliin  this  state,  conveying  lands  situated  in  or  out  of 
the  state,  may  be  made  before  a  notary  public,  or  parish  recorder, 
or  his  deputy,  in  the  presence  of  2  witnesses,  or  it  may  be  drawn 
up  and  signed  as  a  private  act,  and  then  acknowledged  with  the 
above  formalities,  or  the  witnesses  may  go  before  the  recorder 
and  swear  that  they  saw  the  party  sign.  If  the  grantor  be  unknown 
the  officer  taking  the  acknowledgment  should  in  some  way  be  sat- 
isfied of  his  identity.  Deeds  or  other  papers  by  corporations  are 
executed  by  the  proper  officer  in  the  same  form  as  individuals.  No 
seal  or  scroll  of  private  individuals  is  authorized  or  reqiiired  by 
the  laws  of  Louisiana.  All  instruments  concerning  real  estate 
must  be  evidenced  by  writing,  and  the  act  should  be  duly  recorded 
in  the  parish  where  the  property  is  situated.  If  the  act  be  under 
private  signature  it  cannot  affect  creditors  or  bona  fide  purchasers, 
unless  previous  to  its  being  recorded  it  was  acknowledged  by  the 
party,  or  proved  by  the  oath  of  one  of  the  subscribing  witnesses, 
and  the  certificate  of  the  notary  be  signed  to  such  acknowledg- 
ment and  recorded  with  the  instrument.  It  is  not  necessary  for 
a  married  Avoman  to  join  with  her  husband  in  any  act  affecting  his 
real  estate,  unless  she  has  a  mortgage  or  privilege  recorded  against 
it. 

Deerford,  a  little  village  in  the  northern  part  of  East  Baton  Rouge 
parish,  is  a  station  on  the  Zachary  &  Northeastern  R.  R.,  about  7 
miles  east  of  Zachary  and  16  miles  northeast  of  Baton  Rouge.  It 
has  a  money  order  postoffice. 

De  La  Chaise. — (See  Chaise,  de  la.) 

De  Lassus,  Carlos  Dehault,  soldier  and  lieutenant-governor  of 
Upper  Louisiana,  was  born  at  Lille,  France,  in  1764,  a  descendant 
of  an  old  family  of  French  nobility.  At  the  age  of  18  years  he 
entered  the  Spanish  service  as  a  cadet  in  the  royal  regiment  of 
guards,  of  which  the  king  himself  was  colonel.    Later  he  was  made 


318  LOUISIANA 

a  captain  of  grenadiers,  and  for  bravery  in  the  assault  on  Fort 
Elmo  in  1793  lie  was  promoted  to  lieutenant-colonel  of  his  regiment. 
The  next  year  he  was  assigned  to  the  command  of  a  battalion  of 
the  king's  body-guard,  but  owing  to  the  fact  that  his  father  had 
been  driven  from  France  during  the  Kevolution  and  had  found 
refuge  in  Loiiisiana,  he  asked  to  be  transferred  to  New  Oi'leans. 
His  request  was  granted,  and  he  was  appointed  lieutenant-colonel 
of  the  Louisiana  regiment.  In  1796  he  was  appointed  commandant 
at  New  Madrid ;  was  commissioned  lieutenant  of  Upper  Louisiana 
on  Aug.  29,  1799,  to  succeed  Zenon  Trudeau,  and  remained  in  that 
office  until  ilarch  9,  ISOl  when  he  delivered  the  province  to  Maj. 
Amos  Stoddard,  a  representative  of  the  United  States.  On  that 
occasion  De  Lassus  issued  the  following  proclamation : 

"Inhabitants  of  Upper  Louisiana:  By  the  King's  command,  I 
am  about  to  deliver  up  this  post  and  its  dependencies.  The  flag 
under  which  you  have  been  protected  for  a  period  of  nearly  thirty- 
six  years  is  about  to  be  withdrawn.  From  this  moment  you  are 
released  from  the  oath  of  fidelity  you  took  to  support  it.  The 
fidelity  and  courage  with  which  you  have  guarded  and  defended 
it  will  never  be  forgotten ;  and  in  my  character  of  representative 
I  entertain  the  most  sincere  wishes  for  your  perfect  prosperity." 

In  the  meantime  he  had  been  promoted  to  the  colonelcy  of  his 
regiment  in  1802,  in  which  year  he  had  some  trouble  with  the 
Mashcoux  Indians,  or  Tallapoosa  Creeks,  5  of  whom  were  arrested 
and  taken  to  New  Madrid,  where  De  Lassus  had  the  leader  exe- 
cuted by  order  of  the  governor-general  of  Louisiana.  After  turning 
over  the  province  to  Maj.  Stoddard,  De  Lassus  remained  at  St. 
Louis  irntil  the  autumn  of  1804,  when  he  was  ordered  with  his  regi- 
ment to  Pensacola,  Fla.  Subsequently  he  became  governor  of  West 
Florida,  with  headquarters  at  Baton  Rouge,  where  he  was  captured 
by  the  forces  imder  Col.  Philemon  Thomas  on  Sept.  23,  1810.  Shortly 
after  this  event  he  resigned  his  commission  and  became  a  resident 
of  New  Orleans.  He  was  one  of  those  who  signed  the  agreement 
of  Sept.  17,  1813,  to  be  responsible  in  solido  with  Gen.  Villere  for 
the  sum  of  $10,000,  which  the  latter  would  have  to  borrow  for  the 
defense  of  New  Orleans.  In  1816  he  returned  to  St.  Louis  and 
lived  there  for  about  10  years,  at  the  end  of  which  time  he  went 
back  to  New  Orleans  and  died  there  on  May  1,  1812. 

Delcambre,  a  village  in  the  western  part  of  Iberia  parish,  is  a 
station  on  the  Southern  Pacific  R.  R.,  about  10  miles  southwest  of  New 
Iberia,  the  parish  seat.  It  has  a  money  order  postoffiee,  telegraph  and 
telephone  facilities,  and  a  population  of  308. 

Delhi,  a  banking  town  situated  in  the  eastern  part  of  Richland 
parish,  is  at  the  junction  of  the  St.  Louis.  Iron  Mountain  &  Southern 
and  the  Yicksburg,  Shreveport  &  Pacific  railroads,  just  west  of 
Bayou  Macon,  which  forms  the  eastern  parish  boundary.  It  is  the 
trading  center  for  a  rich  agricultural  district ;  the  principal  industries 
are  woodenware  factories,  cottonseed  oil  mills  and  brick  yards.  It  has 
a  bank,  a  money  order  postoffiee,  an  express  office,  telegraph  and 
telephone  facilities,  and  a  population  of  685. 


LOUISIANA  319 

Delta,  one  of  the  oldest  of  the  modern  towns  of  Madison  parish, 
was  incorporated  Dec.  30,  1869.  It  is  situated  on  the  west  bank  of  the 
Mississippi  just  across  from  Vicksburg,  Miss.,  on  the  Vicksburg, 
Shreveport  &  Pacific  R.  R.,  about  20  miles  east  of  Tallulah,  the  parish 
seat.  It  is  in  a  rice  and  truck  farming  district,  which  supplies  the 
market  of  Vicksburg  and  is  a  large  cotton  shipping  point.  It  has  a 
money  order  postoffice,  an  express  office,  telegraph  and  telephone 
service,  and  a  population  of  250. 

Delta  Bridge,  a  little  post-hamlet,  in  the  eastern  part  of  Tensas 
parish,  is  about  8  miles  west  of  St.  Joseph,  the  parish  seat  and  most 
convenient  railroad  station. 

De  Muys,  who  was  appointed  governor  of  the  province  of  Louisi- 
ana by  Crozat  in  1712  to  succeed  Gov.  Bienville,  died  while  en  route 
to  his  destination,  and  consequently  never  assumed  the  duties  of  his 
office. 

Denham  Springs,  a  village  in  the  western  part  of  Livingston 
parish,  is  a  station  on  the  Baton  Rouge,  Hammond  &  Eastern  R.  R., 
about  14  miles  east  of  Baton  Rouge.  It  has  a  money  order  postoffice, 
an  express  office,  telegraph  and  telephone  facilities,  and  a  popula- 
tion of  574. 

Dennis  Mills,  a  post-hamlet  of  St.  Helena  parish,  is  situated  on 
a  confluent  of  the  Amite  river  in  the  southwestern  part  of  the  parish, 
about  5  miles  southeast  of  Pride,  the  nearest  railroad  station,  and 
16  miles  southwest  of  Greensburg,  the  parish  seat.  Its  population 
is  about  50. 

Denson,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  southern  part  of  Livingston  parish, 
about  3  miles  west  of  Lake  Maurepas,  and  11  miles  southwest  of 
Springville,  the  parish  seat. 

De  Quincy,  a  village  in  the  western  part  of  Calcasieii  parish, 
situated  at  the  junction  of  the  Colorado  Southern  and  the  Kansas  City 
Southern  railroads,  about  20  miles  northwest  of  Lake  Charles,  the 
parish  seat.  It  is  located  in  the  long  leaf  pine  district,  has  important 
lumber  industries,  a  money  order  postoffice,  an  express  office,  tele- 
graph and  telephone  facilities,  and  a  population  of  715. 

Derbigny,  Pierre,  fifth  governor  of  the  State  of  Louisiana,  was 
born  at  Laon,  France,  in  1767.  His  full  name  was  Pierre  Augusta 
Charles  Bourguignon  Derbigny,  and  his  family  belonged  to  the 
French  nobility.  About  1792,  while  the  revolution  in  France  was 
in  progress,  he  sought  refuge  in  St.  Domingo,  but  soon  afterward 
came  to  the  United  States.  At  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  he  met  and  mai-ried 
the  sister  of  Chevalier  de  Luzier,  the  commandant  of  the  post,  and 
then  passed  some  time  in  Missouri  and  Florida,  after  which  he  set- 
tled in  New  Orleans.  He  was  an  accomplished  linguist  and  served 
as  secretary  to  Mayor  Bore  uatil  appointed  interpreter  for  the  ter- 
ritory by  Gov.  Claiborne.  The  first  Fourth  of  July  oration  ever 
delivered  in  Louisiana  was  delivered  by  Mr.  Derbigny  in  1804.  He 
was  one  of  the  commissioners  who  took  the  memorial  to  Washing- 
ton in  1805,  protesting  against  the  organization  of  the  Territory 
of  Orleans  and  asking  for  the  admission  of  Louisiana  into  the 
Union.     Subsequently  he  served  as  clerk  of  the  court  of  common 


320  LOUISLiNA 

pleas;  was  secretary  of  legislative  council:  member  of  the  1st 
state  legislature;  one  of  the  1st  judges  of  the  supreme  court  of 
the  state  in  1813 ;  served  two  terms  as  secretary  of  state ;  was 
regent  of  the  New  Orleans  scliools;  assisted  Edward  Livingston 
in  the  revision  of  the  codes ;  seciired  a  license  in  1820  to  operate 
the  first  steam  ferry  on  the  ^Mississippi  at  New  Orleans;  and  in 
1828  was  elected  governor.  On  Oct.  1,  1829,  his  horses  ran  away, 
he  was  thrown  from  his  carriage  and  so  severely  injured  that  he 
died  five  days  later,  leaving  two  sons  and  five  daughters. 

Derbigny's  Administration. — The  iuaiiguration  of  Gov.  Derbigny 
took  place  on  Dec.  15,  1828.  In  his  address  on  that  occasion  he 
paid  a  glowing  tribute  to  the  government  of  the  United  States, 
though  lie  regretted  that,  in  spite  of  all  the  advantages  offered  to 
the  people  bj'  a  free  government,  discord  had  been  rife  in  the  coun- 
try. "Let  us,"  said  he,  "lay  aside  all  animosities  arising  from  party 
feeling,  all  invidious  distinctions  of  origin  and  language."  He 
advised  economy  in  the  expenditure  of  the  public  funds :  declared 
the  cjuestion  of  education  to  be  of  vital  importance:  and  announced 
the  completion  of  the  criminal  code  by  Edward  Livingston. 

On  Jail.  14,  1829,  the  committee  on  internal  improvements  made 
a  report  to  the  legislature  on  the  dangers  of  inundations  from  the 
Mississippi,  and  recommended  an  appeal  to  the  general  government 
for  aid  and  the  services  of  experienced  engineers  in  the  construc- 
tion of  levees.  During  the  session  provisions  were  made  for  a 
levee  system  tlu'oughout  the  state;  the  New  Orleans  gas  light  com- 
pany was  incorporated;  and  an  election  was  ordered  on  the  ques- 
tion of  removing  the  capital  of  the  state  to  St.  Franeisville.  Gov. 
Derbigny  met  his  death  by  an  accident  in  Oct.,  1829.  and  Armand 
Beauvais,  president  of  the  senate,  became  acting-governor,  holding 
the  office  until  Jan.  14,  1830,  when  Jacques  Dupre  was  elected 
president  of  the  senate  and  consequently  became  acting  governor. 
The  legislature  of  1830  met  at  Donaldsonville.  Among  the  acts  passed 
was  one  ordering  an  election  for  governor  in  Jul.v,  and  directing  that 
one  of  the  candidates  voted  for  at  that  time  slionld  be  elected  governor 
by  the  legislature  for  a  term  of  four  years.  The  political  contest  was 
spirited,  four  candidates  being  presented,  viz. :  Andre  B.  Roman, 
W.  S.  Hamilton,  Armand  Beauvais  and  David  A.  Randall.  Roman 
received  3,638  votes ;  Hamilton,  2,701 ;  Beauvais,  1,478,  and  Randall, 
463. 

The  first  session  of  the  10th  legislature  opened  at  Donaldsonville 
on  Jan.  3,  1831.  Among  the  members  of  the  house  were  W.  C.  C. 
Claiborne,  a  son  of  the  first  governor  of  the  state ;  Trasimond  Landry, 
who  afterward  became  the  first  lieutenant-governor;  Charles  Gayarre. 
the  historian ;  and  Alexandre  ]\Iouton,  who  was  subsequently  elected 
governor.  In  the  senate  was  Charles  Derbigny,  a  son  of  the  late  gov- 
ernor. Isaac  A.  Smith  was  chosen  president  of  the  senate,  and  when 
Mr.  Roman  was  elected  governor  by  the  general  assembly  Alexandre 
Mouton  succeeded  to  the  office  of  speaker.  The  members  of  the  leg- 
islature refused  to  accept  the  quartere  provided  for  them  by  the 
people  of  Donaldsonville,  and  on  the  6th  adjourned,  to  meet  in  New 


LOUISIANA  321 

Orleans  on  the  8th.  (See  Capital.)  Although  the  term  for  which  Gov. 
Derbigrny  was  elected  did  not  expire  until  Dec,  1830,  Aeting-Gov. 
Dupre  did  not  insist  upon  holding  the  office  until  that  time,  but 
with  "a  rare  example  of  moderation,"  says  Prof.  Porbier,  relin- 
quished it  to  Mr.  Roman  almost  immediately  after  his  election  by 
the  general  assembly,  and  the  administration  of  Gov.  Derbigny  came 
to  an  end. 

De  Bidder,  the  parish  seat  of  Beauregard  parish,  is  situated  near 
the  northern  border,  and  is  one  of  the  most  important  and  prosper- 
ous lumbering  towns  in  western  Louisiana.  It  is  located  at  the  .junc- 
tion of  the  Gulf,  Colorado  &  Santa  Fe,  Kansas  City  Southern,  and 
the  Louisiana  &  Pacific  railroads,  in  the  heart  of  the  western  long 
leaf  yellow  pine'  district ;  has  a  complete  system  of  waterworks,  ob- 
taining the  water  from  artesian  wells,  an  ice  plant,  electric  lights, 
a  fine  public  school  building  that  cost  $10,000,  a  number  of  fine 
churches,  a  bank,  an  international  money  order  postoffiee.  express 
offices,  telegraph  station,  telephone  facilities,  and  a  number  of  fine 
mercantile  establishments.  The  manufacture  of  lumber  is  the  prin- 
cipal industry  and  there  are  several  large  saw  mills  with  capacities 
of  1.50,000  feet  per  day.  The  country  around  De  Ridder  is  rapidly 
developing  into  a  fine  agricultural  district  as  the  timber  is  cleared, 
and  cattle  and  sheep  are  exported  in  large  numbers.  The  town  was 
laid  out  in  1897  and  has  had  a  steady  growth,  the  population  being 
2,100.  Its  cotton  shipments  amount  to  about  2,500  bales,  and  wool 
about  150,000  pounds  annually.  It  is  the  second  largest  wool  market 
in  the  state. 

Derouen,  a  post-hamlet  of  Iberia  parish,  is  situated  on  Bayou 
Petite  Anse,  and  is  a  station  on  the  Franklin  &  Abbeville  R.  R.,  about 
4  miles  M'est  of  New  Iberia,  the  parish  seat.   It  has  a  telegraph  station. 

Derry,  a  village  and  station  in  the  soutlieastern  part  of  Natchi- 
toches parish,  is  situated  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Red  river  and 
the  Texas  &  Pacific  R.  R.,  about  20  miles  south  of  Natchitoches,  the 
parish  seat.  It  has  a  money  order  postoffiee,  an  express  office,  tele- 
graph station  and  telephone  facilities,  and  is  the  shipping  and 
supply  point  for  a  rich  agricultural  district. 

Desarc,  a  post-hamlet  and  station  in  the  northern  part  of  Red 
River  parish,  is  situated  a  mile  east  of  the  Red  river,  on  the  line 
of  the  Louisiana  Railway  &  Navigation  company,  and  about  15  miles 
northwest  of  Coushatta,  the  parish  seat. 

Descent  and  Distribution  of  Property. — Legitimate  children  in- 
herit from  their  ascendants  without  distinction  of  sex  or  primo- 
geniture, though  they  be  from  different  marriages.  They  receive 
equal  portions,  when  in  the  same  degree,  and  inherit  by  their  own 
right;  they  receive  by  roots  when  they  inherit  by  representation, 
which  is  recognized  in  the  descending  and  collateral  lines.  If  one 
leaves  no  descendants,  but  a  father  and  mother,  brothers  and  sis- 
ters, or  descendants  of  these  last,  the  estate  is  divided  in  2  equal 
portions,  one  of  which  goes  to  the  parents,  the  other  to  the  brothers 
and  sisters  of  the  deceased,  or  their  descendants.  If  the  father  or 
mother  of  the  person  who  has  died  without  issue  has  died  before 
1—21 


322  LOUISLINA 

him,  the  portion  which  would  have  been  inherited  by  such  deceased 
parent  goes  to  the  brothers  and  sisters  of  the  deceased,  or  their 
descendants.  If  the  deceased  has  left  neither  desceu.dants.  brothers 
nor  sisters,  nor  descendants  from  them,  nor  father  nor  mother,  but 
only  other  descendants,  these  descendants  inherit  to  the  exclusion  of 
all  "collaterals,  as  follows :  If  there  are  descendants  in  the  paternal  and 
maternal  line  in  the  same  degree,  the  estate  is  divided  in  2  equal 
shares,  one  of  which  goes  to  the  ascendants  on  the  paternal,  and  the 
other  to  those  on  the  maternal  side,  whether  the  number  of  ascend- 
ants on  each  side  be  equal  or  not.  In  this  ease  the  ascendants  in 
each  line  inherit  by  heads.  But  if  there  is  in  the  nearest  degree 
but  one  ascendant  in  the  two  lines,  such  ascendant  excludes  those 
of  a  more  remote  degree.  Ascendants,  to  the  exclusion  of  all  others, 
inherit  the  immovables  given  bj'  them  to  their  descendants  who  die 
without  posterity,  but  they  must  take  them  subject  to  the  incum- 
brances which  the  donee  has  imposed.  If  a  person  dies,  leaving  no 
descendants,  nor  father  nor  mother,  his  brothers  and  sisters,  or  their 
descendants  inherit,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  ascendants  and  other  col- 
laterals. "When  the  deceased  has  died  without  issue,  leaving  neither 
brothers  nor  sisters,  nor  descendants  from  them,  nor  ascendants,  his 
succession  passes  to  his  collateral  relalions,  and  among  them  the  near- 
est in  degree  excludes  the  others.  Every  marriage  superinduces  of 
right  partnership  or  communitj^  of  acquets  or  gains,  if  there  be  no 
stipulation  to  the  contrary.  The  community  consists  of  the  profits  of 
all  the  effects  administered  by  the  husband,  the  produce  of  the  r(>cip- 
roeal  iudustrv  and  labor  of  both  husband  and  wife,  property  acquirud 
during  marriage  by  donations  made  to  them  jointly  or  by  purchase 
in  the  name  of  either.  When  either  husband  or  wife  dies  leaving  no 
ascendants  or  descendants,  and  without  having  disposed  by  last  will 
of  his  or  her  share  (one-half)  in  the  community  property,  such  share 
is  held  by  the  survivor  in  usufruct  during  his  or  her  natural  life,  the 
other  half  of  the  communit.y  descends  to  the  survivor  in  his  or  her 
own  right  as  owner.  "Where  the  predeceased  spouse  leaves  issue  of  the 
marriage,  and  does  not  dispose  by  last  will  of  his  or  her  share  in  the 
community,  the  survivor  takes  in  usufruct  the  share  of  the  deceased  in 
the  community  inherited  by  such  issue.  This  usufruct  ceases  if  the 
survivor  enters  into  a  second  marriage.  When  the  deceased  has  left 
neither  lawful  descendants  nor  lawful  ascendants,  nor  collateral  rela- 
tions, the  estate  descends  to  the  sui-viving  husband  or  wife,  or  his  or 
her  natural  (illegitimate)  children,  or  to  the  state.  A  man  or  woman 
who  contracts  a  subsequent  mai-riage,  having  children  by  a  former 
one.  can  give  to  his  wife  or  she  to  her  husband,  either  by  donation 
or  by  last  will  in  full  property,  or  in  usufruct,  not  exceeding  one- 
third  of  his  or  her  property, 

Deshotels,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  central  part  of  St.  Landry  parish, 
is  about  6  miles  northeast  of  Villeplatte,  the  nearest  railroad  sta- 
tion, and  12  miles  northwest  of  Opelousas,  the  parish  seat.  Popula- 
tion 100. 

De  Soto,  Hernando  de  (sometimes  written  Ferdinando),  who  led 
the  first  expedition  of  white  men  into  what  is  now  called  the  State 


LOUISIANA  323 

of  Louisiana,  was  born  at  Estremadura,  Spain,  about  1496.  His  first 
visit  to  America  was  in  1519,  witb  Pedrarias  Davila,  who  was  after- 
ward governor  of  Darien.  In  1528  he  left  the  service  of  Davila 
and  explored  the  coast  of  Yucatan  and  Guatemala,  seeking  for  a 
passage  by  water  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific.  He  next  accom- 
panied Pizarro  on  the  expedition  for  the  conquest  of  Peru,  after 
which  he  returned  to  his  native  land  with  an  lionorable  record  for 
bravery  and  enough  gold  to  distinguish  him  as  one  of  the  rich  men 
of  Spain.  Charles  V,  at  that  time  king  of  Spain,  borrowed  a  part  of 
De  Soto's  fortune  and  in  turn  appointed  him  governor  of  Cuba  and 
president  of  Florida.  He  married  the  daughter  of  Davila,  his  early 
patron,  and  in  April,  1538,  again  sailed  for  the  New  World.  Hearing 
reports  of  the  fabulous  wealth  of  Florida,  he  fitted  out  an  expedition 
for  the  conquest  of  that  region,  and  in  the  latter  part  of  May,  1539, 
landed  at  Tampa  bay.  His  ships  were  sent  back  to  Havana  in  July, 
and  the  following  year  he  began  his  march  westward  with  a  force 
estimated  at  1,000  infantry  and  350  horsemen.  After  wandering  for 
about  a  year  through  the  territoi-y  now  comprising  the  states  of 
Alabama,  Mississippi,  Georgia  and  Tennessee,  and  having  numerous 
encounters  with  the  Indians,  he  discovered  the  Mississippi  river,  not 
far  from  the  moutli  of  the  Arkansas  river,  in  April,  1541.  He  crossed 
the  great  river  on  rafts  and  rude  barges,  contimied  on  his  westward 
course  until  he  reached  the  highlands  along  the  White  river,  where 
he  turned  southward,  passed  the  hot  springs  of  Arkansas,  and  spent 
the  winter  on  the  Ouachita  river.  In  the  spring  of  1542  he  descended 
the  Ouachita  and  Red  rivers  to  the  Mississippi.  On  this  last  march 
De  Soto  was  stricken  with  fever  and  died  about  the  middle  of  May, 
1542.  To  keep  the  Indians  from  learning  of  his  death  a  rude  coffin 
was  formed  of  the  trunk  of  an  oak  tree,  in  which  the  body  was 
placed,  and  on  the  night  of  May  21  it  was  sunk  in  the  middle  of  the 
river.  It  is  said  that  with  his  last  breath  he  charged  his  men  not  to 
falter  in  the  enterprise  which  they  had  imdertaken,  but  the  death  of 
De  Soto  cast  a  gloom  over  the  expedition  and  the  remnant  of  his 
band — about  300  weary  and  disheartened  men  under  the  leadership 
of  Moscoso — endeavored  to  make  their  way  back  overland  to  Florida, 
but  were  unable  to  do  so  on  account  of  the  persistent  annoyance  of 
the  hostile  Indian  tribes.  They  therefore  returned  to  the  Mississippi, 
built  boats  and  followed  that  stream  to  its  mouth.  Once  again  upon 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico  they  followed  the  coast  westward  to  Panuco, 
whence  some  of  them  returned  to  Spain  with  tidings  of  the  expedition, 
— the  first  information  of  the  country  west  of  the  great  "Father  of 
Waters."  In  his  effort  to  make  his  dream  of  empire  a  reality,  De 
Soto  gave  his  life  and  dissipated  his  fortune.  Dr.  Shea  says:  "He 
who  had  hoped  to  gather  the  wealth  of  nations,  left  as  his  property 
5  Indian  slaves,  3  horses  and  a  herd  of  swine."  Some  claims  have 
been  made  in  favor  of  other  explorers  as  being  the  discoverers  of 
the  Mississippi  river,  but  it  is  generally  conceded  that  this  honor 
belongs  to  De  Soto. 

De  Soto  Parish    was  established  in  1843,  and  received  its  name 
in  memory  of  Hernando  de  Soto,  the  Spanish  explorer  who  discovered 


824  LOUISIANA 

the  Mississippi  river  in  1541.  In  1795  Pedro  Dolet  of  Bayou  Pierre 
made  a  settlement  on  Ba.vou  Adaj^es  or  Adaise.  The  state  papei-s  give 
an  account  of  this  ceremony,  saying  that  it  consisted  of  pulling  grass, 
making  holes  in  the  ground  and  throwing  dnst  in  the  air.  Missionar- 
ies are  ever  the  forerunners  of  settlement,  and  this  proved  true  in  De 
Soto.  The  pioneers  usually  settled  along  the  water  waj's,  but  as  this 
desirable  land  was  taken  np  settlement  pushed  back  to  the  highlands. 
During  the  decade  following  1840  a  number  of  people  come  from 
Geoi'gia,  the  Carolinas,  and  Alabama.  Logansport,  on  the  Sabine 
river,  was  founded  as  early  as  1830.  and  for  years  was  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  trading  posts  on  the  western  border,  but  much  of  its 
prosperity  waned  when  new  towns  were  established  in  Texas  and 
Louisiana,  especially  when  the  Red  river  raft  was  removed  and 
Shreveport  became  a  center  of  trade  for  the  north  and  west.  Since 
the  railroad  was  built,  and  with  the  rapid  development  of  the  lumber 
interests  in  the  west,  it  has  again  regained  some  of  its  old  prestige.  In 
1835  a  treaty  was  negotiated  with  the  Caddo  Indians  by  Jehiel 
Brooks,  on  the  part  of  the  United  States,  and  Tehowahimmo.  Toock- 
roaeh,  ^lattan  and  other  Indian  chiefs  and  warriors  of  the  tribe.  By 
this  treaty  the  Caddoes  ceded  a  large  tract  of  land,  including  that 
which  now  constitutes  De  Soto  parish.  In  1801  Francois  Grappe  had 
been  granted  four  leagues  of  land,  which  the  treat}-  of  1835  approved. 
Some  of  these  early  settlers  were  the  sub.iects  of  two  monarchies, 
French  and  Spanish ;  citizens  of  two  republics,  Texas  and  the  United 
States,  and  resided  in  three  pai-ishes,  Natchitoches.  Caddo  and  De 
Soto,  without  moving  from  their  homes,  such  has  been  the  change 
of  boundaries  and  government  along  the  western  border.  The  act  to 
create  the  parish  of  De  Soto  was  approved  in  March,  1843,  and  the 
first  meeting  of  the  parish  officers,  commissioned  by  the  governor,  was 
held  the  following  June,  at  Screamerville.  The  first  record  of  the 
police  jury  is  dated  June  5.  1843.  Judge  Welsh  opened  the  parish 
court  the  same  day,  but  the  district  court  was  not  opened  until  a 
year  later— by  Judge  Campbell,  May  2,  1844.  On  June  5,  1843,  at  the 
first  meeting  of  the  police  jury,  $200.48  Avas  paid  to  Gamble  & 
Edwards  for  a  c|uarter  section  of  land  where  Mansfield  now  stands, 
and  the  name  of  Mansfield  was  then  suggested  and  adopted  for  the 
parish  seat,  thox;gh  the  town  was  not  incorporated  until  1847.  The 
first  road  in  the  parish  was  at  this  time  ordered  to  be  built.  De  Soto 
is  an  iri-egular  shaped  parish  in  the  northwestern  part  of  the  state.  It 
is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Caddo  and  Bossier  parishes;  on  the  east 
by  Red  River  and  Natchitoches  parishes;  on  the  south  by  Sabine 
parish,  and  on  the  west  by  the  Sabine  river,  which  separates  it  from 
Texas.  It  is  watered  by  Cypress  bayou  along  its  northern  boundary; 
by  Wallace  lake  and  Bayou  Pierre  on  the  east,  and  by  the  Sabine 
river  and  its  tributary  streams  along  the  western  boundary.  De  Soto 
is  in  one  of  the  finest  oak  upland  districts  and  its  formation  is  chiefly 
good  upland  and  hills.  Running  across  the  parish  diagonally,  is  the 
divide  between  the  Sabine  and  Red  rivers.  Mansfield  is  located  on 
this  divide.  The  southwestern  corner  extends  into  the  western  long 
leaf  3-ellow  pine  district,  while  there  is  a  little  alluvial  land  along  tho 


LOUISIANA  325 

Sabiue  river  and  Bayou  Pierre.  On  the  Red  river  side  the  country  is 
hilly,  productive  in  the  valleys  between  the  Dolet  hills,  and  the  Grand 
Cane  district  is  also  very  productive,  yielding  1,400  pounds  of  eottou 
to  the  acre.  The  parish  contains  considerable  valuable  timber,  chiefly 
oak,  pine,  poplar,  maple,  hickory,  beech,  mulberry,  a  little  walnut, 
and  some  soft  wood  varieties.  The  Dolet  hills  are  cultivated  only  in 
small  tracts,  as  they  are  too  broken,  but  they  contain  fine  native 
grasses  for  stock  and  have  a  large  amount  of  fine  pine  timber.  The 
bills  contain  coal  and  iron.  Cotton  is  the  chief  product,  though  corn, 
hay,  sweet  and  Irish  potatoes,  peas,  sorghum,  and  tobacco  are  also 
raised.  The  garden  vegetables  and  fruits  native  to  this  latitude  and 
climate  all  grow  in  great  abundance.  The  excellent  water  supply  of 
the  parish  has  led  to  the  development  of  the  live  stock  industry  on  a 
considerable  scale,  cattle,  sheep,  and  some  horses  being  raised.  De- 
posits of  potter's  and  fire  clay,  kaolin,  iron,  marl,  and  green  sand  are 
found  and  beds  of  lignite  have  been  discovered.  Mansfield,  the  parish 
seat,  Benson,  on  the  Kansas  City  Southern  R.  R.,  and  Logansport,  on 
the  Sabine  river,  are  the  principal  towns  of  the  parish.  Other  towns 
and  villages  of  importance  are  Butler,  Frierson,  Gloster.  Grand  Cane, 
Keatchie,  Kingston,  Longstreet,  Oxford,  Pelican  and  Stonewall.  De 
Soto  has  excellent  transportation  and  shipping  facilities,  which  will 
facilitate  the  development  of  the  parish,  and  aid  in  opening  up  the 
coal  fields.  The  Kansas  City  Southern  R.  R.  enters  the  northeastern 
boundary  at  Wallace  lake  and  runs  south  through  Mansfield  and 
Benson ;  the  Texas  Pacific  R.  R.  crosses  the  northern  boundary  near 
Stonewall  and  runs  south  to  Mansfield  Junction,  thence  southeast ;  the 
Houston  &  Shreveport  R.  R.  traverses  the  western  part  of  the  parish 
from  Logansport  on  the  Sabine  river  to  the  Caddo  parish  line,  a  short 
distance  north  of  Keatchie.  The  markets  of  the  country  are  thus 
brought  close  to  the  producers  of  the  parish.  The  following  statis- 
tics are  taken  from  the  U.  S.  census  for  1910 :  number  of  farms, 
4,495;  acreage,  369,649;  acres  under  cultivation,  87.278;  value  of 
land  and  improvements  exclusive  of  buildings,  $2,754,378 ;  value  of 
farm  buildings,  $1,016,693 ;  value  of  live  stock,  $1,083,912 ;  value  of 
all  crops,  $1,789,171.   The  popuplation  of  the  parish  is  27.689. 

Destrehan,  Jean  Noel,  statesman,  was  born  about  1780.  He  was 
a  native  of  Louisiana  and  one  of  her  citizens  while  still  a  province 
of  Spain,  and  while  a  territory  before  admission  to  the  Union.  He 
was  speaker  of  the  house  in  the  territorial  legislature  and  in  1811  he 
opposed  admitting  Louisiana  to  statehood.  Nothwithstanding  his 
vote  against  this  act,  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  constitutional  com- 
mittee and  was  one  of  the  7  men  who  drew  up  the  constitution  for 
Louisiana.  When  the  new  state  was  admitted  into  the  Union  and 
organized,  he  was  chosen  as  one  of  the  first  representatives  in  the 
U.  S.  senate,  being  elected  senator  Sept.  3,  1812,  for  the  term  ending 
March  3,  1817,  but  resigned  befoi-e  Congress  opened.  He  died  in 
1824. 

Diamond,  a  village  of  Plaquemines  parish,  is  situated  on  the 
west  bank  of  the  Mississippi,  just  across  the  river  from  Pointe  a  la 
Hache,  the  parish  seat,  and  is  a  station  on  the  New  Orleans,  Fort 


326  LOUISIANA 

Jackson  &  Grand  Isle  E.  E.  It  has  a  money  order  postoffice,  an 
express  office,  telegraph  and  telephone  facilities,  and  its  population 
is  100. 

Dibble,  Henry  C,  lawyer,  came  into  prominence  during  the  re- 
construction regime  as  judge  of  the  8th  district  court  of  New  Orleans, 
to  •which  position  he  was  appointed  by  Gov.  "Warmoth  when  the 
court  was  established.  For  some  time  Judge  Dibble  "approved  and 
sanctioned  all  the  acts  of  the  administration."  and  at  the  request  of 
the  governor  he  granted  an  injunction  restraining  the  auditor  from 
paying  warrants  against  appropriations  made  to  defray  the  expenses 
of  the  legislature  of  1871.  He  was  also  a  stanch  siipporter  of  the 
governor  in  the  factional  fight  of  1872,  but  later  in  the  year  he  ren- 
dered a  decision,  in  the  case  of  the  appointment  of  F.  J.  Herron  to 
the  office  of  secretary  of  state,  that  was  displeasing  to  Gov.  War- 
moth,  who  removed  him  and  commissioned  Judge  Elmore,  who  had 
already  been  elected  to  the  office.  Judge  Dibble  afterward  served  on 
the  staff  of  Gov.  Kellogg,  and  it  was  he  who,  on  Sept.  14,  1874,  re- 
ceived the  committee  sent  by  the  mass  meeting  on  Canal  street  to  de- 
mand the  "immediate  abdication"  of  Kellogg.  A  committee  of  the 
legislature,  appointed  at  the  special  session  of  1875.  reported  that 
Judge  Dibble,  as  acting  attorney-general,  had  ad^-ised  the  pajTuent 
of  unlawful  warrants  against  the  interest  fund,  and  recommended 
that  he  be  "addressed  out  of  office."  After  the  state  government  of 
Louisiana  was  restored  to  the  people,  he,  like  many  others  who  had 
been  active  in  upholding  the  reconstruction  policy,  retired  from  pub- 
lic life. 

Dickard,  a  post-hamlet  of  Tensas  parish,  is  situated  in  the  South- 
western part  near  the  Bayou  Macon,  about  13  miles  west  of  St. 
Joseph,  the  parish  seat,  and  10  miles  northwest  of  Locust  Ridge,  the 
nearest  railroad  station. 

Dime,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  southeastern  part  of  Plaquemines 
parish,  is  situated  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Mississippi  river.  2  miles 
east  of  Happv  Jack,  the  nearest  railroad  station.  Population  in 
1910,  130. 

Dimitry,  Alexander,  educator  and  diplomat,  was  born  in  New 
Orleans,  La..  Feb.  7,  1805,  the  son  of  Andrea  and  Celeste  (Dragon) 
Dimitry.  His  father  (the  original  Greek  form  of  whose  name  was 
Demetrios)  was  a  native  of  the  Island  of  Hydrea.  off  the  southeast 
coast  of  Greece.  This  family  was  of  Macedonian  origin,  prominent 
members  of  it  having  been  among  a  colony  of  Macedonians  and  Al- 
banians, who  left  their  homes  in  northern  Greece  in  the  17th  century, 
in  order  to  live  among  their  Greek  compatriots  of  the  south.  This 
band  colonized  the  nearly  uninhabited  island  of  Hydrea  and  started 
a  new  race,  the  Hydriotes.  Celeste  Dragon,  Alexander's  mother,  was 
a  native  of  New  Orleans.  Alexander  was  educated  at  home,  by  private 
tutors,  and  for  several  years  afterward  attended  the  New  Orleans 
classical  academy.  He  then  attended  Georgetown  university.  D.  C, 
where  he  was  graduated,  and  in  1867  he  received  the  degree  of  LL.  D. 
After  graduation  he  entered  educational  work  in  New  Orleans  and 
was  appointed  professor  in  Baton  Rouge  college.     In  1834  he  left 


LOUISIANA  327 

Louisiana  to  accept  an  appointment  as  clerk  in  the  postoffice  depart- 
ment in  Washington,  but  8  years  later  he  returned  to  Louisiana  and 
established  the  St.  Charles  institute  in  St.  Charles  parish,  which  he 
conducted  until  1847,  when  Gov.  Isaac  Johnson  appointed  him  state 
superintendent  of  education  of  Louisiana.  He  served  in  this  office 
from  1847  to  1851,  the  first  to  hold  this  position  in  the  state.  While  in 
office  he  organized  and  put  in  operation  the  public  school  system 
throughout  the  state.  In  1854  he  returned  to  Washington,  having 
been  appointed  head  translator  of  foreign  diplomatic  correspondence 
in  the  state  department.  While  still  holding  this  position  President 
Buchanan  appointed  him  in  1859  U.  S.  minister  to  the  republics  of 
Costa  Rica  and  Nicaragua,  the  seat  of  legation  being  at  San  Jose 
de  Costa  Rica.  When  the  Civil  war  broke  out  and  Louisiana  seceded 
from  the  Union,  he  resigned  and  returned  to  the  United  States.  In  a 
short  time  he  was  appointed  chief  of  the  Confederate  bureau  of 
finance  of  the  postoffice  department,  with  rank  as  assistant  post- 
master-general. When  peace  was  declared  he  moved  to  New  York  and 
Brooklyn,  but  in  1867  he  returned  to  New  Orleans,  where  he  resided 
until  his  death.  In  1870  he  accepted  the  appointment  of  professor  in 
the  Christian  Brothers  college  at  Pass  Christian,  Miss.  During  his 
life  he  was  distinguished  as  a  scholar,  linguist,  orator,  lecturer,  writer 
and  diplomat.  In  1830-35  he  wrote  seven  short  stories  for  the  Annals 
of  New  York  and  Philadelphia.  He  contributed  to  different  mag- 
azines ;  was  familiar  with  eleven  languages,  ancient  and  modern ;  was 
a  prominent  Odd  Fellow,  and  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Seven  Wise 
Men,  or  Heptasophs,  in  which  he  held  a  high  position.  He  was  mar- 
ried in  1835  to  Mary  Powell,  daughter  of  Robert  Powell  Mills,  U. 
S.  government  architect,  and  died  in  New  Orleans,  Jan.  30,  1883, 
leaving  7  children. 

Dimitry,  Charles  Patten,  author,  was  born  in  Washington,  D.  C. 
July  31, 1837.  the  son  of  Alexander  and  Mary  Powell  (Mills)  Dimitry. 
His  mother  was  the  daughter  of  Robert  Mills,  of  Washington,  D.  C, 
and  a  granddaughter  on  her  mother's  side  of  Gen.  John  Smith,  of 
Hackwood,  Frederick  county,  Va.,  a  colonel  of  Virginia  troops  in  the 
Revolutionary  war,  who  later  served  in  the  Virginia  legislature,  was 
a  representative  in  Congress  from  the  Fredex-ick  county  district,  and 
also  a  major-general  of  the  3rd  Virginia  state  troops  in  the  war  of 
1812.  The  first  American  ancestor  of  Charles  Dimitry,  on  the  ma- 
ternal side,  was  Col.  Miles  Cary  of  Warwick  county,  Va.,  who  be- 
longed to  the  knightly  family  of  Carys  of  Clovelly  and  Cockington  of 
Devonshire,  England,  and  who  was  born  at  Bristol  in  1620.  He 
emigrated  to  America  about  the  middle  of  the  17th  century  and  be- 
came a  member  of  the  king's  council.  Charles  Dimitry  received  his 
early  education  at  the  St.  Charles  institute,  established  by  his  father, 
but  continued  his  education  in  different  academies  and  private  schools 
until  1856,  when  he  entered  Georgetown  university,  his  father's 
Alma  Mater,  where  he  was  graduated  in  1867,  receiving  the  degree  of 
M.  A.  For  a  few  years  he  was  engaged  in  clerical  work  in  New 
Orleans,  and  entered  the  Confederate  army  as  a  private  when  Louisi- 
ana seceded  from  the  Union.   At  the  close  of  hostilities  he  engaged  in 


328  LOUISIANA 

editorial  work  in  New  York ;  did  some  literary  work  and  wrote  several 
stories;  between  1865  and  1874  he  was  connected  at  different  times 
with  the  World.  Graphic.  News  and  Star  of  New  York  and  the  Union 
of  Brooklyn.  He  was  on  the  staff  of  and  contributed  to  various 
journals  throughout  the  country,  such  as  the  Commercial  Advertiser 
of  Alexandria.  Va..  the  New  Orleans  Bee.  and  the  Daily  Patriot  of 
"Washington.  D.  C.  He  invented  and  patented  in  the  United  States 
and  some  foreign  countries  a  "pen  preserving  ink."  which  did  not 
corrode  steel  pens.  At  different  times  he  published  several  works  in 
book  form.  His  first  novel,  entitled  "Guilty  or  Not  Guilty,"  was 
published  in  1864  in  the  Magnolia  Weekly  of  Richmond.  Va..  "The 
House  in  Balfour  Street"  was  published  in  1868,  and  "Gold  Dust 
and  Diamonds"  was  published  in  Frank  Leslie's  illustrated  paper. 
In  addition  to  this  he  contributed  to  several  other  magazines  and 
wrote  a  series  of  historical  papers  on  Old  Louisiana  under  the  title 
of  "Louisiana  Families"  for  the  Times  Democrat  of  New  Orleans; 
"Ijouisiana  Story  in  Little  Chapters,"  for  the  Picayune  of  New  Or- 
leans, and  "Glimpses  of  Old  Louisiana."  for  the  St.  Louis  Globe- 
Democrat.  Some  of  his  articles  have  appeared  under  the  noms  de 
plume  of  Tobias  Guarnerius.  Jr.,  and  Braddock  Field.  He  is  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Louisiana  society.  Sons  of  the  American  Revolution,  and 
an  ex-member  of  the  Louisiana  Historical  society.  In  June,  1871,  he 
married  Annie  Elizabeth,  the  eldest  daughter  of  Reuben  Johnston, 
a  lawyer  of  Alexandria,  Va.  She  died  in  1880,  leaving  no  children. 
Dimitry,  John  B.  S.,  educator,  journalist  and  author,  was  born  at 
Washington.  D.  C.  a  son  of  Alexander  and  Mary  P.  (Mills)  Dimitry. 
He  was  educated  at  Georgetown  college,  and  from  1859  to  1861  was 
secretary  of  legation  under  his  father,  who  was  at  that  time  U.  S. 
minister  to  Costa  Rica  and  Nicaragua.  At  the  breaking  out  of  the 
Civil  war  he  returned  from  Central  America  and  enlisted  in  the 
celebrated  Crescent  regiment,  of  New  Orleans,  with  which  he  was  en- 
gaged at  Shiloh,  where  he  was  severely  wounded.  As  this  wound  un- 
fitted him  for  further  active  military  service,  he  was  appointed  chief 
clerk  in  the  Confederate  postoffice  department  at  Richmond,  where 
he  served  under  Postmaster-General  Reagan  until  the  close  of  the 
war.  In  April.  1865,  he  accompanied  President  Davis  and  his  party 
as  far  as  Washington,  Ga..  and  then  returned  to  Louisiana.  From 
1873  to  1876  he  was  professor  of  languages  and  belles-lettres  in  the 
Colegio  Caldas  in  South  America,  and  ia  1895  he  was  appointed  to  a 
similar  position  in  Montgomery  college,  Virginia,  where  he  remained 
for  several  years.  In  the  meantime  he  had  been  connected  editorially 
with  the  press  of  New  Orleans,  Washington,  Philadelphia  and  New 
York,  and  became  widely  known  as  a  scholarly  and  forceful  writer. 
While  working  on  the  New  York  Mail  and  Express  his  short  story, 
' '  Le  Tombleau  Blanc. ' '  won  the  first  prize  of  $500  offered  by  Swinton 
&  Barnes,  publishers  of  the  Storyteller.  Prof.  Dimitry  was  the  author 
of  several  works,  the  most  noted  of  which  are  "A  School  History  and 
Geography  of  Louisiana,"  "Three  Good  Giants,"  "Atahualpa's  Cur- 
tain," and  the  Louisiana  volume  of  a  "Confederate  Military  History," 
published  in  1899.    His  epitaphs  of  Henry  Watkins  Allen,  Albert 


LOUISIANA  329 

Sidney  Johnston,  Stonewall  Jackson,  Edgar  Allen  Poe,  The  Con- 
federate Flag,  Jefferson  Davis,  etc.,  have  been  much  admired  for  their 
beauty  of  sentiment  and  purity  of  diction.  Prof.  Dimitry  died  at  Nevr 
Orleans  on  Sept.  7,  1901. 

Divorce. — Married  persons  may  reciprocally  claim  a  separation 
from  bed  and  board,  and  divorce,  on  account  of  habitual  intemper- 
ance, excess,  cruel  treatment  or  outrages  of  one  of  them  towards  the 
other,  if  the  said  habitual  intemperance  or  ill-treatment  is  of  such  a 
nature  as  to  render  their  living  together  insupportable;  when  the 
husband  or  wife  may  have  been  condemned  to  an  infamous  punish- 
ment or  guilty  of  adultery;  or  on  account  of  public  defamation, 
abandonment,  attempts  against  the  life  of  the  other;  or  when  the 
husband  or  wife  has  been  charged  with  an  infamous  offense  and  shall 
have  tied  from  justice.  No  divorce  shall  be  granted  unless  a  judg- 
ment of  separation  from  bed  and  board  shall  have  been  rendered  be- 
tween the  parties,  and  one  year  shall  have  expired  from  the  date  of 
such  judgment,  during  which  no  reconciliation  shall  have  taken  place, 
except  in  the  cases  where  the  husband  or  wife  may  have  been  sen- 
tenced to  an  infamous  punishment,  or  guilty  of  adultery.  A  judg- 
ment of  divorce  carries  with  it  a  dissolution  of  the  community  of 
acquets  and  gains;  each  spouse  taking  back  the  separate  property 
that  he  or  she  brought  into  the  marriage,  and  one-half  of  the  com- 
munity after  the  payment  of  debts. 

Dixie,  a  postoffice  of  Caddo  parish,  is  situated  on  the  Texas  & 
Pacific  R.  R.,  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  parish  about  a  mile  west  of 
the  Red  river  and  some  12  miles  north  of  Shreveport,  the  parish  seat. 
It  has  an  express  office,  telegraph  station  and  telephone. 

Dodson,  a  village  in  the  northern  part  of  Winn  parish,  is  a  sta- 
tion on  the  Chicago,  Rock  Island  &  Pacific  R.  R.,  about  10  miles 
north  of  Winnfield,  the  parish  seat.  It  has  a  bank,  a  money  order 
postoffice,  an  express  office,  telegraph  station  and  telephone  facilities, 
and  is  the  shipping  point  for  a  large  farming  and  timber  district. 
Population,  845. 

Donaldsonville,  the  seat  of  justice  of  Ascension  parish,  is  located 
in  the  southwestern  part  of  the  parish  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Mississippi  river,  about  80  miles  by  water  above  New  Orleans,  though 
the  distance  on  an  "air  line"  is  only  a  little  over  50  miles.  The  As- 
cension Catholic  church  was  founded  here  as  early  as  1772  by  Father 
Angelus  a  Reuillagodos,  a  Capuchin  friar.  The  town  was  founded  in 
1806  by  William  Donaldson.  When  the  parish  of  Ascension  was  or- 
ganized in  1807.  Donaldsonville  was  made  the  parish  seat,  and  in 
1813  the  town  received  its  first  charter  of  incorporation.  At  one  time 
it  was  inclined  to  contest  honors  with  New  Orleans  and  Baton  Rouge. 
On  Feb.  4, 1825,  the  legislature  passed  an  act  locating  the  state  capital 
at  Donaldsonville  (See  Capital),  and  the  statehouse  then  erected  re- 
mained standing  until  1848.  In  1846  Donaldsonville  annexed  the 
town  of  "Unionville,"  Avhieh  was  created  by  an  act  of  the  legisla- 
ture, approved  March  25,  1840,  and  which  provided  that  "The  in- 
habitants of  the  town  of  Donaldsonville,  known  as  fauborgs  Les- 


330  LOUISIANA 

sard  and  Conway,  are  hereby  incorporated  under  the  name  of 
Unionville. ' ' 

The  Donaldsonville  of  the  present  day  is  an  important  industrial 
and  commercial  center  and  an  active  shipping  and  distributing  point, 
as  15  lines  of  Mississippi  and  Red  river  steamers  touch  at  its  landing 
to  receive  and  discharge  freight  and  passengers.  It  is  also  on  the 
Texas  &  Pacific  R.  R.,  and  is  the  northern  terminus  of  a  branch  of 
the  same  system  that  runs  south  to  Thibodaux.  The  city  has  3  banks, 
3  newspapers,  rice  mills,  large  lumbering  interests,  machine  shops. 
a  canning  factory,  several  extensive  brickyards,  an  ice  factorj%  etc., 
Catholic  and  Protestant  churches,  a  Jewish  synagogue,  good  public 
schools,  several  fire  companies,  and  lodges  of  all  the  leading  fraternal 
societies.   The  population  is  4,090. 

Donner,  a  village  in  the  northwestern  part  of  Terrebonne  parish, 
is  on  the  Southern  Pacific  R.  R.,  about  10  miles  west  of  Schriver, 
and  15  miles  northwest  of  Houma.  the  parish  seat.  It  has  a  money  or- 
der postoffice,  an  express  office,  telephone  and  telegraph  facilities, 
important  sugar  industries,  and  a  population  of  125. 

Dorcheat,  a  money  order  post-village  in  the  northeastern  part  of 
Webster  parish,  is  on  a  bayou  of  the  same  name,  about  8  miles  east 
of  Cotton  Valley,  the  nearest  railroad  station,  and  15  miles  north  of 
Minden,  the  parish  seat. 

Dorcyville,  a  village  in  the  southeastern  part  of  Iberville  parish, 
is  situated  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Mississippi  river  and  is  a  sta- 
tion on  the  Texas  &  Pacific  R,  R..  about  10  miles  southeast  of  Plaqiie- 
mine.  the  parish  seat.  Its  principal  industries  are  lumbering,  wooden- 
ware  factories,  and  rice  mills,  and  it  is  the  shipping  and  supply  center 
for  a  considerable  district.    Its  population  is  200. 

Doss  (R.  R.  name  "Windsor),  a  post-hamlet  in  the  southwestern 
part  of  Morehouse  parish,  is  a  station  on  the  St.  Louis,  Iron  Moim- 
tain  &  Southern  R.  R.,  about  8  miles  south  of  Bastrop,  the  parish 
seat. 

Dossman,  a  post-hamlet  in  Evangeline  parish,  is  on  Bayou  Coco- 
drie.  about  4  miles  west  of  Milburn.  the  nearest  railroad  station. 

Douay,  Anastase,  a  Recollet  friar,  was  one  of  La  Salle's  com- 
panions, and  in  connection  with  Father  Zenobe  Membre  wrote  an  ac- 
count of  the  voyage  to  the  mouth  of  the  IMississippi  river  in  1682. 
Two  years  later  he  accompanied  the  expedition  to  foimd  a  colony  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi :  went  with  La  Salle  to  Canada  in  1685 ; 
and  was  present  at  the  latter 's  death  on  March  18,  1687.  After  many 
hardships  he  succeeded  in  reaching  Fort  St.  Louis  on  the  Illinois,  and 
finally  France.  In  1699  he  came  back  to  Louisiana  with  Iberville,  and 
was  one  of  the  48  men  who  accompanied  Ibenalle  on  his  expedition  up 
the  river.  The  same  year  he  returned  to  France  and  there  passed  the 
remainder  of  his  life. 

Downs,  Solomon  W.,  U.  S.  senator  from  Louisiana,  was  born  in 
Tennessee  in  1801.  He  received  a  classical  education  and  graduated 
at  the  Transylvania  university:  studied  law;  was  admitted  to  the  bar; 
began  practice  at  New  Orleans  in  1862 ;  was  for  a  time  JJ.  S.  district 
attorney ;  was  elected  U.  S.  senator  from  Louisiana  as  a  democrat,  and 


LOUISIANA  331 

served  from  Dec.  6,  1847,  to  March  3,  1853.  He  died  at  Orchard 
Springs,  Ky.,  Aug.  14,  1854. 

Downsville,  an  old  town  in  the  southern  part  of  Union  parish, 
was  incorporated  in  1860.  It  is  about  10  miles  south  of  Farmerville, 
the  parish  seat,  and  8  miles  north  of  Tremont,  the  nearest  railroad 
station.  It  is  situated  in  a  rich  agricultural  district  and  supplies  a 
large  area. 

Doyline,  a  money  order  post-village  in  the  southwestern  part  of 
Webster  parish,  is  a  station  on  the  Vicksburg,  Shreveport  &  Pacific 
R.  R.,  about  9  miles  southwest  of  Minden,  the  parish  seat.  Popula- 
tion 200. 

Dred  Scott  Decision. — Probably  no  case  ever  decided  by  the 
supreme  court  of  the  United  States  created  more  general  comment 
and  excitement  than  that  of  Dred  Scott,  a  negro  who  brought  suit  in 
the  courts  to  gain  his  freedom.  The  events  leading  up  to  the  ease  were 
as  follows:  In  1835  a  Dr.  Emerson,  of  Missouri,  was  appointed  sur- 
geon at  Fort  Snelling,  Minn.,  and  took  with  him  a  slave  named  Dred 
Scott.  Shortly  after  arriving  at  Fort  Snelling  Dr.  Emerson  bought 
from  Maj.  Taliaferro  a  negro  girl  named  Harriet,  who  became  the 
wife  of  Scott,  and  a  child  was  born  to  them  while  at  Fort  Snelling. 
In  1838  Dr.  Emerson  went  back  to  Missouri,  taking  the  two  slaves 
with  him,  and  died  there  a  few  years  later.  In  1848  Scott  brought  an 
action  in  the  courts  of  Missouri  to  establish  his  freedom,  on  the 
grounds  that  Minnesota  was  in  that  part  of  the  Louisiana  purchase 
in  which  slavery  was  expressly  prohibited  by  the  Missouri  Com- 
promise of  1820,  and  that  his  residence  in  that  territory  annulled  all 
his  master's  rights  of  ownership  to  him  or  the  other  members  of  his 
family.  In  1852  the  Missouri  supreme  court  decided  against  him, 
holding  that  return  to  Missouri,  without  any  objection  on  his  part, 
reestablished  his  status  as  a  slave.  Two  years  later  the  case  was  taken 
before  the  U.  S.  circuit  court,  which  decided  that  Scott  was  a  citizen 
of  Missouri  and  could  be  a  party  to  a  suit  in  the  Federal  courts,  but 
decided  against  him,  as  the  state  courts  had  done.  Several  promi- 
nent anti-slavery  lawyers  carried  the  case  to  the  U.  S.  siijirerae  court 
without  charging  Scott  any  fees  for  their  services,  and  in  March, 
1857,  the  famous  opinion  was  handed  down  by  Chief  Justice  Roger  B. 
Taney,  all  the  justices  concurring  except  Benjamin  R.  Curtis,  a 
native  of  Massachusetts,  who  gave  a  dissenting  opinion. 

In  rendering  his  decision  Mr.  Taney  said:  "It  is  difficult,  at  this 
day,  to  realize  the  state  of  public  opinion  in  relation  to  that  unfor- 
tunate race  which  prevailed  in  the  civilized  and  enlightened  portions 
of  the  world  at  the  time  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  and 
when  the  constitution  was  framed  and  adopted.  But  the  public  his- 
tory of  every  European  nation  displays  it  in  a  manner  too  plain  to 
be  mistaken.  They  had  for  more  than  a  century  before  been  regarded 
as  being  of  an  inferior  race,  and  altogether  unfit  to  associate  with  the 
white  race,  either  in  social  or  political  relations ;  and  so  far  inferior 
that  they  had  no  rights  which  the  wliite  man  was  bound  to  respect,  and 
that  the  negro  might  justly  and  lawfully  be  reduced  to  slavery  for 
his  benefit. ' ' 


332  LOUISIANA 

The  abolitionists  of  the  North  seized  with  avidity  upon  the  ex- 
pression: "The  negro  has  no  rights  which  the  white  man  is  bound 
to  respect,"  and  made  it  their  slogan.  Many  in  their  ignorance  at- 
tributed the  words  to  the  chief  justice,  when,  as  a  matter  of  fact, 
he  merely  used  the  expression  in  the  nature  of  a  quotation  to  show  the 
prevailing  opinion  of  the  black  race  during  the  century  preceding 
the  establishment  of  the  American  republic.  Others,  who  understood 
the  sense  in  which  the  language  had  been  iised.  kept  silent  upon  the 
subject,  and  in  this  way  'Mr.  Taney  was  made  the  victim  of  an  injus- 
tice. There  is  little  room  for  doubt,  however,  that  the  use  of  this 
"war  cry,"  whether  in  ignorance  or  malice,  had  nnich  to  do  with  crys- 
tallizing the  abolition  sentiment  in  the  Northern  states.  On  the  other 
hand  the  slaveholders  of  the  South  found  reasons  for  rejoicing  in  the 
majority  opinion  of  the  court,  which  held  that  the  Missouri  Com- 
promise was  unconstitutional:  that  the  obligation  of  Congress  to. pro- 
tect private  property  was  paramount  to  the  power  to  govern  the  ter- 
ritories: tliat  slaves,  being  property,  were  entitled  to  this  protection 
under  the  constitution ;  and  that  Congress  had  no  power  to  enact  laws 
prohibiting  the  owner  of  slaves  from  taking  them  wherever  he  pleased. 
This  portion  of  the  opinion  was  regarded  by  many  attorneys  as  extra- 
judicial— a  sort  of  obiter  dictum — and  witho\it  direct  bearing  on  the 
case,  but  it  gave  encouragement  to  the  slaveholders  to  know  that  all 
the  justices  of  the  U.  S.  Supreme  court,  with  one  exception,  held  such 
■views.  Coming  as  it  did  jiist  after  the  iua\iguration  of  President 
Buchanan,  the  anti-slavery  element  accepted  it  as  a  challenge :  intense 
feeling  soon  manifested  itself  in  both  sections,  and  there  is  no  ques- 
tion that  the  decision  had  its  influence  in  precipitating  the  Civil 
war. 

Dreux,  Charles  D.,  soldier,  was  a  native  of  Louisiana,  and  was 
one  of  the  first  men  to  volunteer  from  that  state  for  service  in  the 
Confederate  army.  On  April  11.  1861.  as  captain  of  the  Orleans 
Cadets,  he  was  ordered  with  his  command  to  Pensacola,  Fla.,  and  soon 
afterward  to  Virginia,  where  he  was  placed  in  command  of  the 
1st  Loiiisiana  battalion  with  the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel.  About 
midnight.  July  -4.  while  the  battalion  was  stationed  at  Young's  Mills, 
Va.,  Lieut.-Col.  Dreux,  with  100  infantry,  15  or  20  cavalry  and  a 
howitzer,  moved  out  on  the  road  toward  Newport  News  and  took  posi- 
tioin  in  ambush  near  a  place  known  as  the  Curtis  farm.  His  com- 
mand was  scarcely  stationed  when  the  videttes  came  in  and  reported 
a  body  of  Federal  cavahy  approaching.  Although  Dreux  gave  orders 
not  to  fire,  shots  were  exchanged  between  the  scouts  and  the  Fed- 
erals, and  soon  after  the  firing  became  general.  In  the  skirmish  Dreux 
was  mortally  wounded  and  lived  but  a  few  hours.  The  Confederate 
Military  History  says:  "Charles  D.  Dreux.  so  early  killed  in  the 
war,  was  mourned  in  the  city  which  knew  him  best  as  a  loss  both 
as  a  citizen  and  soldier.  In  New  Orleans  and  Shreveport,  Con- 
federate crape  was  first  displayed  in  Louisiana." 

Dreyfus,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  eastern  part  of  Iberville  parish,  is 
situated  on  the  east  bank  of  the  ilississippi  river  and  on  the  Yazoo 


LOUISIANA  333 

&  ]\Iississippi  Valley  R.  R.,  about  10  miles  south  of  Plaquemine,  the 
parish  seat. 

Drycreek,  a  post-village  in  Beauregard  parish,  is  situated  on  a 
creek  of  the  same  name,  about  3  miles  southwest  of  Red  Buck,  the 
nearest  railroad  station. 

Dry  Prong',  a  post-village  and  station  in  the  central  part  of  Grant 
parish,  is  on  the  Louisiana  &  Arkansas  R.  R.,  about  12  miles  north- 
east of  Colfax,  the  parish  seat,  and  has  a  population  of  150. 

Dubach,  a  village  in  the  northern  part  of  Lincoln  parish,  is  situ- 
ated on  Bayou  D'Arbonne  and  the  Chicago,  Rock  Island  &  Pacific 
R.  R.,  about  11  miles  north  of  Ruston,  the  parish  seat.  It  has  a 
money  order  postoffice,  an  express  office,  a  telegraph  station  and 
telephone  facilities,  and  is  the  center  of  trade  for  a  fine  agricultural 
district.     Population  714. 

Dubberly,  a  village  in  the  southeastern  part  of  Webster  parish, 
is  on  the  Vicksburg,  Shreveport  &  Pacific  R.  R.,  9  miles  by  rail 
southeast  of  Minden,  the  parish  seat.  It  has  a  money  order  post- 
office,  express  office  and  telegraph  station,  and  a  population  of  200. 

Duboin,  a  post-hamlet  of  Iberia  parish,  is  in  the  central  part, 
about  3  miles  southeast  of  Curtis,  the  nearest  railroad  station. 

Dubourg,  Louis  Guillaume  Valentine,  first  Roman  Catholic 
bishop  of  New  Orleans,  was  born  at  Cape  Francois,  San  Domingo, 
Feb.  14,  1766.  He  was  given  an  excellent  education  in  France, 
and  later,  when  he  decided  to  enter  the  priesthood,  went  to  the 
seminary  of  St.  Sulpiee.  where  he  studied  under  M.  Nagot,  who 
introduced  the  order  of  St.  Sulpiee  into  the  United  States.  At  the 
completion  of  his  course  in  the  seminary,  he  was  placed  at  the 
head  of  a  new  institution  of  Sulpieians  in  France,  but  the  revolu- 
tion caused  it  to  be  abandoned,  and  Dubourg  sought  refuge  with 
his  family  in  Bordeaux.  This  hiding  place  proved  to  be  unsafe, 
however,  and  he  fled  to  Spain  and  later  to  America.  LTpon  appli- 
cation he  was  ordained  a  Sulpician  priest  and  in  1796  received  an 
appointment  as  president  of  Georgetown  university,  Washington, 
D.  C.  Three  years  later  he  went  to  Havana  to  establish  a  college, 
but  was  unsuccessful,  and  returned  to  the  United  States,  bringing 
with  him  the  sons  of  many  of  the  prominent  families  of  Havana 
who  wished  to  receive  a  college  education.  He  founded  an  acad- 
emy in  Baltimore,  had  St.  Mary's  school  raised  to  a  college  in  1804 
and  united  to  the  Sulpician  seminary  of  St.  Mary.  In  1806  the 
college  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  university  by  the  state  legisla- 
ture of  Maryland,  and  it  became  a  prominent  institution.  In  1812 
Father  Dubourg  was  appointed  administrator  apostolic  of  the  di- 
ocese of  Louisiana  and  the  two  Floridas.  When  New  Orleans  was 
threatened  by  the  British  in  1815,  he  issued  a  letter  directing  public 
services  to  he  held  in  all  the  Catholic  churches  of  the  city  to  pray 
for  protection.  Gen.  Jackson  highly  commended  this  action  and 
after  the  victory  requested  Father  Dubourg  to  hold  a  public  service 
of  thanks  in  the  cathedral.  This  was  done  on  Jan.  23,  1815.  The 
Abbe  met  Gen.  Jackson  at  the  door  of  the  Cathedral  and  delivered 
a  patriotic  address,  and  Jackson  in  turn  thanked  the  Abbe  for  the 


334  L0UISL4NA 

prayers  offered  in  the  cliurches.  The  same  year  Dubourg  Avent  to 
Europe  and  was  appointed  bishop  of  New  Orleans  at  Rome  on 
Sept.  24,  1815.  He  secured  several  Lazarist  priests  for  the  mis- 
sions of  Louisiana,  and  priests  of  other  orders  in  France.  The  king 
of  France  placed  the  war  ship  Caravani  at  his  disposal  and  in  com- 
pany witli  31  priests  he  had  secured  for  the  church  in  Louisiana 
he  sailed  for  the  United  States.  One  of  the  first  things  Bishop 
Dubourg  did  was  to  establish  a  seminary  in  connection  with  a  col- 
lege at  Barrens,  Mo.,  but  soon  transferred  it  to  the  care  of  the 
Jesuits.  It  has  since  become  known  as  the  imiversity  of  St.  Louis. 
Bishop  Dubourg  visited  "Washington  in  1823,  secured  an  appropria- 
tion from  the  government  for  the  Indian  tribes  of  his  diocese  and 
placed  them  iu  the  care  of  the  Jesuits.  He  induced  the  Ladies  of 
the  Sacred  Heart  to  come  from  Paris  and  establish  convents  in 
America ;  founded  a  convent  at  Florien,  ]\Io. ;  took  a  deep  interest 
in  the  Ursuline  nuns,  who  had  been  established  in  New  Orleans  in 
1727;  and  was  very  active  in  establishing  the  "Association  for 
Propagation  of  the  Faith."  He  went  to  Europe  on  business  in  1826 
and  never  retiirned,  as  he  was  transferred  from  the  diocese  to 
Montauban,  France,  and  in  1833  was  appointed  Archbishop  of 
Besancon,  France,  where  he  died  on  Feb.  12,  1833.  (See  Catholic 
Church.) 

Dubreuil,  Claude  Joseph,  a  rich  planter,  was  a  native  of  Dijon, 
France,  and  La  Harpe  records  him  as  one  of  a  number  of  French 
gentlemen  who  arrived  at  Dauphine  island  on  j\Iarch  9,  1717,  for 
the  purpose  of  establishing  colonies  in  Louisiana.  His  grant  was 
located  on  the  ]\Iississippi  river,  a  few  miles  above  the  site  Bien- 
ville had  chosen  for  the  capital  of  the  province,  and  here  he  estab- 
lished a  thriving  plantation.  Says  Father  Charlevoix  in  his  journal 
describing  his  voyage  down  the  Mississiitpi  dui-ing  the  Aviutcr  of 
1721-2:  "On  the  5th  (Jan.,  1722)  we  stopped  to  \iine  at  a  place 
which  they  call  the  Chapitoulas,  and  which  is  but  three  leagues 
distant  from  New  Orleans.  The  Chapitoulas,  and  some  neighbor- 
ing habitations,  are  in  a  very  good  condition.  The  soil  is  fruitful, 
and  is  fallen  into  the  hands  of  people  that  are  skillful  and  laborious. 
They  are  the  Sieur  de  Breuil  and  three  Canadian  brothers,  named 

Chau\dn They  have  lost  no  time,  they    have    spared     no 

pains,  and  their  example  is  a  lesson  for  those  lazy  people  whose 
poverty  very  unjustly  disparages  a  country  wliich  will  render  a 
hundred  fold  of  whatever  is  sowed  in  it."  Dubreuil  appears  to 
have  been  active  in  promoting  the  first  establishment  of  New  Or- 
leans, and  Prof.  Fortier  quotes  with  approval  a  letter  of  Du- 
breuil's,  wi-itteu  in  1740,  indicating  that  he  was  the  first  man  to 
make  levees  and  drainage  canals  in  Louisiana.  The  letter  men- 
tions a  canal  he  was  then  digging  near  New  Orleans  at  his  o-mi  ex- 
pense, and  says  further:  "The  establishment  of  New  Orleans  in 
the  beginning  Mas  awful,  the  river  when  it  was  high  spreading 
over  the  whole  ground,  and  in  all  the  houses  there  were  two  feet 
of  water,  which  caused  general  and  mortal  diseases.  As  I  was 
knoAvn  to  be  enterprising  and  not  capable  of  refusing  a  service, 


LOUISIANA  335 

the  directors  begged  me  to  make  the  levee,  and  I  made  two-thirds 
of  it  without  any  compensation,  and  New  Orleans  was  out  of  inun- 
dation and  as  dry  as  if  it  had  been  built  on  a  high  land."  Fortier 
also  quotes  a  document  of  1724,  which  describes  Dubreuil  as  "one 
of  the  most  laborious  and  intelligent  of  all  the  inhabitants.  *  *  * 
He  understands  mechanics,  and  is  of  all  trades.  His  lot  is  the 
largest,  the  finest,  and  the  best  cleared  in  the  colony.  He  has  been 
the  first  to  make  levees  and  deep  ditches  for  the  drainage  of  the 
waters  in  the  swamps,  to  keep  his  lands  dry.  *  *  *  jje  has  a 
large  house  with  two  wings  which  serve  as  a  store,  which  he  is 
completing  at  present.  He  has  the  best  lodging  in  the  colony.  He 
has  a  very  fine  view."  In  a  list  of  the  first  inhabitants  of  Nelw 
Orleans  to  whom  lots  were  assigned  for  building  purposes,  as  given 
in  French's  Historical  Collections,  Dubreuil  appears  as  the  owner 
of  lot  No.  2. 

According  to  Bossu,  the  French  traveler  and  explorer,  who  made 
three  extended  journeys  through  the  province  of  Louisiana  by 
order  of  his  government  during  the  administrations  of  Vaudreuil 
and  Kerlerec,  Dubreuil  was  prominently  identified  with  the  begin- 
ning of  the  sugar  industry  in  Louisiana.  Says  Bossu:  "Whilst  I 
was  in  Louisiana  (1751),  the  inhabitants  got  from  St.  Domingo 
plants  of  sugar-canes,  in  order  to  make  plantations  of  them.  M. 
Dubreuil,  who  commands  the  militia  of  citizens,  was  the  first 
planter  that  built  a  sugar-mill  at  New  Orleans."    This  was  in  1758. 

Duck  Port,  a  village  of  Madison  parish,  is  situated  on  the  west 
bank  of  the  Mississippi  river,  about  4  miles  northeast  of  Thomas- 
town,  the  nearest  railroad  station,  and  10  miles  east  of  Tallulah, 
the  parish  seat.    It  is  a  shipping  point  for  a  considerable  district. 

Dueling. — In  the  early  days,  to  be  an  expert  swordsman  was  the 
ambition  of  nearly  every  young  Louisianian.  Military  oificers 
fenced  for  pastime  by  moonlight  on  the  levee ;  fencing  schools  flour- 
ished, and  were  well  patronized  by  fashionable  young  men.  Though 
the  mere  love  of  fencing  may  not  have  been  responsible  for  the 
numerous  "affaires  d'honneur,"  it  certainly  did  not  discourage  the 
practice  of  dueling,  so  that  during  the  colonial  period,  and  for  many 
years  after  tlie  admission  of  Louisiana  as  a  state,  the  "code."  as  it 
was  called,  was  universally  recognized  in  New  Orleans.  It  must 
not  be  inferred,  however,  that  the  custom  was  peculiar  to  that  city, 
as  the  "code"  was  observed  and  dueling  practiced  in  all  parts  of 
the  country.  Duels  were  fought  sometimes  more  as  a  test  of  skill 
with  the  sword  than  to  redress  a  wrong  or  avenge  an  insult. 
Gayarre,  in  his  History  of  Louisiana,  gives  an  instance  of  this  kind, 
where  six  young  French  noblemen  engaged  in  a  duel  on  what  is 
now  one  of  the  principal  business  streets  of  New  Orleans.  As 
they  were  walking  along  together,  with  no  ill-feeling  among  them, 
one  exclaimed:  "0,  what  a  beautiful  night!  What  a  splendid  level 
ground  for  a  joust!  Suppose  we  pair  off,  draw  our  swords,  and 
make  this  night  memorable  by  a  spontaneous  display  of  bravery 
and  skill."  The  proposal  was  favorably  received,  almost  instantly 
six  swords  were  glittering  in  the  light  of  the  moon,  and  the  en- 


336  LOUISIANA 

counter — begun  in  a  spirit  of  heroic  but  foolish  bravado — ter- 
minated by  two  of  the  participants  being  left  on  the  field  seriously 
injured. 

The  favorite  weapon  of  the  Creoles  was  the  rapier,  or  coliche- 
marde,  \vhich  was  used  almost  exclusively  prior  to  the  purchase  of 
Louisiana  by  the  United  States,  the  saber  and  broadsword  being 
rarely  brouglit  into  requisition,  though  there  are  sveeral  recorded 
cases  of  duels  on  horseback,  with  broadswords.  One  of  these  oc- 
curred on  "Plaine  Racquette"  in  the  Faubourg  Marigny,  between 
a  young  creole  and  a  French  cavalry  ofScer.  The  former  was  no 
match  for  the  Frenchman  in  physical  strength,  but  by  his  dexterity 
in  the  use  of  the  sword  he  parried  every  blow,  and  finally  drove  his 
blade  through  the  body  of  his  antagonist.  A  slight  wound  with  the 
rapier  was  usually  sufficient  to  satisfy  sullied  honor,  and  many  a 
duel  resulted  in  nothing  more  serious  than  the  shedding  of  a  small 
quantity  of  blood.  But  after  the  cession  of  the  province  to  the  United 
States,  the  American  introduced  firearms  upon  the  field  of  honor  and 
pistols,  rifles,  and  sometimes  shotguns,  were  used  with  more  deadly 
effect. 

Political  arguments,  love  affairs,  legal  contests,  scientific  discus- 
sions, etc..  often  furnished  the  excuse  for  a  challenge,  which  was  sel- 
dom declined.  "Everybody  fought  with  everybody,"  and  men  kept 
score  of  their  duels  as  a  society  belle  keeps  tally  of  her  conquests. 
With  the  advent  of  a  large  number  of  the  soldiers  of  Napoleon's  dis- 
banded armies  there  was  a  renaissance  of  dueling,  and  all  through 
the  ante-bellum  days  the  man  who  would  not  fight  was  deemed  un- 
worthy of  the  treatment  due  a  gentleman,  socially  ostracised,  to  some 
extent  at  least,  and  open  to  insult.  None  was  too  high  nor  too  low 
in  social  or  political  life  to  offer  or  accept  a  challenge.  W.  C.  C. 
Claiboi'ne,  the  first  American  governor,  left  the  executive  mansion 
in  1807  to  meet  Daniel  Clark,  then  the  territorial  delegate  in  Con- 
gress at  Fort  Manchac,  and  in  the  duel  which  ensued  Clark  was 
severely  wounded.  "While  "Winfield  Scott,  then  a  captain  in  the  army, 
was  stationed  at  New  Orleans,  a  rumor  was  started  that  he  had  ap- 
propriated to  his  own  use  some  of  the  money  sent  to  him  to  pay  his 
men.  He  challenged  a  Dr.  Upshaw  of  Mississippi,  and  on  Feb.  10, 
1810,  a  duel  was  fought  on  the  Louisiana  side  of  the  Mississippi  river 
opposite  Natchez,  the  bluffs  on  the  east  side  being  crowded  by  spec- 
tators, among  whom  were  several  army  officers.  Scott  received  a 
painful  scalp  wound,  but  the  fact  that  he  was  willing  to  defend  his 
honor  had  p  tendency  to  check  the  rumor  so  damaging  to  his  char- 
acter. Marigny  de  Mandeville  fought  with  his  brother-in-law;  a 
father  and  son  both  fought  duels  on  the  same  day :  and  on  one  Sun- 
day in  1839  as  many  as  ten  duels  were  fought  in  New  Orleans  or  the 
immediate  vicinity.  Pierre  Soule,  while  U.  S.  minister  to  Spain, 
fought  a  duel  at  JMadrid  with  Marquis  de  Turgot,  the  French  am- 
bassador, over  an  affair  of  state,  Turgot  receiving  a  wound  that  was 
more  annoying  than  dangerous. 

But  to  describe,  ever  so  briefly,  all  the  duels  that  have  taken  place 
in  and  about  New  Orleans  would  require  a  volume.     The  visitor  to 


LOUISIANA  337 

the  old  cemeteries  may  see  on  many  of  the  old  tombs  the  legend: 
"Killed  on  the  field  of  honor."  Ponton's  fencing  rooms,  near  the 
Orleans  theater,  were  the  scene  of  numerous  duels,  though  the  spot 
that  stood  highest  in  favor  with  the  duelists  was  "The  Oaks,"  a 
beautiful  grove  of  live  oaks,  not  far  from  Metairie  cemetery,  on  the 
same  ridge,  and  now  in  what  is  known  as  the  lower  city  park. 

Clergymen  animadverted  upon  the  evils  of  dueling,  but  without 
avail.  Article  130  of  the  constitution  of  1845  was  as  follows:  "Any 
citizen  of  this  state  who  shall,  after  the  adoption  of  this  constitution, 
fight  a  duel  with  deadly  weapons,  or  send  a  challenge  to  fight  a  duel, 
either  within  the  state,  or  out  of  it,  or  who  shall  act  as  second,  or 
knowingly  aid  and  assist  in  any  manner  those  thus  offending,  shall 
be  deprived  of  holding  any  office  of  trust  or  profit,  and  of  enjoying 
the  right  of  suffrage  under  this  constitution."  This  article  was  rati- 
fied by  the  people,  but  it  soon  became  unpopular,  as  many  of  the 
leading  citizens  of  the  state  found  themselves  disfranchised,  and  in 
1849  it  was  repealed.  Louisiana  was  not  the  only  state  that  essayed  to 
suppress  dueling  by  law.  In  some  of  the  states  the  killing  of  a  man 
in  a  duel  was  defined  as  murder  and  made  punishable  by  death ;  in 
others  public  officials  were  required  to  take  an  oath  that  they  had  not 
been,  within  a  certain  period,  nor  would  not  be  during  their  term  of 
office,  engaged  in  any  duel. 

Those  who  fought  duels  were  not  necessarily  bad  or  bloodthirsty 
men.  They  were  simply  adherents  to  a  custom  that  demanded  they 
should  fight  or  be  branded  as  a  coward.  Most  of  them  were  law-abid- 
ing citizens  in  all  matters  outside  of  the  "code,"  and  many  of  the 
historic  duels  in  the  United  States  were  fought  by  men  high  in  public 
life.  The  duel  between  Alexander  Hamilton  and  Aaron  Burr  is 
familiar  to  almost  every  schoolboy ;  Button  Gwinett,  one  of  the  signers 
of  the  Declaration  of  Independence  from  Georgia,  was  killed  by  Gen. 
Mcintosh ;  Henry  Clay  and  John  Randolph,  two  of  the  most  brilliant 
men  in  Congress,  fought  a  duel  in  1826;  Gen.  Andrew  Jackson  and 
Col.  Thomas  H.  Benton  both  fought  several  duels,  each  killing  his 
opponent  in  one  instance ;  DeWitt  Clinton,  governor  of  New  York  and 
the  Federalist  candidate  for  president  in  1812,  was  a  noted  duelist, 
and  the  list  might  be  extended  indefinitely. 

Since  the  war  the  "code"  has  fallen  into  disuse,  and  a  duel,  fought 
by  formal  challenge  and  acceptance,  is  now  of  rare  occurrence. 
There  are  some,  however,  who  still  believe  in  this  method  of  settling 
differences  of  opinion,  but  public  opinion  keeps  them  from  being  too 
outspoken  in  its  defense.  James  D.  Lynch,  of  Mississippi,  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  bench  and  bar  of  that  state,  published  in  1880,  says: 
"While  the  institution  of  chivalry,  as  it  existed  in  the  middle  ages, 
has  long  since  been  borne  down  by  the  heavy  tread  of  a  cold  asceticism, 
and  our  society  bears  but  little  analogy  to  the  scenes  of  Ivanhoe  or 
the  days  of  Richard  Coeur  de  Lion,  the  duello,  in  spite  of  all  regrets 
and  denunciations,  will  continue  to  give  tone  to  the  upper  circles  of 
Southern  society  so  long  as  Southern  honor  maintains  its  historic 
standard. ' ' 

Duke  of  Orleans. — (See  Louis  Philippe.) 
1—22 


338  LOnSLlNA 

Dulac,  a  post-liamlet  in  the  central  part  of  Terrebonne  parish,  is 
situated  on  Bayou  Cailloii,  just  south  of  Quitman  lake  and  about 
15  miles  south  of  Houma,  the  parish  seat. 

Dumont,  author  of  The  Historical  Memoirs  of  Louisiana  cover- 
ing the  period  of  French  domination  down  to  the  year  1740,  or  the 
close  of  Gov.  Bienville's  second  campaign  against  the  Chiekasaws, 
was  a  resident  of  the  colony  for  22  years,  and  was  an  eye  witness 
of  much  that  he  describes.  While  many  of  his  statements  lack 
historical  accuracy,  his  work  nevertheless  ranks  with  that  of  La 
Harpe  and  Le  Page  du  Pratz,  as  one  of  the  best  sources  of  early 
Louisiana  history.  He  has  left  one  of  the  most  interesting  accounts 
of  the  beginning  of  New  Orleans,  and  his  story  of  the  last  Natchez 
war  is  as  accurate  as  any.  Dumont  was  stationed  for  a  number  of 
years  at  Forts  Rosalie  and  St.  Claude  as  lieutenant  and  engineer. 
He  also  accompanied  La  Harpe  in  1721  in  the  capacity  of  mathe- 
matician on  his  expedition  of  250  leagues  up  the  Arkansas  river. 
He  was  serving  as  a  lieutenant  at  Fort  Rosalie  among  the  Natchez 
shortly  before  the  massacre  of  1729,  as  he  records  a  serious  diffi- 
culty he  had  with  the  arbitrary  commander  of  that  year,  Chopart. 
His  Llemoirs  are  included  in  the  French  Collections  of  Louisiana, 
and  frequent  references  to  this  valuable  work  will  be  found  in  these 
pages.  Says  Mr.  French,  "It  is  much  to  be  regretted  that  M. 
Dumont,  who  lived  some  years  after  he  returned  to  France,  had 
not  brought  down  liis  historv  of  Louisiana  to  its  abandonment  to 
Spain." 

Dunbar,  a  post-village  in  the  extreme  southeastern  corner  of 
St.  Tammany  parish,  is  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Pearl  river  and  is 
a  station  on  the  Louisville  &  Nashville  R.  R. 

Dunbar,  William,  member  of  Congress,  was  elected  a  represent- 
ative from  Louisiana,  to  the  33d  Congress.  This  is  the  only  record 
of  him  in  the  Congressional  Directory. 

Dunbar's  Line. — This  name  has  sometimes  been  applied  to  the 
parallel  of  31°  north  latitude  from  the  Pearl  river  to  the  Missis- 
sippi, though  the  greater  portion  of  the  line  was  run  by  Andrew 
Ellicott,  who  was  acting  on  behalf  of  the  L^nited  States.  William 
Dunbar,  a  celebrated  mathematician  and  astronomer,  was  born  in 
Scotland  in  1749  and  was  ediTcated  in  Glasgow  and  London.  In  1771 
he  came  to  America,  first  establishing  a  trading  post  at  Pittsburg, 
Pa.,  but  two  years  later  he  descended  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  rivers 
and  selected  a  tract  of  land  near  Baton  Rouge,  where  he  decided  to 
establish  himself  as  a  planter.  In  1798  he  was  appointed  by  Gov. 
Galvez  to  act  as  astronomer  on  behalf  of  Spain  in  i-unning  the  line 
between  the  Spanish  possessions  and  the  United  States  as  fixed  b}' 
the  treaties  of  1783.  Andrew  Ellicott  represented  the  United  States, 
and  had  determined  a  point  on  the  line  about  two  miles  from  the 
Mississippi  before  he  was  ,ioiued  by  Dunbar  on  May  28,  1798.  Dunbar 
accepted  the  point  established  by  Ellicott,  and  in  his  report  to  the 
Spanish  authorities  says:  "The  moist  and  swampy  soil  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  Mississippi  being  considered  as  hazardous  to  the  health  of  our 
northern  friends,  I  proposed  that  the  American  commissioner  should 


LOUISIANA  339 

continue  his  progress  eastward,  with  the  white  laborers,  50  in  num- 
ber, reserving  for  myself  the  task  of  pushing  the  line  through  the  low 
lands  to  the  margin  of  the  Mississippi  with  the  assistance  of  two  sur- 
veyors, 22  black  laborers  and  a  white  overseer." 

He  extended  the  line  to  the  river  bank,  a  distance  of  2  miles  and 
180' perches  (2.111.42  French  toises),  reaching  the  river  on  August 
17,  1798,  and  the  next  day  erected  a  post  10  feet  high,  surrounded 
by  a  mound  8  feet  in  height,  of  which  he  says:  "On  this  point  is 
inscribed  on  the  south  side  a  crown  with  the  letter  R  underneath; 
on  the  north  U.  S.,  on  the  west  side  fronting  the  river,  Agosto  18th, 
1798,  31°  Lat.  N. "  Mr.  Dunbar  remained  with  the  work  until  the  line 
had  been  carried  to  the  distance  of  about  18  miles  from  the  river, 
"including  the  whole  of  the  cultivated  lands,"  when  he  retired  in 
accordance  with  the  terms  of  the  agreement  previously  made  with 
the  Spanish  government.  His  report  has  been  copied  from  the  archives 
of  Spain  and  published  in  the  Collections  of  the  Mississippi  His- 
torical society  (Vol.  Ill,  p.  185). 

Duncan,  Johnson  Kelly,  soldier,  was  born  in  York,  Pa.,  March 
19,  1827.  He  was  appointed  to  the  U.  S.  military  academ.y,  where 
he  was  graduated  July  1,  1849,  as  brevet  second-lieutenant  of  the 
2nd  artillery.  He  served  in  Florida  against  the  Indians  during  1849 
and  1850,  and  on  garrison  duty  at  Forts  Sullivan  and  Preble,  Me. 
Soon  after  he  was  appointed  assistant  on  the  Northern  Pacific  rail- 
road exploring  expedition,  serving  from  1853  to  1854.  He  was 
promoted  to  1st  lieutenant  of  the  3d  artillery,  but  resigned  Jan.  31, 
1855,  and  became  superintendent  of  repairs  at  the  branch  mint,  at 
New  Orleans  until  1860.  Prom  that  time  until  1861  he  was  chief 
engineer  of  the  board  of  public  works  of  Louisiana.  When  the  war 
broke  out  he  offered  his  services  to  Jefferson  Davis,  who  appointed 
him  colonel  first  and  on  Jan.  7,  1862,  promoted  him  to  brigadier- 
general.  He  was  placed  in  command  of  the  coast  defenses,  including 
Forts  Jackson  and  St.  Philip.  Toward  the  end  of  April  Parragut 
bombarded  these  forts,  which  were  intended  to  defend  the  city  of 
New  Orleans,  and  after  6  days  passed  them.  After  the  Union  fleet 
passed.  Gen.  Duncan  was  cut  off  and  surrendered.  After  his  ex- 
change he  acted  as  aide  to  Gen.  Bragg,  but  lived  only  a  few  months 
longer.   He  died  at  Knoxville,  Tenn.,  Dec.  18,  1862. 

Dunham,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  northern  part  of  Franklin  parish, 
is  near  the  northern  boundary,  about  5  miles  northwest  of  Piekrum, 
the  nearest  railroad  station. 

Dunn,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  eastern  part  of  Richland  parish,  is  a 
station  on  the  main  line  of  the  Vicksburg,  Shreveport  &  Pacific 
R.  R.,  about  4  miles  west  of  Delhi.  It  has  an  express  office  and 
telegraph  station  and  a  population  of  100. 

Duplessis,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  northern  part  of  Ascension  par- 
ish, is  about  4  miles  north  of  Witten,  which  is  the  most  convenient 
railroad  station. 

Dupont,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  eastern  part  of  Pointe  Coupee 
parish,  is  about  5  miles  southeast  of  St.  Clair,  the  nearest  railroad 
station. 


340  LOUISIANA 

Dupre,  Henry  Garland,  of  New  Orleans,  La.,  was  boru  in  Opelou- 
sas,  St.  Landry  parish,  July  28,  1873.  He  received  his  education 
in  the  public  schools  of  Opelousas,  graduating  from  Tulane  in 
1892,  with  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Arts,  and  later  the  degree  of 
Bachelor  of  Laws.  He  began  his  practice  in  1895,  serving  as  As- 
sistant City  Attorney  of  New  Orleans  from  1900  to  1910.  He  was 
then  elected  to  the  House  of  Representatives  of  the  State  of  Louisi- 
ana, parish  of  Orleans,  in  1900,  and  was  reelected  in  190-4-1908. 
He  was  elected  Speaker  of  the  House  in  session  of  1908,  serving 
in  regular  and  extra  sessions  of  1910.  Mr.  Dupre  was  chairman  of 
the  Democratic  State  Convention  in  1908  to  select  delegates  to  the 
Denver  Convention,  and  was  elected  to  61st  Congress  on  November 
S,  1910,  to  fill  the  unexpired  term  of  Hon.  Samuel  L.  Gilmore  (de- 
ceased), at  the  same  time  being  elected  to  62nd  Congress,  reelected 
to  63rd  without  opposition. 

Dupre,  Jacques,  acting-governor  of  Louisiana  from  Jan.  15,  1830, 
to  Jan.  30,  1831,  was  born  in  the  Opelousas  district  about  1790. 
His  opportunities  to  acquire  an  education  were  extremely  limited, 
but  he  was  a  practical  man,  and  in  later  life  became  noted  for  his 
good  judgment.  As  a  stock  raiser  he  amassed  a  considerable  for- 
tune. His  entry  into  politics  was  when  he  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  lower  house  of  the  legislature  from  St.  Landry  parish,  and 
from  1828  to  1846  he  was  a  member  of  the  state  senate.  In  Jan., 
1830,  he  was  elected  president  of  the  senate  and  by  virtue  of  that 
office  succeeded  Armand  Beauvais  as  acting-governor.  On  Jan. 
30,  1831,  he  resigned  in  favor  of  Gov.  Roman,  who  had  just  been 
elected  by  the  general  assembly. 

Durald,  a  post-hamlet  in  Evangeline  parish,  is  about  6  miles  north- 
west of  Eunice,  the  nearest  railroad  station. 

Durell,  Edward  Henry,  jurist  and  writer,  was  born  at  Ports- 
mouth, N.  H.,  July  14,  1810,  a  son  of  Daniel  M.  and  Elizabeth 
(Wentworth)  Durell.  His  father,  who  was  born  in  1769  and  died 
in  1841,  was  a  prominent  la^vyer,  a  member  of  the  10th  Congress, 
served  for  several  years  in  the  New  Hampshire  legislature,  and 
from  1830  to  1834  was  U.  S.  district  attorney  for  that  state.  Edward 
H.  Durell  was  educated  at  Phillips  Exeter  academy  and  at  Har- 
vard, graduating  in  1831.  He  then  studied  law  and  soon  after  his 
admission  to  the  bar  removed  to  Mississippi.  In  1836  he  located  in 
New  Orleans,  where  he  wielded  a  large  influence  in  public  affairs. 
In  1843  he  drafted  the  law  changing  the  law  of  descent  of  property 
in  Louisiana,  which  did  much  to  allay  the  then  prevailing  family 
feuds  in  the  settlements  of  estates.  As  a  member  of  the  city  council 
he  originated  several  important  measures  regarding  the  city's  rev- 
enues. He  was  opposed  to  secession  and  after  the  passage  of  the 
ordinance  by  the  Louisiana  convention  he  left  the  Democratic  party 
and  for  a  time  lived  in  retirement.  When  the  Federal  troops  occu- 
pied New  Orleans  in  the  spring  of  1862,  he  drafted,  at  the  reqiiest 
of  the  military  authorities,  the  so-called  bureau  system  of  municipal 
government,  and  was  appointed  president  of  the  bureau  of  finance. 
In  1863  he  served  for  awhile  as  mayor  of  New  Orleans;  was  ap- 


LOUISIANA  341 

pointed  U.  S.  judge  for  the  eastern  district  of  Louisiana  iu  1864, 
and  two  years  later  his  jurisdiction  Avas  extended  to  the  entire 
state.  He  "was  president  of  tlie  state  constitutional  convention  in 
1864;  declined  a  place  on  the  U.  S.  supreme  bench  in  1865;  visited 
Washington  that  year  and  was  influential  in  securing  the  discon- 
tinuance of  legal  procedure  under  the  confiscation  policy;  was  ten- 
dered and  declined  the  Austrian  mission  in  1867;  was  prominently 
mentioned  as  a  candidate  for  vice-president  on  the  Republican  ticket 
in  1868,  and  continued  to  serve  as  district  judge  until  1874,  when  he 
resigned.  His  resignation  was  no  doubt  hastened  by  the  notoriety 
lie  attained  through  his  famous  "midnight  order"  on  Dec.  5,  1872. 
(See  Returning  Boards.)  After  retiring  from  the  bench  Judge 
Durell  removed  to  Schoharie,  N.  Y.,  where  he  passed  the  remainder 
of  his  life  in  literary  work.  His  most  important  work  was  his 
translation  of  P.  C.  Rout's  "Essay  on  the  History  of  France  and  the 
Immediate  Causes  of  the  Revolution  of  1789,"  to  which  he  added  a 
volume  of  original  notes.  At  the  time  of  his  death  he  was  at  work 
on  a  "History  of  Seventeen  Years,  from  1860  to  the  Retiring  of  the 
Federal  Army  from  Louisiana  and  South  Carolina,"  the  manuscript 
of  which  he  left  incomplete.     He  died  at  Schoharie,  March  29,  1887. 

Duson,  a  post-hamlet  and  station  in  the  western  part  of  Lafayette 
parish,  is  on  the  Southern  Pacific  R.  R.,  about  11  miles  west  of 
Lafayette,  the  parish  seat.  It  has  an  express  office,  telegraph  sta- 
tion, telephone  facilities,  and  a  population  of  120. 

Dutch  Town,  a  money  order  post-village  in  the  northern  part  of 
Ascension  parish,  is  about  2  miles  northeast  of  Nettie,  the  nearest 
railroad  station. 

Duty,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  northern  part  of  Catahoula  parish,  is 
situated  on  the  Ouachita  river,  about  12  miles  north  of  Harrison- 
burg, the  parish  seat,  and  about  6  miles  east  of  Rosefield,  the  nearest 
railroad  station. 

Dyer,  a  money  order  post-village  in  the  southwestern  part  of 
Rapides  parish,  situated  on  a  confluent  of  the  Bayou  Cocodrie,  about 
5  miles  north  of  Kelly,  the  nearest  railroad  station. 

E 

Eads,  James  Buchanan,  one  of  the  greatest  Americal  civil 
engineers,  was  born  on  May  23,  1820,  at  Lawrenceburg,  Ind.,  where 
he  received  all  his  schooling  by  the  time  he  was  13  years  of  age. 
At  that  time  his  parents  started  to  remove  to  St.  Louis,  but  were 
so  unfortunate  as  to  lose  all  their  efi'ects  by  fire  before  reaching 
their  destination.  This  threw  the  boy  on  his  own  resources.  He 
peddled  apples,  clerked  in  a  store,  and  at  the  age  of  19  years  became 
a  clerk  on  a  steamboat.  During  all  this  time  he  had  occupied  his 
spare  time  in  the  study  of  engineering,  and  soon  after  taking  service 
on  the  river  he  invented  a  boat  to  recover  the  cargoes  from  sunken 
steamers.  This  was  followed  by  a  pumping  device  for  relieving 
sunken  vessels  of  the  sand  accumulated  in  them,  so  that  vessel  and 


342  LOUISIANA 

cargo  could  be  raised.  lu  this  business  he  acquired  wealth  aud 
prominence,  and  in  a  few  years  he  was  one  of  the  richest  and  best 
kno'N^Ti  men  on  the  ^Mississippi  river.  In  1845  he  erected  a  glass 
works  at  St.  Louis,  the  first  west  of  the  Ohio  river.  In  1856  he 
went  to  "Washington  to  interest  Congress  in  the  removal  of  snags, 
wrecks,  etc.,  from  the  waters  of  the  western  rivers.  The  house 
passed  a  bill  making  appropriations  for  that  purpose,  but  it  failed 
in  the  senate.  At  the  beginning  of  the  war  President  Lincoln  sent 
for  Mr.  Eads  and  asked  him  to  undertake  the  construction  of  light- 
draught  gunboats  for  use  on  the  western  rivers,  and  in  100  days  he 
completed  8  vessels,  the  first  ironclads  built  by  the  United  States. 
After  the  war  he  designed  and  constructed  the  great  steel  bridge 
over  the  Mississippi  river  at  St.  Louis — one  of  the  greatest  tri- 
umphs of  engineering  skill.  In  1872  Congress  appointed  a  com- 
mission of  7  prominent  engineers  to  devise  some  plan  of  avoiding 
the  bars  at  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi,  and  in  1878  the  commis- 
sion reported  in  favor  of  a  canal  from  near  Fort  St.  Philip  to 
Breton  bay.  This  plan  was  opposed  by  Eads,  who  finally  won  his 
case  and  received  the  contract  of  building  the  jetties  (q.  v.)  to 
deepen  and  keep  clear  the  channel  at  the  mouth  of  the  river.  This 
work  was  completed  in  1879,  and  the  same  year  Mr.  Eads  was  ap- 
pointed one  of  a  commission  to  prepare  a  plan  for  the  improvement 
of  the  entire  Mississippi  with  a  view  to  preventing  destructive 
floods.  From  this  time  until  his  death  he  was  engaged  in  various 
engineering  works,  among  which  were  the  deepening  of  the  St. 
John's  river,  Fla.,  the  Sacramento  river,  Cal.,  and  the  hai'bors  of 
Toronto,  Canada,  and  Vera  Cruz,  Mexico.  In  1872  he  was  elected 
a  member  of  the  national  academy  of  sciences  and  the  University 
of  Michigan  conferred  upon  him  the  degree  of  LL.  D.  He  was 
the  author  of  numerous  pamphlets  and  monographs  on  the  subject 
of  engineering  and  delivered  addresses  on  the  same  topic  before 
various  societies.  In  1884  the  English  society  for  the  encourage- 
ment of  arts,  manufactures  and  commerce  (organized  in  175-4) 
awarded  him  the  Albert  medal,  the  first  American  citizen  to  be  so 
honored.     He  died  at  Nassau,  Bahama  islands,  I\Iarch  16,  1887. 

Early  River  Commerce. — The  State  of  Louisiana  embraces  many 
tliousaud  miles  of  navigable  waters  Avithiu  its  limits,  but  for  the 
purposes  of  this  article  the  chief  interest  centers  in  the  commerce 
of  the  ]\nssissippi  river.  True,  the  same  type  of  vessels  which  plied 
the  turbid  waters  of  the  Mississippi  also  traversed  many  of  the 
Other  rivers  and  bayous,  but  the  Mississippi  always  constituted  the 
chief  artery  of  commerce  and  trade.  Its  waters  give  commercial 
entrance  to  the  very  heart  of  the  continent,  and.  down  to  the  era 
of  railroads,  it  bore  ascending  aud  descending  an  ever  increasing 
volume  of  trade.  The  bulk  of  the  pioneer  population  clung  to  its 
banks,  and  French  Louisiana  planted  her  capital  and  chief  com- 
mercial port  there,  no  great  distance  from  its  tliree-forked  mouth. 
Thither  was  transported  such  foreign  commerce  as  the  restrictive 
trade  regulations  of  France  aud  Spain  permitted,  and  down  the 
great  river  to  the  gates  of  New  Orleans  floated  tlie  commerce  from 


LOUISIANA  343 

the  upper  river  country.  During  the  French  regime  when  the 
colony  often  struggled  to  maintain  its  very  existence  in  the  face 
of  Indian  warfare,  frequent  famines,  and  gross  mismanagement 
and  neglect  on  the  part  of  the  home  government,  there  could  be  no 
extensive  commercial  development.  The  population  remained  few 
in  numbers,  were  always  more  or  less  dependent  on  the  French 
government  for  their  food  and  other  supplies,  and  the  imports 
always  exceeded  the  exports.  The  monopolies  of  trade  and  trans- 
portation held  by  Crozat  and  the  Mississippi  Company  never  proved 
profitable,  and  there  was  no  great  improvement  when  the  province 
again  became  a  crown  colony.  When  the  Indian  Company  surren- 
dered its  charter  in  1731,  the  exports  from  the  Mississippi  valley 
aggregated  about  .$62,000,  composed  chiefly  of  skins  shipped  from 
the  upper  river  region.  A  few  food  products  were  shipped  down 
the  river  for  consumption  on  the  Gulf  coast,  and  some  of  these 
shipments  occasionally  found  their  way  to  the  West  Indies.  There 
is  a  record  of  one  substantial  shipment  made  as  early  as  1705  from 
the  Central  Ohio  region,  consisting  of  10,000  deer  and  5,000  bear 
skins.  The  1,400  mile  voyage  by  river  and  lake  to  the  French  set- 
tlements on  Mississippi  sound  was  made  in  open  boats.  The  cargo 
ultimately  found  its  way  to  France,  and  the  venture  proved  a  suc- 
cessful one  to  all  concerned.  When  Louisiana  was  transferred  to 
Spain  in  1762,  the  total  export  trade  of  the  colony  was  estimated  at 
$304,000,  the  chief  items  of  which  were  indigo,  peltries  and  lumber. 
During  the  French  and  early  Spanish  period,  or  prior  to  the 
close  of  the  Revolutionary  war,  the  canoe,  pirogue  and  bateau  types 
of  river  craft  reigned  supreme  on  the  inland  waters.  The  primitive 
Indian  canoe,  a  cheap,  light  and  quickly  made  craft,  was  promptly- 
adopted  by  the  early  French  explorers  and  traders.  It  was  a  frail 
bark  usually  constructed  from  the  bark  of  trees,  but  it  was  easily 
handled,  and  readily  glided  iip-stream  even  when  heavily  freighted. 
It  was  often  made  long  and  was  then  capable  of  carrying  a  score 
of  men  together  with  their  supplies  for  an  extended  voyage.  Port- 
ages were  frequently  necessary  on  account  of  difficulties  encoun- 
tered in  the  river,  such  as  snags  and  treacherous  currents,  or  in 
cutting  across  a  point  to  escape  the  circuitous  trip  around  it,  and 
the  canoe  was  therefore  admirably  adapted  to  the  primitive  wants 
of  the  pioneer  period.  As  the  French  settlements  in  Lower  Lou- 
isiana increased  and  the  demands  of  trade  became  greater,  the 
pirogue,  a  vessel  of  greater  carrying  capacity,  came  into  general 
use.  The  commercial  pirogue  of  early  Louisiana  was  little  more 
than  a  log-canoe — a  solid  log  of  cypress  or  live-oak  which  was  cut 
out  in  the  center,  and  propelled  by  paddles,  assisted  by  sails  when 
the  wind  was  favorable.  It  was  often  built  of  2  to  5  tons  burden 
and  was  propelled  by  slaves.  It  could  be  freighted  with  as  many 
as  20  bales  of  cotton  or  30  barrels  of  molasses,  and  after  being 
floated  down  to  New  Orleans  was  easily  paddled  back  to  the  plan- 
tation. Both  the  canoe  and  the  pirogue  were  boats  of  a  primitive 
and  undeveloped  period,  but  the  latter  survived  as  an  instrument 
of  river  commerce  for  at  least  a  century,  and  as  late  as  1830  a  con- 


344  LOUISL^NA 

siderable  •  amount  of  the  produce  of  Louisiana  reached  market  in 
these  log  canoes.  The  bateau,  the  third  type  of  river  craft  in  use 
in  these  early  days,  was  essentially  a  down-stream  craft,  and  was 
commonly  known  on  the  Mississippi  as  a  barge.  It  differed,  how- 
ever, from  the  barge  in  being  wider  at  the  middle  and  tapering  at 
the  end  like  the  modern  canal  boat.  Bateaux  were  designed  for 
longer  voyages  than  pirogues,  were  built  of  rough  plank,  long  in 
proportion  to  their  breadth,  and  were  much  employed  in  the  upper 
country,  but  were  never  very  popular  on  the  Lower  Mississippi. 
They  therefore  died  an  early  death,  though  even  as  late  as  1825  an 
occasional  bateau  reached  Xew  Orleans  from  some  extreme  point 
in  the  wild  Lidian  coimtry  west  of  the  ^Mississippi. 

Throughout  the  period  of  French  rule  not  only  the  mouth  of  the 
Mississippi,  but  practically  the  whole  valley  was  monopolized  by 
France.  When,  as  a  result  of  th^  Seven  Tears'  war,  she  lost  her 
possessions  in  America,  and  Louisiana  was  transferred  to  Spain, 
the  latter  coimtry  sought  to  exercise  the  same  control  over  the 
great  river  and  its  tributaries.  Spain,  however,  in  her  pretensions, 
met  with  serious  opposition  in  her  attempt  to  monopolize  the  com- 
merce of  the  ^Mississippi,  first  from  the  British,  and  later  from  the 
L^nited  States.  By  the  treaty  of  1763  Great  Britain  was  granted 
equal  rights  of  navigation  on  the  Mississippi,  including  ingress 
and  egress  for  her  vessels  at  the  mouth ;  nor  were  her  ships  to  be 
stopped,  visited,  or  subjected  to  any  duty  at  New  Orleans.  This 
privilege  she  made  extensive  use  of  for  a  number  of  years,  and 
she  was  rapidly  getting  the  trade  of  the  colony  into  her  hands  ere 
the  Spanish  were  in  a  position  to  put  a  stop  to  it.  "VTlien  O'Reilly 
arrived  at  New  Orleans  in  1769  and  firmly  established  Spanish  rule 
in  the  colony,  he  thus  reported  on  the  condition  of  the  province: 
"I  found  the  British  in  complete  possession  of  the  commerce  of 
the  colony.  They  had  in  the  town  their  merchants  and  traders 
"with  open  stores  and  shops  and  I  can  safely  assert  that  they  pock- 
eted nine-tenths  of  the  money  spent  here.  The  commerce  of  France 
used  to  receive  the  productions  of  the  colony  in  payment  of  the 
articles  imported  into  it  from  the  mother  country;  but  the  English, 
selling  their  goods  much  cheaper,  had  the  gathering  of  all  the 
money.  I  drove  off  all  the  English  traders  and  the  other  indi^dd- 
uals  of  that  nation  whom  I  foiind  in  this  town,  and  I  shall  admit 
here  none  of  their  vessels."  The  commercial  pri\aleges  of  the  city 
were,  however,  gradually  extended  and  the  commerce  of  Louisiana 
doubled  every  few  years.  Gov.  Unzaga  winked  at  the  many  British 
violations  of  the  law  regulating  commerce,  and  Galvez  later  fos- 
tered the  French  trade.  Commerce  was  permitted  with  Campeachy 
and  the  French  and  Spanish  "West  Indies,  under  certain  restric- 
tions. Some  time  before  this,  Oliver  Pollock,  by  an  act  of  gen- 
erosity in  bringing  a  cargo  of  flour  from  Baltimore  to  New  Orleans, 
won  permission  of  free  access  as  long  as  he  lived.  The  British  for 
a  time  had  perfect  freedom  of  access  to  the  river,  which  their 
vessels  were  constantly  plougliing  up  and  down.  "Under  pretense 
of  going  to  their  possessions  of  Manchac,  Baton  Rouge  and  Natchez, 


LOUISIANA  345 

the  English  contrived  to  supply  clandestinely  the  inhabitants  of 
New  Orleans  and  the  planters  above  and  belovr  that  town  with 
goods  and  slaves.  They  took  in  exchange  whatever  their  custom- 
ers had  to  spare,  and  extended  to  them  a  most  liberal  credit.  Be- 
sides, they  had  very  large  warehouses  at  Manchac,  Baton  Rouge 
and  Natchez,  and  a  number  of  vessels  constantly  moored  a  short 
distance  above  New  Orleans,  opposite  to  the  spot  now  known  as 
the  city  of  Lafayette.  To  these  places  the  inhabitants  of  Louisiana 
used  to  resort."  (Martin  and  Gayarre.)  There  were  also  2  vessels 
fitted  up  as  stores,  with  shelves  and  counters,  which  went  up  and 
down  the  river,  bringing  the  conveniences  of  the  city  to  every 
planter's  door.  In  this  way,  the  English  made  the  province  of 
Louisiana  of  little  worth  to  Spain,  except  as  a  military  frontier. 

Upon  the  transfer  of  Unzaga  to  Caracas,  Galvez  became  pro- 
visional governor  on  Feb.  1,  1777,  and  within  a  few  days  two  French 
commissioners  arrived,  to  carry  out  an  agreement  of  the  home  gov- 
ernments that  Louisiana  should  be  permitted  to  trade  with  the 
French  West  Indies.  Consequently,  under  Galvez  the  English 
trade  supremacy  was  dethroned  and  the  French  became  the  com- 
mercial masters.  In  April,  1777,  the  commissioners  reported  that 
Galvez  had  seized  11  English  vessels,  i-ichly  laden,  which  were  trad- 
ing with  the  planters  on  the  river.  To  help  the  situation,  the  king 
of  Spain  offered  to  buy  $800,000  worth  of  tobacco  annually,  or 
more  if  a  larger  crop  should  be  raised ;  at  the  same  time  all  restric- 
tions were  removed  from  the  importation  of  negroes.  In  July,  1778, 
the  British  flag  had  not  been  seen  on  the  Mississippi  river  for  three 
months,  except  at  the  masthead  of  the  frigate  on  guard  at  Manchac. 

Spain  declared  war  against  Great  Britain  in  May,  1779,  and  after 
a  brilliant  campaign  most  flattering  to  Spanish  arms,  Galvez  drove 
the  British  from  Manchac,  Baton  Rouge  and  Natchez  on  the  river, 
and  later  captured  Mobile  and  Pensacola.  The  French  native 
troops  of  Louisiana  rendered  the  greatest  service  throughout  the 
campaign.  Now  followed  a  period  of  great  prosperity  to  the  col- 
ony, and  both  commerce  and  population  increased  rapidly.  Ken- 
tucky and  Tennessee  began  slowly  filling  up  with  settlers,  and 
many  hundreds  of  thousands  worth  of  produce  came  down  the 
river  every  year  from  those  regions.  As  a  result  of  the  campaign 
of  Galvez,  Spain  now  claimed  that  having  made  a  conquest  of  the 
country  east  of  the  Mississippi  river  she  was  entitled  to  hold  it  as 
well  as  the  exclusive  control  of  the  river.  In  other  words  Spain 
was  now  in  complete  possession  of  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi, 
and  even  aimed  to  dominate  the  whole  upper  valley  of  the  river  as 
France  had  previously  done.  Herein  she  clashed  with  the  welfare 
and  future  development  of  the  new  republic  of  the  United  States 
which  had  just  won  its  independence  from  Great  Britain.  The 
years  which  followed  the  close  of  the  Revolution  down  to  1795 
were  filled  with  intrigue  and  negotiations  between  the  United 
States  and  Spain,  covering  relations  with  the  Indian  tribes,  the 
question  of  boundaries,  and  the  navigation  of  the  Missis.sippi  river. 
The  United  States  was  especially  concerned  in  securing   greater 


346  LOUISIANA 

facilities  for  its  citizens  in  the  Mississippi  valley  in  the  shipment  of 
their  surplus  crops.  Nearly  one-half  the  United  States  was  now 
comprised  of  the  region  embraced  in  the  basins  of  the  Ohio  and 
Mississippi,  and  was  dependent  on  the  Mississippi  to  reach  sea- 
board. The  nation's  prosperity  demanded  that  the  river  be  neu- 
tralized, and  that  its  settlers  be  absolved  from  any  obligation  to 
pay  toll  to  Spain  because  she  happened  to  own  the  mouth  of  the 
river.  "With  the  great  increase  of  settlement  in  Kentucky  in  1784- 
86,  the  shipment  of  floiir.  whiskey  and  other  products  to  New 
Orleans  from  as  far  up  as  Pittsburg,  on  flatboats  and  barges,  began. 
Indeed,  this  was  the  only  commercial  outlet  that  promised  profit- 
able returns  to  the  producer,  as  the  cost  of  transportation  by 
wagons  over  the  mountains  east  was  enormous.  The  settlers  on 
the  upper  Tennessee  and  Cumberland  also  depended  on  river  com- 
munication altogether.  It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  control  of  the 
river  early  became  a  vital  question  of  policy  to  the  United  States. 
Unfortunately,  the  treaties  of  peace  which  marked  the  close  of 
the  Revolution  had  not  settled  the  question  of  the  control  of  the 
river.  The  treaty  between  the  British  and  Americans  in  1782  pro- 
vided that  "the  navigation  of  the  Mississippi  from  its  source  to  the 
ocean,  shall  forever  remain  free  and  open  to  the  subjects  of  Great 
Brit'ain  and  the  citizens  of  the  United  States."  Hence,  if  Spain 
yielded  to  the  wishes  of  the  United  States  she  thereby  made  a  con- 
cession to  England.  Spain's  greatest  commercial  rival. 

In  the  year  1787,  despite  the  many  restrictions  and  annoyances 
imposed  by  Spain,  large  quantities  of  goods  from  the  American  pos- 
sessions on  the  upper  Mississippi  and  Ohio  came  down  the  river  to 
New  Orleans  for  export,  being  shipped  on  flatboats  and  barges. 
The  total  export  and  import  duties  at  the  port  of  New  Orleans 
reached  the  sum  of  $72,000  in  this  year.  In  1788,  Col.  James  "Wil- 
kinson, who  had  settled  in  Kentucky  in  1786,  received  through  his 
agent  in  New  Orleans,  via  the  Mississippi,  a  cargo  of  dry  goods 
and  other  articles  for  the  Kentucky  market,  whieli  is  believed  to 
have  been  the  first  boatload  of  manufactured  articles  that  ever 
went  up  the  river  to  the  Ohio. 

The  long  negotiation  between  Spain  and  the  United  States  was 
concluded  in  1795  when  the  treaty  of  San  Lorenzo  el  Real  formally 
declared  the  ^lississippi  from  soiirce  to  mouth  free  to  the  people 
of  the  United  States,  and  further  permitted  "the  citizens  of  the 
United  States  for  the  space  of  three  years  from  this  time,  to  de- 
posit their  merchandise  and  eft'ects  in  the  port  of  New  Orleans, 
and  to  export  them  from  thence  without  paying  any  other  duty 
than  a  fair  price  for  the  hire  of  the  stores."  As  might  be  expected, 
this  gave  an  added  impetus  to  the  river  trade,  which  now  reached 
a  very  large  figure  for  those  days.  The  exports  from  New  Orleans 
were  about  $1,500,000  in  1795,  one-third  of  which  consisted  of  west- 
ern produce  (flour,  tobacco,  etc.,  from  Kentucky  and  Ohio).  By 
1798  the  receipts  of  western  produce  had  reached  $975,000,  and 
were  increasing  at  the  rate  of  .$300,000  annually  as  the  new  popula- 
tion poured  into  the  upper  Mississippi  and  Ohio  valleys.     The  sus- 


LOUISIANA  347 

pension  of  the  riglit  of  deposit  by  Morales  in  1799  aroused  great 
indignation  throughout  the  west,  to  which  the  government  re- 
sponded. From  this  time  on  the  purchase  of  Louisiana  was  an 
important  subject  of  discussion  in  Congress,  and  American  states- 
men at  home  and  abroad  worked  and  intrigued  zealously  to  prevent 
the  Mississippi  from  falling  into  the  strong  hands  of  England  or 
France.  By  the  transfer  of  Louisiana  to  the  American  commis- 
sioners, Claiborne  and  "Wilkinson,  on  Dec.  20,  1803,  the  United 
States  secured  the  exclusive  control  of  the  Mississippi  for  all  time. 

During  the  last  3  years  of  European  control  of  the  mouth  of  the 
Mississippi,  the  commerce  of  the  Lower  Mississippi  Valley,  em- 
bracing the  shipments  down  the  Mississippi  toward  New  Orleans, 
reached  a  total  of  $3,649,322  for  1801,  $4,475,364  for  1802,  and 
$4,720,015  for  1803.  There  are  no  records  of  shipments  up  the 
river,  but  these  were  small  as  compared  with  the  down  trade,  ex- 
cept for  the  country  immediately  above  New  Orleans.  The  im- 
ports at  New  Orleans  about  ecjualed  the  exports  from  the  Span- 
ish possessions,  and  embraced  such  manufactured  articles  as  were 
not  produced  in  the  colony.  These  were  brought  from  Spain  and 
France  and  distributed  among  the  towns  and  plantations  by  barges, 
pirogues  and  plantation  boats.  Less  than  10  per  cent  found  their 
way  above  Red  river.  The  chief  articles  of  export  from  New 
Orleans  Avere  cotton,  sugar,  molasses,  rum  or  tafia,  indigo,  lumber 
and  boxes,  peltries  and  skins,  rice  and  provisions.  Produce  came 
down  to  New  Orleans  all  the  way  from  Pennsylvania  and  even 
from  "Western  New  York.  The  pioneer  of  that  early  era  loaded 
his  flatboat  with  the  products  of  the  season,  and  then  made  his 
long  way  down  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi.  He  must  needs  travel 
for  nine-tenths  of  the  distance  through  a  wild  Indian  country,  pass 
the  dreaded  Ohio  Falls  during  the  high  water  stage,  then  if  he 
escaped  the  treacherous  currents  and  snags  of  the  Mississippi  and 
reached  his  haven,  he  would  sell  his  cargo  for  some  $2,000  or 
$3,000  at  New  Orleans.  At  first  he  made  the  return  trip  by  sea, 
usually  landing  at  Baltimore  or  Philadelphia,  where  he  woiild  buy 
calico  and  other  manufactured  goods,  reaching  home  after  an 
absence  of  6  months  in  time  to  make  another  crop.  At  a  later 
period,  the  return  trip  was  made  by  land  from  New  Orleans,  the 
trader  crossing  Lake  Pontchartrain,  and  then  proceeding  north  via 
the  famous  Natchez  trace  to  Nashville. 

The  vessels  employed  in  the  river  trade  changed  much  during 
this  period  of  development.  Compared  with  the  evolution  of  meth- 
ods of  travel  by  land,  the  evolution  of  river  craft  was  rapid  and 
spectacular.  A  half  century  witnessed  little  change  in  wagons 
and  stages,  and  the  "freighter"  or  "Conestoga"  of  1790  differed 
but  little  from  that  of  1840.  The  same  period  approximately  saw  a 
change  in  river  craft  which  ran  the  whole  gamut  from  the  primi- 
tive canoe  and  pirogue,  through  the  later  barge,  keel-boat,  flatboat 
and  sailing  vessel,  to  the  palatial  river  steamer  of  the  '40 's.  Each 
marked  some  change  in  the  social  order  of  things,  some  develop- 
ment, unnoticed  at  the  time  perhaps,  in  the  progress  of  western 


348  LOUISIANA 

civilization.  Many  types  of  early  river  craft  were  in  use  at  the 
same  time,  and  no  stated  periods  can  be  named  in  which  one  style 
of  vessel  was  in  exclusive  use.  The  canoe  was  employed  long  after 
it  had  subserved  its  original  purpose  of  a  cheap,  light  and  easily 
made  craft,  especially  adapted  to  the  wants  of  the  aborigines,  and  the 
early  explorers  and  traders.  The  crude  up-stream  crafts  of  burden, 
such  as  keels  and  barges,  had  their  beginnings  as  far  back  as  1742, 
and  overlap  the  era  of  steam ;  while  the  lumbering,  do^^Tistream  flat- 
boats  were  in  use  by  the  thousands  on  the  Mississippi,  long  after  the 
steamboats  began  to  ply  its  muddy  waters,  and.  indeed,  are  in  common 
use  today  in  modified  form.  It  is  nevertheless  true  that  certain  types 
of  river  craft  are  especially  associated  with  certain  periods.  The 
canoe,  pirogue  and  bateau  have  already  been  discussed,  as  belonging 
primarily  to  the  French  period,  or  at  any  rate  to  the  period  antedating 
the  close  of  the  American  revolution. 

The  era  from  1780  to  1817  was  essentially  that  of  the  barge,  the 
keelboat  and  the  flatboat — all  crafts  of  burden.  The  early  Mississippi 
barge  was  a  square  box  of  any  length,  width  and  depth,  and  rarely 
ascended  the  river  with  a  cargo.  The  barrels  of  this  period  were 
great,  pointed,  covered  hulks  carrying  40  or  50  tons  of  freight  (the 
largest  carried  60  to  80),  and  were  manned  by  almost  as  many  men. 
The  great  freight  barges  of  the  IMississippi  went  downstream  with  the 
current  and  ascended  by  means  of  oars,  poles,  sails  and  cordelles.  The 
important  up-river  cargoes  on  the  Orleans  barges  were  sugar  and 
molasses — sometimes  coffee,  dry  goods  and  hardware — and  they  came 
do'rni  stream  laden  with  the  products  of  the  west  such  as  peltries, 
flour,  lead,  tobacco,  hemp,  bacon,  pork,  beef,  apples,  whisky,  peach 
brandy,  cider,  beer,  iron,  lard,  cotton,  butter,  millstones,  etc.  Like  the 
keelboats  they  plied  regularly  up  and  down  stream  but  were  unable 
to  ascend  the  smaller  rivers  or  reach  portages  of  the  large  streams  by 
reason  of  their  draft  and  size.  The  regular  trip  to  New  Orleans  and 
back  to  Louisville  or  Cincinnati  required  2  months  for  the  downward 
and  4  for  the  upward,  or  6  months  approximately,  and  only  two  trips 
a  year  could  be  made  by  the  same  boat.  It  is  probable  that  the  inimber 
of  barges  and  keels  engaged  in  the  commerce  on  the  Mississippi  never 
exceeded  40  in  any  one  year.  Between  the  peace  of  1783  and  the  sur- 
render of  Louisiana  in  1S03,  the  Spanish  maintained  a  regular  trade 
and  intercourse  between  New  Orleans  and  Upper  Louisiana.  Spanish 
barges  were  common  on  the  upper  as  well  as  upon  the  lower  Missis- 
sippi, and  extensive  commercial  houses  at  St.  Lotus,  St.  Charles,  Kas- 
kaskia  and  other  towns  along  the  river  conducted  the  trade.  (Naviga- 
tion and  Commerce.  Monette.) 

"When  the  commerce  from  the  American  possessions  passed  beyond 
the  limits  of  the  United  States  and  entered  the  Spanish  port  of  New 
Orleans,  it  did  so  by  virtue  of  commercial  arrangements  between  the 
two  nations.  Monette  writes  that  the  exports  from  the  United  States 
by  this  route  agreeably  to  the  custom-house  register  at  Loftus  Heights, 
from  Jan.  1  to  June  30.  of  1801,  were  conveyed  in  450  flatboats,  26 
keels,  2  schooners,  1  brig  and  7  pirogues. 

The  famous  keel-boat  was  of  long,  slender  and  elegant  form,  and 


LOUISIANA  349 

was  the  first  up-stream  boat  of  burden  to  ply  the  southern  and  west- 
ern waters.  Its  functions  were  two-fold ;  first,  the  upstream  trade,  to 
touch  and  connect  interior  settlements  and  do  the  carrying  trade  of 
the  numerous  portages.  The  keel-boat  heralded  a  new  era  in  the 
internal  development  of  the  Mississippi  and  Ohio  valleys.  "It  was  a 
long,  narrow  craft,  averaging  12  to  15  feet  by  50,  and  pointed  at 
both  bow  and  stern.  On  either  side  were  provided  what  were  known 
as  'running  boards,'  extending  from  end  to  end.  The  space  between, 
the  body  of  the  boat,  was  enclosed  and  roofed  over  with  boards  and 
shingles.  A  keeliboat  would  carry  from  20  to  40  tons  of  freight  well 
protected  from  the  weather,  and  required  from  5  to  10  men,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  captain,  who  was  usually  the  steersman,  to  propel  it  up 
stream.  Each  man  was  provided  with  a  pole  to  which  was  affixed  a 
heavy  socket.  The  crew,  being  equally  divided  on  each  side  of  the 
boat,  'set'  their  poles  at  the  head  of  the  boat;  then  bringing  the  end 
of  the  pole  to  the  shoulder,  with  bodies  bent,  they  walked  slowly 
along  the  running  boards  to  the  stern — returning  quickly,  at  the  com- 
mand of  the  captain,  to  the  head  for  a  new  'set.'  In  ascending  the 
greatest  effort  of  the  whole  crew  was  required,  so  that  only  one  man 
at  a  time  could  'shift'  his  pole.  This  ascending  of  rapids  was  attended 
with  great  danger,  especially  if  the  channel  was  too  rocky.  The  slight- 
est error  in  pushing  or  steering  the  boat  exposed  her  to  be  thrown 
across  the  current,  and  to  be  brought  sideways  in  contact  with  rocks, 
which  would  mean  her  destruction.  Or,  if  she  escaped  injury,  a  crew 
who  had  let  their  boat  swing  in  the  rapids  would  have  lost  caste. 
A  boatman  who  could  not  boast  that  he  had  never  swung  or  backed 
in  a  chute  was  regarded  with  contempt,  and  never  trusted  with  the 
head  pole,  the  place  of  honor  among  keel-boat  men.  It  required  much 
practice  to  become  a  first  rate  boatman,  and  none  would  be  taken,  even 
on  trial,  who  did  not  possess  great  muscular  power."  (The  American 
Pioneer,  vol.  II,  p.  271.) 

The  flatboat  was  the  important  craft  of  the  era  of  emigration,  the 
friend  of  the  pioneer.  Unlike  the  keel  it  never  earae  back,  and  was 
solely  a  downstream  craft.  Collins,  in  his  History  of  Kentucky,  states 
that  Capt.  Jacob  Yoder  took  the  first  flatboat  down  the  Ohio  and 
Mississippi  rivers  to  New  Orleans  in  1782.  From  this  time  on,  at  any 
rate,  they  were  used  in  increasing  numbers.  The  flatboat  of  average 
size  was  a  roofed  craft  about  40  feet  long,  12  feet  wide  and  8  feet 
deep.  It  was  square,  flat-bottomed,  and  was  managed  by  6  oars.  Two 
of  these,  about  30  feet  long,  on  each  side,  were  known  as  "sweeps," 
and  were  manned  by  2  men  each ;  one  40  or  50  feet  long,  including  its 
big  blade,  at  the  stern,  was  called  the  steering  oar ;  a  small  oar,  known 
as  the  "gouger"  oar,  was  located  at  the  prow,  and  assisted  in  guiding 
the  boat  through  swift  water.  One  man  only  was  required  at  the 
steering  oar  and  at  the  gouger.  These  flatboats  were  of  two  types, 
the  "Kentucky"  and  "New  Orleans."  The  nominal  difference  be- 
tween a  Kentucky  and  a  New  Orleans  boat  was  that  the  former  was 
only  half  roofed  over,  while  the  latter  was  stronger  and  entirely  cov- 
ered with  a  roof.  How  to  build  or  buy  a  flatboat  was  the  first  query 
of  the  pioneer  father  when  he  finally  arrived  at  one  of  the  ports  on  the 


350  LOUISIANA 

upper  Ohio.  Often  several  families  joined  their  fortunes  and  came 
down  the  river  on  one  "flat."  a  motley  collection  of  men,  women, 
children  and  domestic  animals,  surrounded  by  a  few  crude  house- 
keeping litensils.  which  had  been  brought  over  the  mountains  or  pur- 
chased at  the  point  of  embarkation.  Both  in  early  and  in  more  recent 
times,  these  flatboats  were  sold  at  their  destination  for  hunber.  their 
owners  and  crews,  except  for  the  few  who  preferred  to  work  their  way 
north  from  New  Orleans  on  the  barges  and  keels,  returning  to  their 
homes  on  foot  or  on  horseback  by  way  of  the  overland  trails  to 
Tennessee  and  Kentucky.  Sometimes  the  boatman,  returning  on 
foot  to  Nashville,  made  wagers  to  beat  the  post  to  that  point  and 
frequently   won. 

The  complete  history  of  the  flatboat  comes  down  within  the  present 
generation.  The  Kentucky-  "broadhorns"  or  "broadhorn  flatboats," 
as  they  were  also  called,  belonged  to  the  emigrant  period,  luit  the 
beginning  of  the  Civil  war  saw  many  flatboats  still  on  the  Mississippi, 
where  they  had  then  assumed  the  distinctive  role  of  freighters  and 
bore  their  cargoes  to  the  southern  ports  or  retailed  them  along  the 
Mississippi  river  plantations.  After  the  war,  the  flatboat  men  found 
a  sad  and  impoverished  South.  The  negroes  were  "free."  the  over- 
seers gone,  and  the  coasting  trade  was  ruined.  Since  then  through 
freights  have  been  found  to  be  the  only  profitable  ones. 

A  few  words  will  suffice  to  explain  the  other  common  t>-pes  of  boats 
engaged  in  the  early  river  commerce,  s^ich  as  the  "ark."  the  galley, 
the  brig,  and  the  schooner.  Harris  has  thus  described  the  ark,  which 
was  the  primitive  type  of  house-boat:  "These  boats  are  generally 
called  arks,  and  are  said  to  have  been  invented  by  Mr.  Krudger,  on 
the  Juanita.  about  10  yeai-s  ago  (1795).  They  were  square,  and  flat- 
bottomed  :  about  40  feet  by  15.  with  sides  6  feet  deep ;  covered  with  a 
roof  of  thin  boards,  and  accommodated  with  a  fire  place.  They  re- 
quire but  4  hands  to  navigate  them,  carry  no  sail,  and  are  wafted 
dovra  by  the  cm-rent."  The  same  authority  states  that  the  historical 
succession  of  river  craft  is  canoe,  pirogue,  keel-boat,  barge  and  ark. 
The  galley  had  a  covered  deck  and  was  propelled  by  oarsmen.  It  was 
a  vessel  of  this  pattern  that  Gen.  George  Rogers  Clark  armed  as  a  gun- 
boat, with  whicli  he  patrolled  the  Lower  Ohio  during  the  War  of  the 
Revolution.  This  style  of  boat  was  again  exemplified  in  the  celebrated 
"Adventure  Galley,"  of  the  New  England  pilgrims  to  ilarietta.  It 
was  45  feet  long,  12  feet  wide,  of  50  tons  burden,  strongly  built  with 
hea^-v-  timbers,  and  covered  with  a  deck  roof,  ilany  of  the  mail  boats 
on  the  western  rivere  in  the  early  days  were  of  the  same  type. 

While  sails  were  quite  commonly  used  on  most  of  the  river  craft 
thus  far  described,  none  of  them  was  distinctively  a  sailing  vessel, 
Indeed,  sails,  masts  and  rigging  were  mere  adjuncts,  to  be  resorted  to 
when  the  winds  were  favorable.  The  actual  sailing  vessels,  brigs  and 
schooners,  began  to  come  into  use  at  the  beginning  of  the  19th  centixry. 
The  pioneer  in  the  construction  of  this  type  of  river  craft  was  the 
firm  of  Taraseon.  Berthoud  &  Co.,  of  Pittsburg,  who  built  the  first 
keel-boats  on  the  Ohio.  The  vessels  were  designed  to  drop  down  the 
Ohio  and  ^Mississippi  and  then  engage  in  the  ocean  trade.  They  were 


LOUISIANA  351 

never  intended  to  make  the  return  trip,  but  were  built  as  the  first 
export  carriers,  just  as  the  keel-boats  were  the  first  important  car- 
riers in  the  commerce  between  the  states.  Tarascou,  Berthoud  &  Co., 
first  built  the  schooner  "Amity,"  of  120  tons,  and  the  ship  "Pitts- 
burg," of  250  tons,  in  1801.  The  second  summer  they  l)uilt  the  brig 
"Nanina,"  of  200  tons,  and  the  ship  "Louisiana,"  of  350.  The  brig 
was  sent  direct  to  Marseilles,  while  the  ship  was  sent  out  ballasted 
with  "stone  coal,"  which  was  sold  at  Philadelphia  for  'STYo  cents  a 
bushel.  The  following  year  the  same  firm  built  the  ' '  Western  Trader, ' ' 
of  400  tons.  In  1803  Thaddeus  Harris  found  several  of  these  ships  on 
the  stocks  at  Pittsburg  and  three  had  been  launched  before  April, 
"from  160  to  275  tons  burden."    (Harris;  Tour,  p.  43.) 

When  the  port  of  New  Orleans  passed  into  American  hands  in 
1803,  and  the  river  commerce  was  relieved  from  all  artificial  re- 
straints, hundreds  of  Kentucky  flatboats,  loaded  with  rich  cargoes  of 
western  produce,  began  to  descend.  Monette  writes  that  ' '  the  amount 
of  western  trade  annually  increased  and  soon  became  almost  in- 
credible for  quantity  and  variety.  This  surplus  product  of  the  west 
was  not  only  such  as  supplied  the  demands  of  New  Orleans  and  the 
rich  settlements  of  the  lower  Mississippi,  but  it  furnished  hundreds 
of  sliip-loads  to  the  ports  of  the  West  Indies  and  Europe."  This 
commerce  continued  to  swell  in  volume  until  the  War  of  1812.  In 
1811  some  500  flatboats  and  40  keel-boats,  all  well  freighted,  descended 
the  Mississippi  from  the  Ohio  valley.  Thei-e  was  also  considerable 
downstream  trade  from  the  Missouri  and  the  Upper  Mississippi,  which 
began  as  early  as  the  year  1720  and  consisted  ohiefly  of  lead,  furs  and 
peltries. 

Less  than  10  per  cent  of  the  river  tonnage  went  up-stream,  on 
account  of  the  many  difficulties  of  river  navigation.  The  cost  of 
transporting  cheap,  heavy  freight  was  enormous.  The  first  cost  at 
New  Orleans  of  such  articles  as  dry  goods,  hardware,  and  queensware, 
was  sometimes  doubled  before  the  goods  reached  their  destination  in 
the  interior.  The  rich  planters  along  the  lower  Mississippi  and  the 
prosperous  agricultural  communities  of  the  Ohio  and  upper  Missis- 
sippi produced  a  wealth  of  surplus  products,  which  they  were  ready 
to  exchange  for  the  manufaeturei-s  of  the  Atlantic  states  and  of  Eu- 
rope ;  but  the  cost  and  difficulties  involved  in  supplying  the  wants  of 
these  inland  settlers,  by  reason  of  the  impetuous  current  of  the  Mis 
sissippi,  grew  more  and  more  unbearable.  The  times  were  ripe  for 
another  power  which  would  turn  the  tide  of  commerce  up  the  river, 
and  for  the  dawning  of  that  wonderful  era  of  steam  navigation 
brought  about  by  the  genius  of  Fulton.    (See  Steamboats.) 

East  Baton  Rouge  Parish. — When  this  parish  was  settled,  or  who 
the  first  settlers  were,  is  not  definitely  known.  Le  Page  du  Pratz 
writes  about  the  settlement  as  far  back  as  1725,  in  a  letter  to  his  gov- 
ernment, in  which  he  gives  the  population  as  a  mere  score  of  inhab- 
itants, who  were  nearly  all  Frenchmen,  with  a  few  Canadians,  aud 
some  Indian  women,  wives  of  the  settlers.  In  1699,  Iberville,  on  his 
first  exploring  expedition  up  the  Mississippi  river,  wrote:  "There 
are  on  the  bank  many  cabins  covered  with  palmetto  leaves,  and  a 


352  LOUISIANA 

May  pole  ■without  branches,  reddened  with  several  heads  of  fish  and 
beasts  attached  as  a  sacrifice."  This  red  pole  (baton  rouge)  is  said  to 
have  given  its  name  to  the  present  capital  of  Louisiana.  As  the  Mis- 
sissippi river  was  the  main  highway  of  the  French  from  Louisiana  to 
the  Illinois  country  and  Canada,  such  settlements  as  Baton  Kouge 
were  important  factors  in  the  colony.  The  usual  French  policy  in  a 
new  country  was  merely  to  govern  the  subject  race,  but  in  Louisiana 
a  new  policy  was  adopted  and  the  government  tried  to  make  perma- 
nent colonization.  In  order  to  encourage  emigration  of  industrious, 
useful  men  to  this  great  western  empire,  who  would  take  up  land  and 
establish  a  permanent  agricultural  settlement  in  the  fertile  valley  of 
the  Mississippi,  the  government  of  France  made  large  grants  to  in- 
fluential Frenchmen  of  enterprise,  who  were  expected  to  colonize  their 
concessions  with  emigrants  from  France.  A  grant  of  this  kiad  was 
made  to  d ' Artaguette,  at  Baton  Rouge.  Immigrants  from  France  set- 
tled at  Baton  Rouge,  and  de  la  Harpe  states  that  "on  the  16th  of 
September  the  ship  Profound,  *  *  *  with  a  transcript,  arrived 
at  Ship  island  *  *  *  These  ships  also  brought  over  supplies  for 
the  concession  of  d 'Artaguette."  By  the  Treaty  of  Paris  (See  Treat- 
ies) of  1763,  Great  Britain  received  all  the  territorj'  from  St.  Augus- 
tine to  Lake  Borgne,  and  the  onl.y  frontier  in  the  south  was  along 
Bayou  Manehac.  At  first  the  only  change  the  English  made  was  in 
the  matter  of  trade,  as  the  majority  of  the  inhabitants  remained 
French.  In  1765  and  1766  some  adventurers  came  from  the  Carolinas 
and  settled  at  Baton  Rouge,  who  took  up  land  and  became  a  part  of 
the  permanent  English  population.  The  English  settlere  were  not  al- 
lowed to  buy  land  direct  from  the  Indians  but  settled  on  the  east  bank 
of  the  Mississippi,  from  Bayou  Manehac  as  far  as  the  Yazoo  river. 
One  of  the  largest  of  these  grants  was  one  of  10,000  acres,  made  by 
the  government  to  George  Johnstone  at  Baton  Rouge. 

When  Spain  declared  war  against  England  in  1779,  Don  Bernardo 
de  Galvez,  the  Spanish  governor,  fitted  out  an  expedition  and  started 
on  a  mission  of  conquest  against  the  English  settlements  in  the  south. 
The  fort  at  Baton  Rouge  "had  high  walls,  protected  by  a  moat  18 
feet  wide  and  9  feet  deep,  filled  with  water  from  the  Mississippi." 
Galvez  compelled  the  British  to  surrender  on  Sept.  21,  1779,  and 
■  promoted  Carlos  de  Grandpre  to  the  governorship  of  the  conquered 
territory,  among  which  was  the  district  of  Baton  Rouge.  Spanish 
institutions,  habits,  and  customs  were  graduall.v  introduced  into  the 
conquered  province,  superseding  those  of  the  English,  and  as  many 
of  the  English  fled  during  the  war,  large  grants  of  land  reverted  to 
the  government  and  were  granted  anew  by  the  Spanish.  Spanish 
governors  ruled  the  Feliciana  district  until  the  West  Florida  Revolu- 
tion (q.  V.)  in  1810,  when  Gov.  Claiborne  took  possession  of  it  in  the 
name  of  the  United  States,  pursuant  to  an  order  from  President 
Madison. 

An  act  creating  the  parish  was  passed  in  1807,  but  as  the  territory 
did  not  then  belong  to  the  United  States  another  act  was  passed  in 
1811  establishing  the  parish  of  East  Baton  Rouge.  It  was  an  area  of 
451  square  miles  and  lies  in  the  fertile  Mississippi  valley,  about  100 


LOUISIANA  353 

miles  above  New  Orleans.  The  parisih  is  bounded  on  the  north  by- 
East  Feliciana  parish;  on  the  east  by  St.  Helena  and  Livingston 
parishes ;  on  the  south  by  Ascension  parish,  and  the  Mississippi  river 
forms  its  entire  western  boundary.  Prom  1810  to  the  War  of  1812, 
the  commerce  of  the  parish  did  not  increase  in  proportion  to  the 
population,  which  was  something  less  than  1,000  in  1810.  The  Missis- 
sippi river  drains  the  western  portion  of  the  parish,  and  such  streams 
as  the  Amite,  Manchac,  Bayou  Fountain,  and  other  minor  water 
courses,  afford  sufficient  drainage  to  its  entire  surface.  The  formation 
along  the  Mississippi  river  is  alluvial,  subject  to  inundation  by  the 
river,  very  fertile,  with  a  heavy  loamy  soil,  and  about  one-third  of 
this  is  imder  cultivation.  The  remainder  of  the  parish  is  undulating 
or  rolling  and  hilly,  breaking  into  highlands  and  bluffs,  with  level 
stretches  along  the  river  and  creek  bottoms.  Much  of  the  original 
forest  has  been  cleared  away,  but  the  parish  still  has  a  good  supply  of 
timber,  principally  cypress,  oak,  gum,  poplar,  magnolia  and  beech, 
with  a  dense  undergrowth  in  many  places.  On  the  .uplands  tlie  soil 
is  as  varied  as  the  timber,  ranging  from  a  tliiu  sandy  clay  to  a  rich 
loam,  but  when  scientifically  farmed  is  capable  of  yielding  profitable 
crops.  Excellent  pasturage  for  stock  is  to  be  had  throughout  the 
year,  and  the  live  stock  industry  is  one  of  considerable  magnitiide. 
Nearly  all  the  staple  crops  are  cultivated  successfully,  cotton,  sugar- 
cane, and  corn,  yielding  well  on  the  rich  bottom  lands.  New  Orleans 
is  the  principal  market.  The  facilities  for  shipping  and  transportation 
are  unsurpassed.  The  Mississippi  river  affords  easy  and  cheap  com- 
munication with  New  Orleans;  the  Yazoo  &  Mississippi  Valley  R.  R. 
runs  direct  to  Memphis  and  New  Orleans,  traversing  the  parish  north 
and  south ;  the  Texas  &  Pacific  R.  R.  furnishes  an  cutlet  to  the  west, 
and  the  line  of  the  Louisiana  Railway  &  Navigation  company  runs 
directly  to  Shreveport  and  New  Orleans.  In  1810  East  and  West 
Baton  Rouge  were  given  as  Baton  Rouge,  and  the  combined  popiila- 
tion  was  1,463,  which  was  credited  to  East  Baton  Rouge  alone.  The 
growth  of  the  parish  was  rapid,  as  the  population  of  East  Baton 
Rouge  alone  had  increased  to  8,138  by  1840,  and  since  that  time 
there  has  been  a  steady  increase  each  decade,  until  in  1900  it  was  the 
6th  most  populous  parish  in  the  state.  The  city  of  Baton  Rouge 
is  the  largest  in  the  parish.  Some  of  the  other  important  towns  and 
villages  are  Baker,  Burtville,  Manchac,  Port  Hudson,  Baywood,  Stony 
Point  and  Zachary.  The  following  statistics  are  taken  from  U.  S. 
census  for  1910:  number  of  farms,  2,137;  acreage,  186,110;  acres  im- 
proved, 103,481 ;  value  of  farm  land  exclusive  of  buildings,  $3,264,- 
368 ;  value  of  farm  buildings,  .$1,011,913 ;  value  of  live  stock,  $824,- 
67.5 ;  crops,  $1,104,724.   The  population  was  34,580. 

East  Carroll  Parish,  established  by  an  act  of  the  legislature, 
March  27,  1877,  when  Carroll  parish  was  abolished,  and  from  its  ter- 
ritory East  and  West  Carroll  parishes  were  created  (See  Carroll  Par- 
ish), is  located  on  the  Mississippi  river  in  the  northeastern  part  of 
the  state.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  State  of  Arkansas;  on 
the  east  by  Mississippi,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  Mississippi 
river ;  on  the  south  by  Madison  parish,  and  on  the  west  by  West  Car- 
1—23 


354  LOUISIANA 

roll  parish,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  Bayou  llacon.  It  has  an 
area  of  395  square  miles,  and  originally  was  covered  with  forests  in 
which  the  principal  trees  were  cypress,  magnolia,  cotton-wood,  gum, 
elm,  hickory,  willow  and  locust.  East  Carroll  parish  is  drained  by 
the  Mississippi  river  along  the  eastern,  and  by  Bayoii  Macon  along 
the  western  lioundary,  wliile  the  Tensas  river  and  its  branches  drain 
the  central  portion.  The  soil  is  varied,  that  nearest  the  river  is  of  a 
light,  loamy  quality,  and  that  farther  back  from  the  river  of  a  black 
clay  known  as  "buckshot"  soil,  on  which  rice  grows  especially  well, 
and  a  large  part  of  the  parish  is  devoted  to  its  culture.  The  rich 
alluvial  soil  of  the  river  bottoms  produces  fine  cotton,  which  is  the 
great  export  crop,  and  corn  is  grown  to  some  extent.  Horticulture  has 
never  been  extensively  practiced,  but  the  rich  soil  and  climate  both 
tend  to  produce  fruits  and  nuts  of  an  excellent  quality  and  large 
quantities.  Since  the  railroad  was  biiilt  through  the  parish,  alfalfa 
and  vegetables  have  fast  encroached  upon  the  staple  products,  as  the 
markets  of  north  and  south  have  been  brought  within  reach  of  the 
farmers.  Lumbering  is  an  important  indiistry,  the  large  c.'STJress 
swamps  furnishing  an  excellent  supply  of  that  timber.  One  division 
of  the  St.  Louis,  Iron  Mountain  &  Southern  R.  R.  enters  the  parish 
at  the  northern  boundary  and  runs  southeast  to  Lake  Providence, 
thence  directly  south  into  Madison  parish,  furnishing  an  outlet  north 
and  south  for  the  export  products,  and  cheap  shipping  is  provided  by 
water  on  the  Mississippi  river,  which  flows  along  the  entire  eastern 
boundary.  Lake  Providence  is  the  parish  seat.  Other  towns  and  vil- 
lages are  Alsatia,  Atherton,  Brunett,  Benham,  Henderson,  Stamboul 
and  Transylvania.  The  following  statistics  are  taken  from  the  U.  S. 
census  for  1910:  number  of  farms,  1,851;  acreage,  138,188;  acres 
improved,  74.961 ;  value  of  land  and  improvements  exclusive  of  build- 
ings, .$2,772,361 ;  value  of  farm  buildings,  $649.885 ;  value  of  live 
stock,  .$535,779;  value  of  all  crops,  $1,326,152.  The  population  was 
11.637. 

East  Feliciana  Parish  was  established  in  1824,  and  was  created 
out  of  the  eastern  part  of  Feliciana  parish  (q.  v.).  It  is  located  in 
the  southeastern  part  of  the  state  on  the  Mississippi  border,  and  has 
an  area  of  454  square  miles.  The  parish  is  bounded  on  the  north  by 
Mississippi ;  on  the  east  by  St.  Helena  parish ;  on  the  south  by  East 
Baton  Rouge  parish,  and  on  the  west  by  West  Feliciana  parish.  The 
Amite  river,  which  waters  the  eastern  part  of  the  parish,  received 
its  name  from  the  French  in  commemoration  of  their  kindly  treatment 
by  the  Indians  when  they  first  exploi-ed  tliis  section  of  the  country. 
The  western  portion  of  the  parish  is  watered  by  the  Comite  river  and 
such  streams  as  Pretty,  Redwood,  Thompson's,  Beaver,  Sandy,  and 
Black  creeks,  all  of  which  fuimish  a  natural  water  supply  for  the  cen- 
ti^al  and  southern  sections.  The  first  actual  settler  in  the  parish  is 
suppo.sed  to  have  been  Leonard  Hornsby,  who  came  from  South  Caro- 
lina by  water  in  1803,  and  after  exploring  the  country  settled  at  the 
fork  of  Beaver  creek  and  the  Amite  river.  He  brought  not  only  his 
family  but  a  ])lacksmith,  shoemaker,  carpenter,  wagon  maker  and 
wheelwright,    which   made  a   considerable   settlement.     His   nearest 


LOUISIANA  355 

neig^hbor  was  a  Georgian  named  Barrow,  who  had  a  cabin  a  mile 
below  the  head  waters  of  Ilepsiba  creek.  Daniel  Eads  soon  followed 
Barrow  and  built  the  first  grist  mill  in  that  part  of  the  parish.  He  in 
turn  was  followed  by  Elisha  Anders  and  Maj.  Doughty.  Beaver  creek 
was  settled  up  by  the  McAdams,  Morgan,  Rentz  and  Gerard  fam- 
ilies. About  1804  and  1805,  Lewis  Perkins  headed  a  colony  among 
whom  were  the  Winter,  McNeely,  Dunn  and  Scott  families,  James 
Kent,  Jack  Booker,  and  Ezra  Courtney,  the  pioneer  preaeher  of  the 
parish,  who  succeeded  in  having  a  church  built  in  1812,  ■which  was 
not  only  the  first  church  in  the  parish  but  also  one  of  the  first  Protes- 
tant churches  in  that  section  of  Louisiana.  From  1805  to  the  war  of 
1812,  settlers  came  in  great  numbers  from  the  older  states,  and  when 
the  parish  was  created  in  1824  it  had  a  popvilation  of  over  5,000.  The 
governor  appointed  Thomas  Scott  the  first  parish  judge  and  James 
Scott,  Jr.,  sheriff.  In  Feb.,  1825,  the  state  legislature  authorized  the 
parish  judge  to  hold  an  election  on  the  first  Monday  in  March,  and  the 
2  days  following,  after  giving  7  days'  notice,  "for  the  purpose  of 
choosing  5  persons  as  commissioners,  whose  duty  it  shall  be  to  estab- 
lish the  site  for  the  permanent  seat  of  justice."  The  result  of  the 
election  was  a  site  east  of  the  Comite  river  at  a  point  near  where 
Clinton  now  stands.  The  commissionere  being  influenced  in  their 
choice  by  the  clear,  pure  spring  water  found  there.  East  Feliciana  par- 
ish is  noted  for  its  many  churches.  The  first  church  was  organized  and 
built  at  Hepsiba  in  1812,  the  next,  of  which  any  record  remains,  was 
the  Baptist  church  of  Clinton,  organized  in  Jan.,  1836.  The  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  church  of  Clinton  has  been  in  existence  for  more  than 
65  yeai-s,  and  the  Presbyterians  and  Catholics  both  have  churches  in 
the  parish.  Some  of  tlie  most  prominent  educational  institutions  of 
the  parish  are  the  Clinton  Female  academy,  the  Feliciana  Female 
institute  and  Silliman  Female  college.  Clinton,  the  parish  seat,  and 
Jackson  aie  the  largest  towns  in  the  parish.  Other  important  towns 
and  villages  are  Ethel,  Blairstown,  Lindsay,  Norwood,  Felixville, 
Slaughter  and  Wilson.  The  formation  of  the  parish  is  chiefly  blufl' 
land  and  pine  hills,  with  rich  creek  and  river  bottoms  of  alluvial  de- 
posit, but  no  swamp  land  of  any  extent.  The  soil  is  that  common  to 
most  of  the  upland  and  western  long  leaf  pine  regions,  being  a  light, 
easily  worked  sandy  soil,  with  a  strong  clay  subsoil  that  makes  it 
quite  retentive,  and  when  cleared  is  very  fei-tile.  Cotton  is  the  staple, 
though  corn,  oats,  hay,  peas,  sweet  and  Irish  potatoes,  sorg'hiun,  sugar- 
cane, tobacco  and  many  kinds  of  grasses  are  raised.  Such  fruits  as 
apples,  pears,  peaches,  figs,  plums,  gz-apes.  and  all  the  smaller  vari- 
eties are  raised  in  abundance.  Originally  the  parish  was  covered  with 
a  heavy  growth  of  timber,  such  as  pine,  white  and  pink  oak,  beech, 
poplar,  hickory,  walnut,  sycamore,  etc.  Lumbering  has  been  an  im- 
portant industry  for  years,  and  nearly  all  of  the  original  forests  have 
been  cut  off.  Good  pasturage  for  stock  can  be  obtained  nearly  the 
entire  year,  and  as  the  lands  have  been  cleared  the  live  stock  in- 
dustry and  dairying  has  increased.  Large  numbers  of  fine  blooded 
cattle  and  horses  are  bred,  while  sheep  and  hogs  thrive  remarkably 
well.  The  Yazoo  &  Missi.ssippi  Valley  R.  R.  crosses  the  western  part 


356  LOUISIANA 

of  the  parish  north  and  south ;  a  branch  line  of  this  system  runs  from 
Ethel  to  Clinton,  a  second  from  Slaughter  northwest  into  West  Feli- 
ciana pai'ish,  and  the  Jackson  R.  R.  runs  from  Jackson  to  McManus, 
where  it  connects  with  the  Yazoo  &  Mississippi  Valley  R.  R.  The 
markets  of  New  Orleans  and  Memphis  are  thus  brought  within  easy 
reach  of  the  farmers  of  the  parish.  The  following  data  are  taken 
from  the  U.  S.  census  for  1910:  number  of  farms,  2.379;  acreage, 
194.978;  acres  improved.  120,568;  value  of  land  and  improvements 
exclusive  of  buildings,  $2,075.500 ;  value  of  farm  buildings.  $865.373 ; 
value  of  live  stock,  $732,065;  value  of  all  crops,  $940,002.  The 
population  was  20.055. 

East  Pendleton,  a  post-village  in  the  western  part  of  Sabine 
parish,  is  on  the  Sabine  river,  about  15  miles  southwest  of  Many, 
the  pai'ish  seat.  It  is  a  landing  on  the  river  and  a  shipping  point 
for  lumber.    In  1900  it  had  a  population  of  50. 

East  Point,  a  village  of  Red  River  parish,  is  situated  on  the  Red 
river  and  the  line  of  the  Louisiana  Railway  &  Navigation  company, 
about  12  miles  northwest  of  Coushatta,  tlie  parish  seat.  It  is  the 
shipping  point  for  a  large  agrieultvu-al  district,  and  has  a  popula- 
tion of  175.  It  has  a  money  order  postoffice,  express  office,  and 
telegraph  and  telephone  facilities. 

Ebenezer,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  southeastern  part  of  Acadia  par- 
ish, is  about  5  miles  southeast  of  Crowley,  the  parish  seat. 

Echevarria,  Don  Santiago  Jose  de,  Bishop  of  Cuba,  was  the  first 
dignitary  of  the  Catholic  church  to  exercise  episcopal  authority 
over  Loiii.siana.  Soon  after  the  beginning  of  the  Spanish  domina- 
tion the  province  was  attached  to  his  diocese,  and  in  July,  1772, 
he  sent  five  Spanish  Capiichins — Fathers  Cirilo  de  Barcelona,  Fran- 
cisco, Angel,  Luis  and  Aleman — to  New  Orleans.  The  first  named 
was  charged  with  the  duty  of  making  an  investigation  into  the 
state  of  religion  and  affairs  of  the  church,  and  report  to  the  bishop. 
Father  Cirilo  was  not  prudent  in  his  course.  He  became  involved 
in  a  controversy  with  Father  Dagobert.  in  whose  behalf  Gov.  Un- 
zaga  wrote  a  letter  to  Bishop  Echevarria.  (See  also  Catholic 
Clrarch.^ 

Echo  (R.  R.  name  Bijou),  a  post-village  and  station  in  the  eastern 
part  of  Rapides  parish,  is  on  the  Louisiana  Railway  &  Navigation 
company's  line,  about  18  miles  southeast  of  Alexandria,  the  parish 
seat.     PopiUation  238. 

Eddy,  a  money  order  post-village  in  the  western  ]3art  of  Vernon 
parish,  is  situated  on  Sandy  creek,  about  2  miles  east  of  the  Sabine 
river,  12  miles  southwest  of  Orangeville,  the  nearest  railroad  sta- 
tion, and  15  miles  west  of  Leesville,  the  parish  seat. 

Eden,  a  money  order  post-hamlet,  is  situated  on  Trout  creek,  in 
the  western  part  of  Catahoula  parish,  and  about  4  miles  southwest 
of  Trout,  the  nearest  railroad  station.     It  has  a  telegraph  station. 

Edgard,  the  parish  seat  of  St.  John  the  Baptist  parish,  is  located 
in  the  western  part  of  the  parish  on  the  line  of  the  Texas  &  Pacific 
R.  R.,  and  a  sliort  distance  west  of  the  Mississippi  river.  Although 
it  reported  a  population  of  only  350  in  1910,  it  is  the  most  im- 


LOUISIANA  357 

portant  town  in  the  parish.  It  has  two  sugar  mills,  several  general 
stores,  a  newspaper,  a  money  order  postoffice,  and  being  admirably 
located  for  shipping  purposes  it  is  the  trading  center  for  a  rich 
agricultural  district. 

Edgerly,  a  village  in  the  southwestern  part  of  Calcasieu  parish, 
is  a  station  on  the  Southern  Pacific  R.  R.,  about  15  miles  west  of 
Lake  Charles,  the  parish  seat.  It  is  the  supply  and  shipping  point 
for  the  southwestern  part  of  the  parish,  has  a  money  order  post- 
ofiBce,  express  ofSce,  telegraph  station  and  telephone  facilities. 

Education. —  (See  School  System,  State  University,  State  Normal 
School,  Freedmen,  Higher  Education  of,  and  Colleges.) 

EfSe,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  northwestern  part  of  Avoyelles  paris'h, 
is  about  4  miles  from  the  western  boundary,  8  miles  southeast  of 
Kees,  the  nearest  railroad  station,  and  about  the  same  distance 
northwest  of  Marksville,  the  parish  seat. 

Egan,  a  post-village  and  station  in  the  southwestern  part  of 
Acadia  parish,  is  on  a  branch  of  the  Southern  Pacific  R.  R.,  4  miles 
north  of  Midland,  and  about  S  miles  northwest  of  Crowley,  the 
parish  seat.  It  has  an  express  ofSce,  telegraph  and  telephone  facili- 
ties, and  is  a  shipping  point  of  some  consequence. 

Eggbend,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  western  part  of  Avoyelles  parish, 
is  situated  on  the  Red  river,  about  2  miles  northeast  of  Echo,  the 
nearest  railroad  station,  and  8  miles  west  of  Marksville,  the  pai'ish 
seat. 

Elam,  Joseph  B.,  lawyer  and  member  of  Congress,  was  born  in 
Hempstead  county.  Ark.,  June  12,  1821,  and  went  with  his  parents 
to  Natchitoches,  La.,  in  1826.  Here  he  studied  law,  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  Oct.,  1843,  and  began  practice  at  Alexandria,  La. 
For  2  years  he  served  in  the  state  legislature  from  Sabine  parish; 
moved  to  De  Soto  parish  in  1851;  was  elected  a  delegate  to  the 
state  constitutional  convention  in  1861,  and  signed  the  ordinance 
of  secession ;  during  the  Civil  war  he  served  two  terms  in  the  state 
legislature,  one  as  speaker;  was  reelected  in  1865,  and  served  until 
the  passage  of  the  reconstruction  legislation  by  Congress.  He  was 
elected  to  the  45th,  and  reelected  to  the  46th  Congress  as  a  Demo- 
crat. After  leaving  Congress  he  resinned  the  practice  of  law  until 
his  death  on  July  4,  1885. 

Elba,  a  post-village  of  St.  Landry  parish,  is  situated  in  the  north- 
eastern part  near  the  eastern  boundary  and  on  the  Texas  &  Pacific 
R.  R.,  about  3  miles  north  of  Melville. 

Elder,  James  Walter,  of  Monroe,  La.,  member  of  Congress,  was 
born  October  5,  1882,  at  Grand  Prairie,  Texas.  Was  educated  at 
Baylor  University  (Texas)  ;  married  Ida  Moffett,  of  Ruston,  La., 
December  3,  1904 ;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1903,  and  soon  after 
became  a  member  of  the  firm  of  Sholars,  Elder  &  Benoit,  of  Mon- 
roe, La.  Mr.  Elder  was  at  one  time  a  partner  of  Gov.  L.  E.  Hall. 
He  also  served  as  mayor  of  Farmerville,  La. ;  was  a  member  of  the 
Louisiana  State  Senate,  from  25th  district,  for  1908-12,  and  was 
elected  to  membership  in  the  63rd  Congress  (1913-15),  by  the  5th 
Louisiana  district.    Politically  he  is  a  Democrat ;  an  adherent  of  the 


358  LOUISIANA 

Baptist  faith,  a  i\Iason  and  Knight  Templar.  Mr.  Elder  is  also  a 
member  of  the  ^lonroe.  La..  Country  ("'liib.  and  of  the  ^\jmy  and 
Navy  Club,  of  "Washington,  D.  C. 

Election  Laws. — (See  Constitution  of  1898  for  provisions  regard- 
ing sut¥rage.'i 

Electoral  Commission. — Immediately  after  the  presidential  elec- 
tion of  1876  disputes  arose  in  foiir  states  over  the  correctness  of 
the  returns.  In  these  disputes  20  electoral  votes  were  involved, 
to-^vit :  4  from  Florida,  8  from  Loiiisiana.  1  from  Oregon,  and  7 
from  South  Carolina.  At  that  time  the  electoral  college  consisted 
of  369  votes.  185  of  Avhich  -were  necessary  to  elect.  Samuel  J. 
Tilden.  the  Democratic  candidate  for  president,  had  a  plurality  of 
250,935  of  tlie  popular  vote  over  Rutherford  B.  Hayes,  the  Repub- 
lican candidate,  and  a  clear  popular  ma.iority  of  167,037  over  all 
his  opponents.  Of  the  undisp\ited  electoral  votes  he  had  184,  only 
one  more  being  necessary  to  seciire  his  election,  while  Hayes,  in 
order  to  be  elected,  -would  have  to  obtain  the  entire  vote  of  the 
four  contested  states.  In  Florida,  the  supreme  court,  which  was 
Democratic,  issued  an  order  that  the  returning  board  should  de- 
clare the  result  as  it  appeared  on  the  face  of  the  returns,  but  the 
board  met  before  the  decree  of  the  court  could  be  promiilgated, 
threw  out  enough  votes  to  show  that  the  Republican  electors  had 
'  a  ma.iority,  and  announced  the  resiilt.  The  secretary  of  state  cer- 
tified the  election  of  the  Tilden  ticket.  A  similar  state  of  affairs 
existed  in  South  Carolina,  where  two  sets  of  certificates  were 
issued.  In  Oregon  the  Republicans  carried  the  state,  but  one  of 
the  electoral  candidates  was  a  Federal  officeholder  and  therefore 
not  eligible.  The  governor  of  that  state  certified  to  the  election 
of  2  Republicans  and  1  Democrat.  In  Louisiana  there  were  two 
state  governments,  one  headed  by  William  P.  Kellogg,  governor 
de  facto,  and  the  other  by  John  McEnery,  governor  de  .iure,  and 
each  administration  claimed  the  authority  to  certify  to  the  elec- 
toral vote. 

On  Dec.  6,  1876,  the  electors  holding  Kellogg  certificates  met 
at  the  State-house  to  cast  their  votes.  Two  of  them.  0.  H.  Brewster 
and  A.  B.  Levissee.  were  Federal  officeholders  at  the  time  of  the 
election,  but  they  resigned  their  positions  and  were  chosen  by  the 
other  electors  "to  fill  vacancies."  ]\Ir.  Levissee  said  he  had  been 
offered  $100,000  to  cast  his  vote  for  Tilden  and  Hendricks,  biit 
declined  to  give  the  name  of  the  person  or  persons  offering  the 
bribe.  The  votes  were  cast  for  Hayes  and  "Wheeler.  On  the  same 
day  the  electors  holding  certificates  from  Gov.  IVIcEnery  met  in 
the  hall  of  the  house  of  representatives  and  cast  their  votes  for 
Tilden  and  Hendricks.  The  Republicans — -Tohn  Sherman,  E.  "W. 
Stoughton.  Eugene  Hale,  James  A.  Garfield  and  others — Avho  had 
been  sent  to  New  Orleans  to  witness  the  proceedings  of  the  return- 
ing board,  submitted  a  report  on  Dec.  6  defending  the  coiirse  pur- 
sued by  the  retiu-ning  officers,  and  the  controversy  was  carried  into 
Congress. 

The  constitution  of  the  United  States  makes  it  the  dutv  of  Con- 


LOUISIANA  359 

gress  to  canvass  the  electoral  votes,  but  as  the  lower  house  was 
Democratic  by  a  large  majority  and  the  senate  was  Republican, 
no  agreement  could  be  reached.  It  was  contended  that  the  house 
alone  had  the  right  to  canvass  the  votes,  but  in  this  proposition 
the  senate  refused  to  concur,  and  on  Dec.  7  Mr.  McCrary  of  Iowa 
offered  a  resolution  providing  for  tlie  appointment  of  a  joint  com- 
mittee of  5  members  of  tlie  house  and  like  number  from  the  senate, 
"to  prepare  and  report  without  delay,  such  a  measure,  either  legis- 
lative or  constitutional,  as  may  in  their  judgment  be  best  calcu- 
lated to  accomplish  the  desired  end."  This  resolution  was  referred 
to  the  committee  on  judiciary,  which  reported  it  back  on  the  14th 
with  a  recommendation  that  the  committee  be  increased  to  seven 
members  of  each  house,  in  which  form  it  was  adopted  without 
debate.  On  the  18th  it  was  adopted  by  the  senate.  The  house 
members  of  the  committee  were :  Payne  of  Ohio,  Hewitt  of  New 
York,  Springer  of  Illinois,  McCrary  of  Iowa,  Hunton  of  Virginia, 
Hoar  of  Massachusetts,  and  Willard  of  Michigan.  The  senators 
on  the  Committee  were :  Edmunds  of  Vermont,  Frelinghuysen  of 
New  Jersey,  Conkling  of  New  York,  Morton  of  Indiana,  Thurmau 
of  Ohio,  Ransom  of  North  Carolina,  and  Bayard  of  Delaware. 

On  Jan.  13,  1877,  the  committee,  through  Mr.  Edmvmds,  sub- 
mitted a  bill  "to  provide  for  and  regulate  the  counting  of  tlie  votes 
for  president  and  vice-president,  and  decision  of  questions  arising 
thereon,  for  the  term  commencing  March  4,  A.  D.,  1877."  The 
report  of  the  committee  was  signed  by  all  the  members  except  Mr. 
Morton,  who,  in  the  course  of  a  long  speech  explaining  the  reason 
for  his  non-concurrence,  said:  "I  regard  tliis  bill,  Mr.  President, 
as  a  compromise.  It  will  take  its  place  alongside  of  the  com- 
promise of  1820,  and  the  compromise  of  1850.  *  *  *  j  believe 
that  Rutherford  B.  Hayes  has  been  elected  president  of  tlie  United 
States ;  that  'he  has  been  elected  under  forms  of  law  and  according 
to  law,  and  that  he  is  elected  in  the  hearts  of  the  people ;  and  I 
believe  that  if  he  is  counted  in,  as  eighteen  presidents  were  .suc- 
cessively counted  in  from  the  beginning  of  this  government,  he 
would  be  inaugurated,  and  there  would  be  no  violence  and  no  rev- 
olution. *  *  *  The  constitution  of  the  United  States  confers 
upon  the  states  the  power  to  appoint  electors  in  such  a  way  as 
the  legislatures  of  the  states  may  prescribe.  This  is  the  absolute 
right  of  each  state.  *  *  *  Sliould  Congress  assume  to  deter- 
mine who  have  been  appointed  so  far  as  to  go  behind  the  action 
of  the  officers  of  the  state  appointed  by  the  laws  of  the  state  for 
that  purpose.  Congress  would  absorb  to  itself  the  entire  power, 
would  become  a  grand  returning  board,  without  limit  and  without 
restraint.  The  very  moment  we  undertake  to  go  behind  the  deter- 
mination of  the  officers  of  the  state  as  to  the  result  of  a  state  elec- 
tion, and  to  count  and  determine  the  result  for  ourselves,  that 
moment  we  establish  a  revolution  which  ultimately  will  be  the  end 
'of  presidential  elections."  This  was  sound  doctrine,  but  Moi-ton 
was  subsequently  accused  of  offering  opposition  to  the  bill  for 
the  purpose  of  securing  its  passage  in  the  house  of  representatives, 


360  LOUISIANA 

the  theory  being  that  the  Democrats  in  that  body  would  favor  any 
measure  that  the  senator  from  Indiana  opposed.  The  bill  passed 
both  houses  and  was  approved  by  the  president  on  Jan.  29. 

The  commission  created  by  the  bill  was  composed  of  5  senators, 
5  representatives,  and  5  justices  of  the  U.  S.  supreme  court.  Sec- 
tion 2  named  the  justices  from  the  1st,  3rd,  8th  and  9th  circuits, 
who  were  to  meet  "on  the  Tuesday  next  preceding  the  first  Thurs- 
day in  February,  or  as  soon  thereafter  as  may  be  *  *  *  and 
select  in  such  manner  as  a  majority  of  them  shall  deem  fit,  another 
of  the  associate  justices  of  said  court,  which  5  persons  shall  be 
members  of  said  commission ;  and  the  person  longest  in  commission 
of  said  5  jiistiees  shall  be  the  president  of  the  commission."  The 
justices  from  the  1st,  3rd,  8th  and  9th  circuits  were  respectively 
Nathan  Clifford,  Samuel  J.  Miller,  Stephen  J.  Field  and  William 
Strong.  They  met  at  the  appointed  time  and  selected  Joseph  P. 
Bradley,  of  the  5th  circuit,  as  the  fifth  member  of  the  court  to 
serve  on  the  commission.  Of  these  justices  3  were  Kepublicans 
and  2  were  Democrats.  Clifford  was  from  Maine,  Miller  from 
Iowa,  Field  from  California,  Strong  from  Pennsylvania,  and  Brad- 
ley from  New  Jersey.  Concerning  the  appointment  of  these  mem- 
bers of  the  judiciary.  Senator  Morton  said  in  his  speech:  "The 
judges  are  taken,  not  because  they  are  judges,  not  because  they 
are  members  of  the  supreme  court,  but  because  they  are  men  of 
eminent  character  who  happen  to  occupy  that  position.  Four  of 
them  are  chosen  by  circuits.  The  senator  from  Vermont  (Ed- 
munds) hardly  did  himself  justice  on  Saturday,  when  he  argued 
that  they  were  chosen  by  circuits  on  account  of  geographical  dis- 
tribution. They  were  chosen  by  circuits,  as  I  \mderstand  it,  not 
because  of  geographical  distribution,  but  because  of  the  political 
antecedents  of  the  men  who  preside  in  those  circuits.  "Wlien  the 
bill,  instead  of  naming  the  judges,  names  the  circuits,  it  presents 
a  harmless  little  sham  that  deceives  nobody." 

The  senators  appointed  to  serve  on  the  commission  were:  George 
F.  Edmunds  of  Vermont,  Oliver  P.  Morton  of  Indiana,  Frederick 
T.  Frelinghuysen  of  New  Jersey  (Republicans),  Allen  G.  Thurman 
of  Ohio,  and  Thomas  F.  Bayard  of  Delaware  (Democrats).  Owing 
to  ill  health  Mr.  Thurman  declined  and  Francis  Kernan  of  New 
York  was  appointed  in  his  place.  The  house  appointed  Henry  B, 
Payne  of  Ohio,  Eppa  Hunton  of  Virginia,  Josiah  G.  Abbott  of 
Massachusetts  (Democrats),  James  A.  Garfield  of  Ohio,  and  George 
P.  Hoar  of  Massachusetts  (Republicans).  Politically  the  commis- 
sion as  a  whole  was  composed  of  8  Republicans  and  7  Democrats, 
and  on  all  questions  relating  to  the  count  of  the  disputed  votes, 
the  members  by  a  strict  party  vote — 8  to  7 — decided  in  favor  of 
the  Republican  electors,  thus  giving  the  presidency  to  Hayes.  Ob- 
jections were  arbitrarily  and  peremptorily  overruled,  without  re- 
gard to  merit  or  legal  force,  the  sole  object  of  the  majority  of  the 
commission  being  to  compass  the  election  of  the  Republican  candi- 
dates for  president  and  vice-president.  A  single  instance  of  this 
character  will  suffice  to  show  the  methods  of  the  commission.     A 


LOUlSiANA  361 

delegation  from  Louisiana  called  attention  to  Article  117  of  the 
state  constitution,  which  provided  that  "No  person  shall  hold  or 
exercise  at  the  same  time  more  than  one  office  of  trust  or  profit, 
except  that  of  justice  of  the  peace  or  notary  public."  They  offered 
to  prove  that  "William  P.  Kellogg  was  governor  de  facto  of  the 
state  at  the  same  time  that  he  signed  his  own  certificate  as  a 
presidential  elector,  and  that,  in  direct  contravention  of  the  con- 
stitutional provision  above  quoted,  he  held  and  exercised  at  the 
same  time  the  offices  of  governor  de  facto  and  presidential  elector. 
Notwithstanding  Senator  Morton's  heroic  defense  of  the_  right  of 
the  states  to  control  the  manner  of  choosing  electors,  he  obeyed 
the  party  lash  and  voted  to  count  the  elector  votes  of  Louisiana 
as  they  had  been  certified  by  a  corrupt  returning  board,  although 
one  of  the  electors  thus  certified  was  clearly  ineligible  under  the 
state  constitution. 

Henry  Barrett  Chamberlain,  a  writer  in  the  Chicago  Record- 
Herald,  in  writing  of  this  historic  contest  in  May,  1908,  said:  "The 
Republican  returning  board  of  Louisiana,  in  direct  violation  of 
law,  refused  to  place  a  Democrat  on  the  board.  It  also  refused 
to  canvass  the  votes  in  public  session.  After  weeks  of  revision  it 
certified  that  its  eight  electoral  votes  were  for  Hayes,  though  the 
returns  published  after  the  election  gave  Tilden  18,000  majority. 
*  *  *  Soon  after  his  inauguration  President  Hayes  withdrew  the 
Federal  troops  from  Louisiana  and  South  Carolina,  and  recognized 
the  legality  of  the  Democratic  state  administration,  chosen  the  same 
day  as  the  presidential  electors,  though  the  Democratic  governor 
installed  had  received  fewer  votes  than  the  Tilden  electors." 

Fortunately,  a  similar  farce  in  counting  the  electoral  votes  can- 
not occur  again,  as  Congress,  in  1887,  passed  an  act  providing  that 
each  state  must  settle  for  itself  any  dispute  which  may  arise  con- 
cerning its  electoral  vote,  or  the  vote  will  not  be  counted. 

Electoral  Vote. — With  the  exception  of  the  year  1864 — while  the 
war  between  the  states  was  going  on — Louisiana  has  cast  an  elec- 
toral vote  at  every  presidential  election  since  her  admission  in 
April,  1812.  The  vote  of  1872  was  not  counted,  however,  as  Con- 
gress, after  an  investigation  into  the  methods  of  holding  the  elec- 
tion and  counting  the  votes,  ordered  the  electors  from  several 
Southern  states  rejected,  including  the  8  from  the  State  of  Louisi- 
ana. The  electoral  vote  of  the  state  since  admission  has  been 
as  follows :  1812,  3  for  Madison  and  Gerry ;  1816,  3  for  Monroe 
and  Tompkins ;  1820,  3  for  Monroe  and  Tompkins ;  1824,  for  presi- 
dent, Jackson  3,  Adams  2,  for  vice-president,  Calhoun  5 ;  1828,  5 
for  Jackson  and  Calhoun ;  1832,  5  for  Jackson  and  Van  Buren ; 
1836,  5  for  Van  Buren  and  Johnson;  1840,  5  for  Harrison  and 
Tyler ;  1844,  5  for  Polk  and  Dallas ;  1848,  5  for  Taylor  and  Fillmore ; 
1852,  5  for  Pierce  and  King;  1856,  5  for  Buchanan  and  Brecken- 

ridge;  1860,   6  for  Breckenridge   and  Lane;   1864,  ; 

1868,  7  for  Seymour  and  Blair;  1872,  ;  1876,  8  for 

Hayes  and  Wheeler ;  1880,  8  for  Hancock  and  English ;  1884,  8  for 
Cleveland  and  Hendricks;   1888,   8  for  Cleveland   and  Thurman; 


362  LOUISIANA 

1892,  8  for  Cleveland  and  Stevenson;  ]896,  4  for  Bryan  and  Sewall, 
and  -4  for  Bryan  and  Watson;  1900.  8  for  Bryan  and  Stevenson; 
1904,  9  for  Pa'rker  and  Davis;  1908,  9  for  Bryan  and  Kern. 

Elitown,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  northwestern  part  of  Washington 
parish,  is  about  2  miles  south  of  Dyson,  the  nearest  railroad  sta- 
tion, and  8  miles  northwest  of  Frankliuton,  tlie  parish  seat. 

Elizabeth,  a  post-village  and  station  in  Allen  parish,  is  near  the 
northern  boundary  on  the  Gulf,  Colorado  &  Santa  Fe  R.  R.  Pop- 
ulation 100. 

Elks,  Benevolent  and  Protective  Order  of. — This  order  had  its 
origin  in  the  city  of  New  York  and  Charles  A.  S.  Vivian,  the  son 
of  an  Englishman,  is  credited  witli  tlie  honor  of  being  its  founder. 
Several  "good  fellows,"  Vivian  among  the  number,  and  most  of 
them  connected  with  the  theatrical  profession,  were  in  the  habit 
of  spending  much  of  their  leisure  time  at  a  public  house,  where 
they  would  "sing  songs,  swap  yarns,  and  in  other  ways  make  the 
hours  pass  pleasantly."  In  1867  these  "Bohemians"  organized  a 
club  called  "The  Jolly  Corks,"  and  several  of  the  oi'iginal  fifteen 
members  are  still  living.  By  the  following  year  the  membership 
had  increased  to  large  proportions  and  it  was  decided  to  change 
the  name  and  character  of  the  organization.  A  committee  was  ap- 
pointed to  decide  on  a  name,  and  this  committee  visited  Barnum's 
museum,  where  they  saw  an  elk  and  learned  something  of  its  in- 
stincts and  habits  worthy  of  emulation,  which  led  to  the  adoption 
of  the  name.  From  the  origin  of  the  order  many  people  imagine 
that  the  Elks  are  merely  a  lot  of  fellows  banded  together  for  the 
purpose  of  having  a  good  time.  But  in  recent  j-ears  the  convivial 
feature  has  been  subordinated  to  "charity,  justice,  brotherly  love 
and  iidelity. "  The  motto  of  the  order  is:  "The  faults  of  our 
brothers  we  write  \ipon  the  sands ;  their  virtues  upon  the  tablets 
of  love  and  memory." 

The  Benevolent  and  Protective  Order  of  Elks  was  introduced  in 
Louisiana  on  Dec.  7,  1884,  when  New  Orleans  Lodge,  No.  30,  was 
instituted  by  the  celebrated  tragedian,  Thomas  W.  Keeue,  assisted 
by  William  Henry  of  New  York,  E.  A.  Donaldson  of  Louisville, 
Charles  Bradshaw  and  William  Hayden  of  Philadelphia,  26  mem- 
bers being  initiated  at  tlie  first  meeting.  A.  S.  Graham  was  the 
first  exalted  ruler  of  the  lodge,  and  George  H.  Lord,  the  first  secre- 
tary. Tlie  lodge  first  met  at  193  Gravier  street,  but  in  Feb.,  1885, 
removed  to  No.  4  Carondelet  street.  After  several  other  removals 
it  finally  settled  down  in  its  present  quarters  on  Elk  Place  in  Sept., 
1897.  The  national  grand  lodge  met  in  New  Orleans  in  1898,  and 
since  that  time  the  order  has  experienced  a  continuous  era  of 
prosperity.  In  May,  1909,  there  were  thirteen  lodges  in  the  state, 
with  a  total  membership  of  over  4,000,  New  Orleans  lodge  alone 
having  about  1,700  members.  As  an  example  of  the  charitable 
work  of  the  order  it  is  worthy  of  note  that  the  annual  dinner  on 
Thanksgiving  day  by  the  members  of  New  Orleans  Lodge  to  the 
poor  of  the  city  "has  assumed  such  a  formidable  proportion  that 
it  has  become  the  wonder  and  admiration  of  the  citizens." 


LOUISIANA  363 

EUendale  (R.  R.  name  Central),  a  village  and  station  in  the 
northern  part  of  Terrebonne  parish,  is  on  the  branch  of  the  South- 
ern Pacific  R.  R.  that  runs  from  Shriever  to  Houma,  about  half  way 
between  those  two  towns.  Population  200.  It  has  a  money  order 
postoffice,  telegraph  and  telephone  facilities,  and  is  a  trading  and 
shipping  point  for  a  rich  farming  district. 

EUicott,  Andrew,  astronomer  and  mathematician,  was  born  in 
Pennsylvania,  Jan.  27,  1754,  son  of  a  prominent  Quaker.  His  scien- 
tific attainments  caused  his  employment,  at  various  times,  for 
marking  the  boundaries  of  Pennsylvania,  New  York  and  Virginia, 
and  in  1789  he  was  appointed  to  survey  the  land  between  Pennsyl- 
vania and  Lake  Erie,  making  the  first  accurate  measurements  of 
Niagara  Falls.  In  1790-91  he  was  employed  in  marking  the  boun- 
daries of  the  District  of  Columbia,  and  in  laying  out  the  future  na- 
tional capital  at  Washington ;  in  1792  he  was  appointed  surveyor- 
general ;  in  1795  he  superintended  the  construction  of  Fort  Erie 
and  laid  out  the  town  of  Erie,  Pa.  On  May  24,  1796,  he  was  ap- 
pointed commissioner  on  behalf  of  the  United  States  for  deter- 
mining the  boundary  between  the  United  States  and  the  posses- 
sions of  Spain,  in  accordance  with  the  3rd  article  of  the  Treaty 
of  San  Lorenzo  el  Real,  executed  Oct.  27,  1795.  He  left  Pittsburg 
on  Sept.  16  and  arrived  at  Natchez  after  many  delays  on  Feb.  23, 
1797.  Ellicott  was  kept  waiting  at  Natchez  over  a  year  before  he 
could  begin  the  actiial  work  of  running  the  line.  Finally,  on  April 
9,  1798,  Ellicott  with  his  surveyor,  assistants,  and  woodsmen  left 
Natchez  and  arrived  at  Clarksville  the  following  day.  (For  a  full 
account  of  the  details  of  the  work,  the  reader  is  referred  to  Elli- 
cott's  Journal,  which  is  also  epitomized  in  American  State  Papers, 
Foreign  Afi^airs,  Vol.  II.)  The  American  surveyor  originally  ap- 
pointed to  assist  Ellicott  was  Thomas  Freeman,  but  he  and  the 
astronomer  quarreled,  and  David  Gillespie  was  chief  surveyor  after 
the  work  began,  Ellicott  "s  son  and  Walker  being  assistant  sur- 
veyors. Gov.  Gayoso  was  empowered  to  act  as  commissioner  for 
Spain,  but  shortly  after  the  work  was  begun  he  appointed  Stephen 
Minor  to  act  in  his  behalf.  The  Spanish  astronomer  selected  was 
William  Dunbar,  Daniel  Burnett,  surveyor,  and  Patrick  Taggart, 
assistant  surveyor.  On  Feb.  23,  1799,  at  New  Orleans,  Ellicott 
and  Gayoso  signed  with  great  ceremony,  in  the  hall  of  the  gov- 
ernment house,  four  reports  in  Spanish  and  English,  confirming 
the  work  done  before  June  7,  1798,  the  date  when  the  Spanish 
interests  were  entrusted  to  Dunbar  and  Minor.  Ellicott  completed 
the  work  of  running  the  line  to  the  Chattahoochee  river,  381  miles 
from  the  Mississippi  in  May  1799,  and  then  ran  a  line  from  the 
confluence  of  the  Flint  and  Chattahoochee  to  the  source  of  the  St. 
Mary's.  At  the  conclusion  of  his  work  he  was  appointed  secre- 
tary of  the  Pennsylvania  land  office.  In  1812  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  mathematics  at  West  Point,  which  he  held  until  his 
death.  In  1817  he  was  sent  to  ]\Iontreal,  to  make  astronomical  ob- 
servations bearing  on  the  execution  of  the  treaty  of  Ghent.  He 
died  at  West  Point,  Aug.  29,  1820. 


364  LOUISLINA 

Ellis,  E.  John,  soldier  and  lawyer,  was  born  at  Covington,  La., 
Oct.  15,  1841.  He  was  educated  at  Clinton,  La.,  and  Centenary- 
college,  Jackson,  La.,  but  withdrew  when  in  the  junior  class,  in 
1858.  He  then  entered  the  law  department  of  the  University  of 
Louisiana,  where  he  graduated  in  March,  1861.  Five  days  later 
he  joined  the  Confederate  army  and  served  throughout  the  war. 
In  1866  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  Louisiana;  entered  political 
life  and  M-as  elected  to  the  44th,  45th,  46th,  47th  and  48th  Con- 
gresses as  a  Democrat.    He  died  in  1889. 

Elmer,  a  money  order  post-village  in  the  western  part  of  Kapides 
parish,  is  about  3  miles  southeast  of  Nelsonville,  the  nearest  rail- 
road station. 

Elmgrove,  a  post-hamlet  and  station  in  the  southwestern  part  of 
Bossier  parish,  is  on  the  Red  river  and  the  line  of  the  Louisiana 
Railway  &  Navigation  company,  about  16  miles  by  rail  southeast 
of  Shreveport.  It  has  an  express  office,  telegraph  station,  tele- 
phone facilities,  and  is  a  trading  center  for  the  neighborhood. 

Elmwood,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  southwestern  part  of  Vernon  par- 
ish, is  situated  on  Bayou  Castor,  about  4  miles  west  of  Pickering, 
the  nearest  railroad  station,  and  9  miles  southwest  of  Leesville, 
the  parish  seat.    It  is  in  the  pine  district,  has  lumber  industries. 

Elton,  a  post-village  and  station  in  Jeflf  Davis  parish,  is  on  the 
Colorado  Southern,  New  Orleans  &  Pacific  R.  R.,  about  8  miles  east 
of  Kinder.     Population  600. 

Emancipation  Proclamation. — Soon  after  the  opening  of  the  sec- 
ond session  of  the  37th  Congress  in  Dec,  1861,  a  number  of  bills 
and  resolutions  were  offered  touching  the  emancipation  of  slaves 
as  a  means  of  bringing  the  war  to  a  close,  but  no  definite  action 
was  taken  at  that  time.  On  March  6,  1862,  President  Lincoln  sent 
a  message  to  Congress  recommending  the  adoption  of  the  follow- 
ing, or  some  similar,  joint  resolution:  "That  the  United  States, 
in  order  to  cooperate  with  any  state  which  may  adopt  gradual  ab- 
olition of  slavery,  give  to  such  state  pecuniary  aid,  to  be  used  by 
such  state,  in  its  discretion,  to  compensate  it  for  the  inconvenience, 
public  and  private,  produced  by  such  change  of  system." 

In  the  message  submitting  this  resolution,  the  president  said: 
"In  tlie  mere  financial  or  pecuniary  view,  any  member  of  Congress, 
with  the  census  or  an  abstract  of  the  treasury  report  before  him, 
can  readily  see  for  himself  how  very  soon  the  current  expendi- 
tures of  this  war  would  purchase,  at  a  fair  valuation,  all  the  slaves 
in  any  named  state. 

"Such  proposition  on  the  part  of  the  general  government  sets  up 
no  claim  of  right  by  the  Federal  authority  to  interfere  with  slavery 
within  state  limits^referring,  as  it  does,  the  absolute  control  of 
the  subject,  in  each  case,  to  the  state  and  the  people  immediately 
interested.  It  is  proposed  as  a  matter  of  perfectly  free  choice 
to  them." 

The  resolution  was  introduced  in  the  house  on  March  10  by  Mr. 
Conkling  of  New  York,  and  after  some  debate  Avas  adopted  by  a 
vote  of  89  to  31.     Ten  days  later  it  passed  the  senate  by  a  vote  of 


LOUISIANA  365 

32  to  10.  At  that  time  it  was  doubtless  the  president's  intention 
not  to  interfere  with  the  institution  of  slavery  by  any  abrupt  or 
arbitrary  method,  but  to  encourage  the  states  to  inaugurate  a 
system  of  gradual  emancipation.  This  belief  is  strengthened  by 
his  action  two  months  later  with  regard  to  Gen.  Hunter's  order 
in  the  Department  of  the  South,  composed  of  the  states  of  South 
Carolina,  Georgia,  and  Florida.  Gen.  David  Hunter,  commanding 
the  department,  declared  martial  law  in  these  states  on  April  25, 
1862,  and  on  May  9  issued  a  proclamation  in  which  he  said : 
"Slavery  and  martial  law  in  a  free  country  are  altogether  incom- 
patible. The  persons  in  these  states  *  *  *  heretofore  held  as 
slaves,  are  therefore  declared  forever  free."  Ten  days  later  Presi- 
dent Lincoln  issued  a  proclamation  countermanding  Hunter's 
order,  using  the  following  language:  "Neither  Gen.  Hunter  nor 
any  other  commander  or  person  has  been  authorized  by  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  United  States  to  make  proclamation  declaring  the 
slaves  of  any  state  free,  and  the  supposed  proclamation  now  in 
question,  whether  genuine  or  false,  is  altogether  void  so  far  as 
respects  such  declaration.  I  further  make  known  that,  whether  it 
be  competent  for  me,  as  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  and  navy, 
to  declare  the  slaves  of  any  state  or  states  free;  and  whether  at 
any  time,  or  in  any  case,  it  shall  have  become  a  necessity  indis- 
pensable to  the  maintenance  of  the  government  to  examine  such 
supposed  power,  are  questions  which,  imder  my  responsibility,  I 
reserve  to  myself,  and  which  I  cannot  feel  justified  in  leaving  to 
the  decision  of  the  commanders  in  the  field." 

On  July  12  the  senators  and  representatives  of  the  border  slave- 
holding  states  met  the  president  at  the  executive  mansion  by  special 
invitation,  and  in  a  written  address  Mr.  Lincoln  said  to  them, 
among  other  things:  "I  intend  no  reproach  or  complaint  when  I 
assure  you  that,  in  my  opinion,  if  you  had  all  voted  for  the  reso- 
lution in  the  gradual  emancipation  message  of  last  March  the 
war  would  now  be  substantially  ended.  And  the  plan  therein  pro- 
posed is  yet  one  of  the  most  potent  and  swift  means  of  ending  it. 
Let  the  states  which  are  in  rebellion  see  definitely  and  certainly 
that  in  no  event  will  the  states  you  represent  ever  join  their  pro 
posed  Confederacy,  and  they  cannot  much  longer  maintain  the 
contest.  But  yoxa  cannot  divest  them  of  their  hope  to  ultimately 
have  you  with  them  so  long  as  you  show  a  determination  to  per- 
petuate the  institution  within  your  own  states.  *  *  *  You  and 
I  know  what  the  lever  of  their  power  is.  Break  that  lever  before 
their  faces,  and  they  can  shake  you  no  more  forever.  *  *  *  j 
do  not  speak  of  emancipation  at  once,  but  of  a  decision  at  once  to 
emancipate  gradually.  Room  in  South  America  for  colonization  can 
be  obtained  cheaply,  and  in  abundance,  and  when  numbers  shall 
be  large  enough  to  be  company  and  encouragement  for  one  another, 
the  freed  people  will  not  be  so  reluctant  to  go.  *  *  *  j  am 
pressed  with  a  difficulty  not  yet  mentioned — one  which  threatens 
division  among  those  who,  united,  are  none  too  strong.  An  in- 
stance of  it  is  known  to  you.    Gen.  Hunter  is  an  honest  man.    He 


366  LOUISIANA 

was.  aud  I  hope  still  is,  my  friend.  I  valued  him  none  the  less 
for  his  agreeing  with  me  in  the  general  wish  that  all  men  every- 
where could  be  free.  He  proclaimed  men  free  within  certain  states, 
and  I  repudiated  the  proclamation.  He  expected  more  good  and 
less  harm  from  the  measure  than  I  could  believe  would  follow. 
Yet,  in  repudiating  it,  I  gave  dissatisfaction,  if  not  offense,  to  many 
whose  support  the  country  cannot  afford  to  lose.  And  this  is  not 
the  end  of  it.  The  pressure  in  this  direction  is  still  upon  me  and 
is  increasing.  By  conceding  what  I  now  ask  you  can  relieve  me, 
and,  much  more,  can  relieve  the  country  in  this  important  point." 

To  this  address  majority  and  minority  replies  were  made  by  the 
Congressmen  from  the  border  states,  only  seven  of  them  favoring 
the  policy  of  gradual  emancipation.  The  pressure  referred  to  by 
the  president  evidently  continued,  and  by  the  last  of  August  his 
dream  of  gradual  emancipation  and  the  colonization  of  the  freed- 
men  in  South  America  was  dispelled.  On  Sept.  22  he  issued  a 
proclamation  announcing  his  intention  to  continue  his  efforts  in 
the  direction  of  tendering  pecuniary  aid  to  the  states,  that  would 
gradually  abolish  slavery  and  in  colonizing  the  freedmen,  but 
whether  these  efforts  were  successful  or  not,  the  proclamation  de- 
clared :  ' '  That  on  the  1st  day  of  January,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord 
1863,  all  persons  held  as  slaves  within  any  state,  or  designated  part 
of  a  state,  the  people  whereof  shall  then  be  in  rebellion  against 
the  United  States,  shall  be  then,  thenceforward,  and  forever  free ; 
and  the  executive  government  of  the  United  States,  including  the 
military  and  naval  authority  thereof,  will  recognize  and  maintain 
the  freedom  of  such  persons,  and  will  do  no  acts  to  repress  such 
persons,  or  any  of  them,  in  any  efforts  they  may  make  for  their 
actual  freedom." 

The  proclamation  further  declared  that  on  the  1st  day  of  January 
the  president  would  designate  the  states  and  parts  of  states  to  be 
included  in  the  application  of  the  proclamation,  and  called  atten- 
tion to  the  acts  of  March  13  and  July  17,  1862,  prohibiting  officers 
from  employing  the  troops  under  their  command  for  the  purpose 
of  returning  fugitive  slaves,  and  granting  freedom  to  every  slave 
escaping  from  his  owner  and  taking  refuge  within  the  Federal 
lines,  or  in  the  free  .states  or  territories.  Up  to  the  time  this  proc- 
lamation was  issued  the  attitude  of  the  United  States  government 
had  been  that  of  restricting  slavery  to  the  section  of  the  country 
where  it  already  existed.  But  by  the  proclamation  it  became  evi- 
dent that  the  Federal  arms  M'ere  to  be  used  not  only  to  limit,  but 
also  to  abolish  slavery.  Fears  were  entertained  that  when  the 
knowledge  of  the  proclamation  reached  the  negroes  there  would 
be  an  uprising  among  them,  but  these  fears  proved  to  be  un- 
founded. A  Georgia  writer  saj's:  "But  the  negroes  manifested 
no  disposition  to  distxu"b  the  peace.  History  will  record  to  their 
praise  that  while  actual  war  was  pending  on  the  soil  of  Georgia 
they  quietly  awaited  the  issue  of  the  fiery  struggle  between  the 
South  and  the  North.  Entire  communities  of  women  and  children 
were  left  in  their  charge,  while  able-bodied  white  men  were  away 


LOUISIANA  367 

on  the  battle-field ;  and  the  trust  was  faithfully  kept.  Instances 
of  criminal  acts  were  so  rare  that  at  this  period  none  are  recalled, 
and  while  this  fidelity  is  proof  of  the  peaceful  character  of  the 
negro,  it  is  also  evidence  for  their  owners  that  slavery  had  pro- 
duced no  personal  hostilities  between  the  two  races  in  Georgia,  and 
that  the  treatment  of  the  negro  by  his  owner  under  the  law  had 
been  such  as  to  'maintain  between  them  personal  attachment  and 
mutual  confidence.'  "  The  same  was  true  of  the  situation  in  Lou- 
isiana. It  was  not  until  the  negro  became  the  tool  of  designing 
politicians  that  the  hatred  between  him  and  his  former  owner  man- 
ifested itself. 

In  the  North  the  proclamation  of  September  was  received  with 
salutes  of  100  guns  in  some  of  the  cities,  notably  Pittsburg  and 
Buffalo,  and  Gov.  Andrew  of  Massachusetts  issued  a  proclamation 
ordering  such  a  salute,  "as  an  official  recognition  of  its  justice  and 
necessity,  by  the  Commonwealth  of  Massachusetts."  But  the  proc- 
lamation did  not  meet  with  vmiversal  approbation.  Many  North- 
ern people  severely  criticized  it.  Northern  newspapers  animad- 
verted upon  it  as  an  assumption  of  power  unwarranted  by  the  con- 
stitution, and  even  in  the  Federal  army  there  was  great  dissatis- 
faction among  the  soldiers,  many  of  them  declaring  that  they  had 
taken  up  arms  to  save  the  Union,  not  to  free  the  slaves.  In  some 
instances  officers  were  court-martialed  for  insubordination,  and  on 
Oct.  7  Gen.  George  B.  McClellan,  commanding  the  Army  of  the 
Potomac,  found  it  necessary  to  issue  an  order  in  which  he  said : 
"Discussions  by  officers  and  soldiers  concerning  public  measures 
determined  upon  and  declared  by  the  government,  when  carried 
at  all  beyond  temperate  and  respectful  expressions  of  opinion,  tend 
greatly  to  impair  and  destroy  the  discipline  and  efficiency  of  troops, 
by  substituting  the  spirit  of  political  faction  for  that  firm,  steady 
and  earnest  support  of  the  authority  of  the  government  which  is 
the  highest  duty  of  the  American  soldier.  The  remedy  for  political 
errors,  if  any  are  committed,  is  to  be  found  only  in  the  action  of  the 
people  at  the  polls."  As  to  the  effect  of  the  proclamation  abroad, 
the  opinion  is  well  summed  up  in  a  letter  from  Earl  Russell  to 
Lord  Lyons,  envoy  extraordinary  to  the  United  States,  the  .closing 
words  of  whicji  are:  "There  seems  to  be  no  declaration  of  a  prin- 
ciple adverse  to  slavery  in  this  proclamation.  It  is  a  measure  of 
war,  and  a  measure  of  a  very  questionable  kind.  As  President  Lin- 
coln has  twice  appealed  to  the  judgment  of  mankind  in  his  procla- 
mation, I  venture  to  say  that  I  do  not  think  it  can  or  ought  to 
satisfy  the  friends  of  abolition,  who  look  for  total  and  impartial 
freedom  for  the  slave,  and  not  for  vengeance  upon  the  slaveowner." 

On  Jan.  1,  1863,  President  Lincoln,  true  to  his  announcement  of 
Sept.  22,  1862,  issued  his  proclamation  of  emancipation.  In  Lou- 
isiana at  that  time  the  parishes  of  St.  Bernard,  Plaquemines,  Jef- 
ferson, St.  John,  St.  Charles,  St.  James,  Ascension,  Assumption, 
Terrebonne,  Lafourche,  St.  Mary,  St.  Martin  and  Orleans  (includ- 
ing the  city  of  New  Orleans)  were  iinder  the  control  of  Federal 
troops,  and  slavery  was  not  to  be  interfered  with  in  that  portion 


368  LOUISIANA 

of  the  state.  West  Virginia  was  also  exempted  from  the  provis- 
ions of  the  proclamation,  as  ■well  as  the  counties  of  Accomac, 
Berkeley,  Northampton,  Elizabeth  City,  York,  Princess  Anne  and 
Norfolk  in  Virginia.  Slavery  in  all  these  excepted  parts  was  "left 
precisely  as  if  this  proclamation  were  not  issued." 

The  proclamation  failed  to  accomplish  the  purposes  for  which  it 
was  intended.  True,  many  negroes,  upon  hearing  of  it,  managed 
to  find  their  way  into  the  Federal  lines,  feeling  assvired  that  once 
there  they  would  be  protected,  but  the  bloody  fields  of  Chancellors- 
ville,  Gettysburg,  Chickamauga,  the  Wilderness  and  Spottsylvania 
bear  witness  that  it  took  something  more  substantial  than  procla- 
mations to  end  the  war. 

Emden,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  southern  part  of  Winn  parish,  is 
near  the  southern  boundary  and  is  a  station  on  the  line  of  the 
Louisiana  Railway  &  Navigation  company,  10  miles  southwest  of 
Wiunfield,  the  parish  seat. 

Emma,  a  post-hamlet  and  station  in  the  northeastern  part  of  Bos- 
sier parish,  on  the  Red  River  &  Rocky  Mount  R.  R.,  about  15  miles 
northeast  of  Benton,  the  parish  seat. 

Empire,  a  post-village  and  station  in  the  southern  part  of  Plaque- 
mines parish,  is  on  the  west  bank  of  the  IMississippi  river  and  the 
New  Orleans,  Fort  Jackson  &  Grand  Isle  R.  R.,  about  12  miles 
southeast  of  Pointe  a  la  Hache.  the  parish  seat.  It  is  located  in  the 
fruit  Itelt,  has  orange  industries,  and  a  population  of  200. 

Englewood,  a  post-village  in  the  central  part  of  Madison  parish, 
is  a  station  on  the  St.  Louis,  Iron  ^Mountain  &  Southern  R.  R., 
about  .3  miles  south  of  Tallulah,  the  parish  seat. 

English  Turn. — About  18  miles  below  the  city  of  New  Orleans 
is  a  bend  in  the  ^Mississippi  river  known  by  this  name,  which  was 
given  to  it  by  the  following  incident.  On  Sept.  16,  1699,  while 
Bienville  was  descending  the  river  on  his  return  from  an  exploring 
expedition  to  the  Plaquemine  and  Chetimachas  bayous,  he  here 
met  an  English  frigate  carrying  12  guns  and  commanded  by  a 
Capt.  Bar.  The  vessel  was  one  of  a  fleet  sent  out  by  an  English 
claimant  to  a  large  grant  of  land  in  the  Carolinas.  and  Bar  frankly 
admitted  that  he  was  looking  for  a  suitable  location  on  the  banks 
of  the  ]\Iis!5issippi  to  establish  a  colony.  Bien-\dlle,  if  not  strictly 
truthful,  was  equal  to  the  occasion.  One  version  of  the  story  is 
that  he  told  Bar  the  river  sought  was  farther  to  the  west.  An- 
other is  that  he  informed  the  Englishman  the  French  were  already 
in  possession  of  the  river ;  that  colonies  had  been  planted  at  various 
places  along  its  coiu-se ;  that  he  was  then  returning  from  a  visit  to 
those  colonies ;  and  that  the  whole  region  was  really  a  dependency 
of  Canada.  Whichever  version  may  be  the  correct  one.  Bar  evi- 
dently was  convinced.  He  ordered  his  vessel  to  be  put  about, 
though  with  rather  bad  grace,  threatening  to  return  some  time  and 
vindicate  England's  right  to  the  river  and  its  valley.  The  frigate 
sailed  out  of  the  ilississippi,  leaving  the  young  French  diplomat 
master  of  the  field,  and  from  that  day  to  the  present  time  the  place 


LOUISIANA  369 

where  this  bit  of  strategy  was  worked  has  been  known  as  "The 
English  Turn." 

At  that  time  England  was  claiming  Louisiana  as  a  part  of  the 
Carolinas.  It  is  said  that  on  Bar's  vessel  was  a  French  engineer, 
who  secretly  gave  to  Bienville  a  petition  addressed  to  the  king 
and  giving  the  assurance  that  400  Protestant  families  would  come 
from  the  Carolinas  and  settle  in  Louisiana  if  the  king  would  grant 
them  liberty  of  conscience  in  the  matter  of  religious  worship.  The 
petition  was  referred  to  Count  Pontehartrain  and  was  refused. 

English  Turn,  a  post-village  situated  in  the  northern  part  of 
Plaquemines  parish,  is  on  the  east  bank  of  tlie  Mississippi  river 
and  a  station  on  the  Louisiana  Southern  R.  R.,  near  the  place  where 
Bienville  turned  back  the  English  ship  in  1699. 

Ennes,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  northern  part  of  Beauregard  parish, 
on  Barnes  creek,  about  3  miles  north  of  Longville,  the  nearest  rail- 
road station.  It  is  located  in  the  western  long  leaf  yellow  pine  dis- 
trict and  has  important  lumber  industries. 

Enterprise,  a  post-village  of  Catahoula  parish,  situated  on  the 
Ouachita  river,  about  6  miles  east  of  Rosefield,  the  nearest  railroad 
station. 

Eola,  a  village  in  the  southwestern  part  of  Avoyelles  parish,  is 
situated  at  the  jun'ction  of  the  Southern  Pacific  and  the  Texas  & 
Pacific  railroads,  about  4  miles  south  of  Bunkie,  in  a  rich  agricul- 
tural district,  for  which  it  is  the  shipping  and  supply  point.  It  has 
a  money  order  postoffice,  express  office  and  telegraph  station  and 
a  population  of  300. 

Erath,  an  incorporated  town  in  the  northeastern  part  of  Ver- 
milion parish,  is  a  station  on  the  Southern  Pacific  R.  R.,  about  7 
miles  east  of  Abbeville,  the  parish  seat.  It  has  a  money  order 
postoffice,  express  office,  telegraph  station  and  telephone  facilities 
and  is  the  shipping  and  supply  town  for  a  rich  sugar  district.  Pop- 
ulation 557. 

Eros,  a  money  order  post-village  in  tlie  northeastern  part  of 
Jackson  parish,  is  on  the  Tremont  &  Gulf  R.  R.,  about  8  miles  east 
of  Vernon,  the  parish  seat.  It  has  one  free  rural  delivery  route  and 
an  express  office. 

Erwinville,  a  village  of  West  Baton  Rouge  parish,  is  situated  in 
the  western  part  on  the  Colorado  Southern,  New  Orleans  &  Pacific 
R.  R.,  about  15  miles  northwest  of  Baton  Rouge.  It  has  a  money 
order  postoffice  and  a  population  of  100. 

Esperenze,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  extreme  eastern  part  of  Con- 
cordia parish,  is  on  the  Mississippi  river,  about  5  miles  east  of 
Fish  Pond,  the  nearest  railroad  station. 

Espiritu  Santo  River. — (See  Mississippi  River.) 

Esther,  a  money  order  post-hamlet  in  the  central  part  of  Ver- 
milion parish,  is  situated  on  a  confluent  of  the  Vermilion  river, 
about  10  miles  south  of  Abbeville,  the  parish  seat,  and  5  miles  south 
of  Rosehill,  the  nearest  railroad  station.     Population  75. 

Estherwood,  a  village  in  the  southwestern  part  of  Acadia  parish, 
is  a  station  on  the  Southern  Pacific  R.  R.,  about  6  miles  west  of 
1—24 


370  LOUISIANJ^ 

Crowley,  the  parish  seat.  It  has  a  bank,  a  money  order  postoffice, 
rice  mills,  an  express  oiBce,  telegraph  station,  telephone  facilities, 
and  a  population  of  544. 

Estopinal,  a  post-village  and  station  in  the  western  part  of  St. 
Bernard  parish,  is  on  the  Louisiana  Southern  R.  R.,  about  15  miles 
southeast  of  New  Orleans,  and  in  a  large  truck  farming  district 
that  furnishes  New  Orleans  with  vegetables  and  fruit. 

Estopinal,  Albert,  planter,  and  for  many  years  prominent  in 
Louisiana  political  affairs,  was  born  in  St.  Bernard  parish  in  1845. 
He  was  educated  in  the  parish  schools  and  at  New  Orleans,  and  at 
the  age  of  17  years  enlisted  in  Co.  G,  28th  La.  infantry,  and  was 
made  sergeant.  He  was  with  his  regiment  during  the  siege  of 
Vicksburg,  and  was  several  times  in  charge  of  the  guard  to  eon- 
duct  Federal  prisoners  to  Richmond.  Li  the  latter  part  of  1863 
he  M'as  made  sergeant  of  Co.  G,  22nd  La.  heavy  artillery,  with 
which  he  conchided  his  military  service,  being  at  Mobile,  Ala., 
during  the  operation  there  in  the  spring  of  1865.  He  was  paroled 
with  Gen.  Taylor's  forces  at  Meridian,  I\Iiss.,  May  15,  1865,  and 
returned  home.  For  several  j^ears  he  was  engaged  in  the  commis- 
sion business  at  New  Orleans,  but  most  of  his  life  was  spent  at 
his  home,  "Kenilworth  Plantation,"  20  miles  below  New  Orleans. 
In  1872  he  was  elected  sheriii  of  St.  Bernard  parish ;  reelected  in 
1874;  was  active  during  the  reconstruction  days;  served  as  presi- 
dent of  the  parish  police  jury;  was  elected  to  the  lower  house  of 
the  state  legislature  in  1876  and  again  in  1878;  was  a  delegate  to 
the  constitutional  convention  of  1879;  in  1880  was  elected  to  the 
state  senate  and  served  in  that  body  for  20  years ;  was  a  member 
of  the  constitutional  convention  of  1898,  and  in  1900  was  elected 
lieutenant-governor  on  tlie  Democratic  ticket.  In  1908  he  was 
elected  to  Congress  from  the  1st  district  to  succeed  Gen.  Adolph 
Meyer,  who  had  died  a  few  months  before. 

Ethel,  a  village  in  the  southwestern  part  of  East  Feliciana  par- 
ish, is  situated  at  the  junction  of  two  branches  of  the  Yazoo  & 
Mississippi  Valley  R.  R.,  about  9  miles  southwest  of  Clinton,  the 
parish  seat.  It  has  a  money  order  postofSce,  express  office  and 
telegraph  station,  and  a  population  of  300. 

Eular,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  northwestern  part  of  Livingston  par- 
ish, is  situated  on  a  confluent  of  the  Amite  river,  about  7  miles 
northeast  of  Denham  Springs,  the  nearest  railroad  and  telegraph 
station. 

Eunice,  an  incorporated  town  in  the  western  part  of  St.  Landry 
parish,  is  situated  at  the  junction  of  the  Chicago,  Rock  Island  & 
Pacific,  the  Colorado  So^^thern  and  the  South  Pacific  railroads,  and 
has  a  population  of  1648.  It  has  a  bank,  an  express  office,  tele- 
graph station  and  telephone  facilities,  and  is  the  shipping  and 
supply  town  for  the  southwestern  part  of  the  parish. 

Eustis,  George,  jurist,  a  nephew  of  William  Eustis,  at  one  time 
governor  of  ilassaehusetts,  was  born  at  Boston,  Mass.,  Oct.  20, 
1796.  He  was  educated  at  Harvard  university,  graduating  in  1815. 
After  leaving  college  he  was  secretary  to  his  uncle,  Gov.  Eustis, 


LOUISIANA  371 

who  was  tlieu  IT.  S.  minister  to  Holland.  While  at  The  Hague  he 
began  to  study  law ;  on  his  return  to  Amei'ica  he  went  to  Louisiana 
and  settled  in  New  Orleans  in  1817 ;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  of 
Loiiisiana  5  years  later;  took  an  active  part  in  local  politics;  was 
elected  to  the  state  assembly  for  several  terms;  became  secretary 
of  state,  and  was  appointed  one  of  the  commissioners  of  the  board 
of  currency.  While  holding  this  position,  he  was  instrumental  in 
having  reforms  made  that  gave  stability  to  the  state  currency.  In 
1845  he  was  sent  as  a  delegate  to  the  state  constitutional  conven- 
tion, and  was  elected  attorney-general  of  the  state.  A  year  later 
he  became  a  supreme  court  justice,  serving  until  1852.  A  short 
time  before  his  death  Harvard  university  honored  him  with  the 
degree  of  LL.  D.    He  died  at  New  Orleans,  La.,  Dec.  23,  1858. 

Eustis,  George,  jr.,  diplomat  and  lawyer,  was  born  at  New  Or- 
leans, La.,  Sept.  28,  1822.  He  received  a  tine  education;  graduated 
at  the  Jefferson  college  of  Louisiana  and  the  Cambridge  law  school ; 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  and  began  practice  in  New  Orleans ;  en- 
tered political  life ;  was  elected  a  representative  from  Louisiana 
to  the  34tli  Congress  as  an  American,  and  reelected  to  the  35th 
Congress.  During  the  war  he  was  secretary  of  the  Confederate 
legation  at  Paris,  where  he  remained  after  the  close  of  the  war. 
Elihu  B.  Washburn,  minister  at  Paris,  commissioned  him  to  negotiate 
a  postal  treaty  with  the  French  government.  He  died  at  Cannes, 
France,  March  15.  1872. 

Eustis,  James  B.,  U.  S.  senator  from  Louisiana,  was  born  in 
New  Orleans,  Aug.  27,  1834.  He  received  a  classical  education; 
attended  the  Harvard  law  school  in  1853-54 ;  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1856  and  practiced  law  in  New  Orleans ;  at  the  outbreak  of  the 
war  he  entered  the  Confederate  army  as  judge-advocate  on  Gen. 
Magruder's  staff;  was  transferred  to  the  staff  of  Gen.  Joe  Johnston; 
served  in  this  capacity  until  the  close  of  the  war,  when  he  resumed 
his  law  practice  at  New  Orleans.  Prior  to  the  reconstruction  acts 
he  was  elected  to  the  state  legislature  and  was  one  of  the  committee 
sent  to  Washington  to  confer  with  President  Johnson  on  Louisiana 
affairs.  He  was  a  member  of  the  state  house  of  representatives  in 
1872 ;  elected  a  member  of  the  state  senate  for  4  years  in  1874 ;  elected 
U.  S.  senator  in  1877,  but  his  seat  was  contested  by  P.  B.  S.  Pinch- 
back  and  he  was  not  recognized  by  the  senate  until  Dec.  10.  1877, 
and  served  until  March  3,  1879.  Mr.  Eustis  was  then  made  professor 
of  civil  law  in  the  University  of  Louisiana,  and  was  again  elected  to 
the  U.  S.  senate  as  a  Democrat  to  succeed  Benjamin  F.  Jonas  for 
the  term  of  1885-1891;  practiced  law  at  Washington,  D.  C,  in  1891; 
and  was  appointed  amlsassador  to  Prance  1893-1897.  Upon  his  return 
he  located  at  New  York  City,  and  died  at  Newport,  R.  I.,  Sept.  9, 
1899. 

Eva,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  western  part  of  Concordia  parish,  is 
situated  on  the  Black  river  about  9  miles  south  of  the  village  of 
Black  River,  the  nearest  railroad  station. 

Evangeline,  a  money  order  post-hamlet  in  the  western  part  of 
Acadia  parish,  situated  on  Bayou  Cannes,  about  5  miles  north  of 


372  LOUISIANA 

Mermeuton,  the  nearest  railroad  station,  and  12  miles  northwest  of 
Crowley,  the  parish  seat.   Population  300. 

Evangeline  Parish. — This  parish  was  authorized  by  the  act  of 
the  general  assembly,  approved  by  Gov.  Sanders  on  June  22,  1908. 
Section  1  provides  "That  a  new  parish  in  the  State  of  Louisiana, 
be  and  the  same  is  hereby  created  out  of  the  western  portion  of  the 
parish  of  St.  Landry  to  be  called  and  known  as  the  parish  of  Evan- 
geline: which  said  parish  of  Evangeline  shall  be  composed  of  all  that 
territory  of  the  parish  of  St.  Landry  lying  west  of  a  line  beginning 
at  a  point  on  the  line  between  the  parishes  of  Acadia  and  St.  Landry 
on  the  township  line  between  range  two  (2)  and  range  three  (3), 
east  Louisiana  meridian,  following  said  line  due  north  to  a  point 
where  the  same  intersects  Bayou  Grand  Louis;  thence  following  said 
bayou  to  its  junction  with  Bayou  Petite  Passe;  thence  running  due 
north  to  a  point  on  Bayou  Cocodrie;  thence  following  said  Bayou 
Cocodrie  to  a  point  on  the  township  line  between  ranges  two  (2)  and 
three  (3)  east;  due  north  on  said  township  line  to  a  point  on  the  line 
between  the  parishes  of  Avoyelles  and  St.  Landry;" 

Section  2  places  the  new  parish  in  the  7th  Congressional  district; 
the  14th  senatorial  district ;  the  16th  judicial  district ;  the  3d  supreme 
court  district;  and  makes  it  a  part  of  the  district  under  the  juris- 
diction of  the  1st  circuit  court.  The  section  further  provides  that 
the  parish  seat  shall  be  fixed  and  remain  at  such  place  as  may  be 
selected  by  the  voters  at  an  election  held  for  that  purpose. 

After  prescribing  the  manner  of  cTganizing  the  new  parish,  and 
providing  for  the  copying  and  transmission  of  the  recoi'ds  relating 
to  that  part  of  the  parish  of  St.  Landry  cut  off  to  form  the  parish 
of  Evangeline,  section  10  of  the  act  stipulates  that  immediately  after 
the  passage  and  approval  of  the  act  the  governor  shall  direct  the  board 
of  election  supervisors  in  and  for  the  parish  of  St.  Landr.v  to  order  an 
election  for  the  second  Tuesday  in  April,  1909,  at  which  the  voters 
of  the  parish  of  St.  Landry  might  vote  on  the  f[uestion  of  dividing 
the  parish  for  the  establishment  of  the  new  one  authorized  by  the 
act.  If  a  majority  of  the  voters  expressed  themselves  in  favor  of  the 
new  parish,  then  the  governor  was  directed  to  appoint  five  commis- 
sioners to  order  an  election  on  the  second  Tuesday  in  Nov..  1909. 
for  the  purpose  of  deciding  the  location  of  the  parish  seat,  and  should 
issue  his  proclamation  declaring  the  parish  of  Evangeline  created, 
the  organization  thereof  to  remain  in  abeyance  until  a  full  set  of 
officers  shall  be  chosen  at  the  general  election  in  1912.  If  a  majority 
of  the  voters  should  express  themselves  as  opposed  to  the  establish- 
ment of  the  new  parish,  then  "this  act  shall  be  null  and  of  no  effect." 

The  election  to  ratif}'  or  reject  the  provisions  of  the  act  was  ac- 
cordingly held  on  April  13,  1909,  (the  second  Tuesday)  and  a  large 
majority  declared  in  favor  of  the  establishment  of  the  new  parish. 
Settled  in  the  older  days,  many  historical  and,  in  a  sense,  romantic 
incidents  occurred  in  this  region.  Several  of  its  war  sons  have  also 
gained  renown.  Politically  it  is  rapidly  attaining  importance.  The 
history  of  the  territoiy  comprising  Evangeline  parish  is  a  part  of 
the  history  of  St.  Landry  (q.  v.).    The  name  was  chosen  from  Long- 


LOUISIANA  373 

fellow's  poem  describing  the  sufferings  of  the  Aeadians.  many  of 
whom  settled  in  Louisiana  after  their  cruel  expulsion  from  their 
Canadian  homes,  and  whose  descendants  live  in  the  district  included 
within  the  boundaries  of  the  new  parish. 

Evart,  a  post-haml^t  in  southern  part  of  Beauregard  parish,  is  a 
station  on  the  Colorado  Southern,  New  Orleans  &  Pacific  R.  R., 
about  15  miles  northwest  of  Lake  Charles,  the  parish  seat  and  nearest 
banking  point.  It  is  located  in  the  pine  district  and  has  lumlier  in- 
dustries. 

Evelyn,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  southeastern  part  of  De  Soto  par- 
ish, is  situated  on  Bayou  Pierre,  about  5  miles  southwest  of  Armistead, 
the  nearest  railroad  station. 

Evergreen,  an  incorporated  town  in  the  southern  part  of 
Avoyelles  parish,  is  a  station  on  the  Texas  &  Pacific  R.  R.,  12  miles 
south  of  Marksville,  the  parish  seat.  It  has  one  free  rural  delivery 
route,  a  bank,  a  money  order  postoffice,  an  express  office,  telegraph 
and  telephone  service,  and  is  the  trading  center  for  a  rich  agricul- 
tural district.    Population  299. 

Excelsior,  a  post-handet  in  the  soutlieastern  part  of  Jard-cson  par- 
ish, is  a  station  on  the  Tremont  &  Gulf  R.  R.,  about  12  miles  south- 
east of  Vernon,  the  parish  seat. 

Executions. — The  plaintiff,  wishing  to  execute  his  judgment, 
must  apply  to  the  clerk  of  the  court  rendering  it,  who  will  issue  a 
writ  of  fieri  facias  to  the  sheriff  or  constable,  ordering  a  seizure  and 
sale  of  sufficient  property  of  the  defendant  to  satisfy  the  judgment 
and  costs.  When  seized,  the  sheriff'  or  constable  must  advertise  it,  if 
personal  property  10,  and  if  real  estate  30  days,  before  selling  the 
same.  The  property  must  be  valued  by  two  appraisers,  one  chosen  by 
each  party,  and  being  first  offered  for  cash  must  bring  two-thirds  of 
the  appraisement,  or  it  cannot  then  be  sold.  If  no  bid  is  made  to 
that  amount,  the  property  is  readvertised  for  15  days  longer,  to  be 
sold  on  a  ci-edit  of  12  months,  for  whatever  it  will  bring.  At  this 
sale  the  purchaser  is  required  to  give  what  is  called  a  twelve-months 
bond,  with  sufficient  security,  bearing  the  same  rate  of  interest  as  the 
original  debt ;  and  if  real  estate  is  sold,  by  being  properly  recorded  it 
operates  as  a  special  mortgage  and  vendor's  privilege  upon  the  prop- 
erty sold.  If  it  is  not  paid  at  maturity,  the  plaintiff  may  take  out 
execution,  without  any  previous  demand,  against  both  the  principal 
and  surety,  and  seize  the  property  of  either,  and  after  10  days' 
advertisement,  if  it  be  personal  property,  or  30  days,  if  it  be  real 
estate,  sell  it  for  cash  for  whatever  it  will  bring. 

Exemptions. — Under  the  constitution  of  1879  the  following  prop- 
erty was  made  exempt  from  seizure  by  execution  or  any  other  process : 
The  homestead  actually  owned  by  the  debtor  and  occupied  by  him, 
consisting  of  lands,  buildings,  etc.,  whether  rural  or  urban,  of  every 
head  of  a  family,  or  person  having  a  mother  or  father  or  other  person 
or  persons  dependent  on  him  or  her  for  support ;  also  one  work-horse, 
one  wagon  or  cart,  one  yoke  of  oxen,  two  cows  and  calves,  25  head  of 
hogs  or  1,000  pounds  of  bacon,  or  its  equivalent  in  pork,  whether 
these  exempted  objects  be  attached  to  a  homestead  or  not,  and  on  a 


374  LOUISIANA 

farm  the  necessary  quantity  of  com  and  fodder  for  the  current  year 
and  the  necessary  farming  implements  to  the  value  of  $2,000.  But  the 
property  exempt  shall  in  no  case  exceed  $2,000  in  value :  provided, 
however,  that  no  husband  shall  be  entitled  to  the  exemption  provided 
for,  whose  wife  shall  own  in  her  own  riglit  and  be  in  the  actual  en- 
joyment of  property  or  means  to  the  amount  of  $2,000. 

The  person  or  persons  claiming  the  benefit  of  the  homestead  and 
exemptions  law  must  execute  a  written  declaration  of  homestead. 
This  declaration  must  contain :  1 — A  statement  of  the  facts  showing 
the  person  claiming  the  homestead  and  exemptions  is  a  person  of  the 
description  to  be  entitled  thereto;  2 — A  statement  that  the  person 
claiming  it  is  residing  on  the  land  or  lot  claimed  as  homestead  and 
owns  it  by  a  bona  fide  title,  setting  forth  the  natiire  of  the  title: 
3 — A  description  of  the  lot  or  tract  of  land;  4 — An  enumeration  of 
the  other  exemptions;  5 — An  estimate  of  the  cash  value  of  the  home- 
stead and  exemptions,  and  a  statement  of  intention  to  claim  such 
homestead  and  exemptions.  The  declaration  must  be  sworn  to  and 
recorded  in  the  book  of  mortgages  for  the  parish  where  the  homestead 
claimed  is  situated. 

Whenever  the  widow  or  minor  children  of  a  deceased  person  are 
left  in  necessitoiis  circumstances,  she  or  they  shall  be  entitled  to  de- 
mand and  receive  from  the  succession  of  the  deceased  husband  or 
father  a  sum  which,  added  to  the  amount  of  property  owned  by 
them,  or  either  of  them,  in  their  own  right,  will  make  up  the  sum  of 
$1,000.  and  which  said  amount  shall  be  paid  in  preference  to  all  other 
debts,  except  those  for  the  vendor's  privilege  and  the  expenses  in- 
curred in  selling  the  propert.y.  If  this  claim  of  the  widow  or  minor 
children  is  opposed,  it  must  be  proved  and  necessitous  circumstances 
shown  to  exist.  The  sheriff  or  constable  cannot  seize  the  linen  and 
clothes  belonging  to  the  debtor  or  his  wife,  nor  his  bed.  bedding  or 
bedstead,  nor  those  of  his  family,  nor  his  arms  and  military  accouter- 
ments.  his  tools  and  instruments,  hooks,  and  sewing-machines  neces- 
sary for  the  exercise  of  his  or  her  calling,  trade  or  profession  by 
which  he  or  she  makes  a  living;  nor  shall  he  in  any  case  seize  the 
rights  of  personal  servitude,  of  use  and  habitation,  of  usufruct  to 
the  estate  of  a  minor  child,  the  income  of  dotal  propert.v.  money  due 
for  the  salary  of  an  officer,  laborers  wages,  the  cooking-stove  and 
utensils  of  said  stove,  the  plates,  dishes,  knives,  forks,  and  spoons,  the 
dining-table  and  dining  chairs,  wash-tubs,  smoothing-irons  and 
ironing  furnaces,  family  portraits  belonging  to  the  debtor,  nor -the 
musical  instruments  played  on  or  practiced  on  by  any  member  of  the 
family. 

Exodus,  Negro. — Applet  on 's  Annual  Cyclopedia  for  1879  says: 
"The  attention  of  the  country  during  the  past  year  has  been  at- 
tracted to  movements  among  the  colored  population,  chiefly  in  the 
states  bordering  on  the  Mississippi.  There  was  no  appearance  of  or- 
ganization or  system  among  these  persons.  Their  irregularity  and 
the  absence  of  preparation  seemed  to  indicate  spontaneousness  and 
earnestness.  Bands  moved  from  the  plantations  to  the  Mississippi 
river,  and  thence  to  St.  Louis  and  other  cities,  with  no  defined  pur- 


LOUISIANA  375 

pose,  except  to  reach  some  one  of  the  new  states  west  of  the  Mississippi, 
where  they  expected  to  enjoy  a  new  Canaan.  Their  movements 
received  the  name  of  the  'Exodus.'  " 

As  the  planters  of  those  states  depended  principally  upon  negro 
labor,  the  immediate  effect  of  the  exodus  was  to  disorganize  that  labor, 
and  for  a  time  disaster  to  the  growing  crops  seemed  imminent.  The 
excitement  spread  rapidly  among  the  colored  population  and  con- 
ventions were  called  to  discuss  the  situation.  On  April  17,  1879,  a 
colored  convention,  composed,  according  to  the  call,  of  "clergymen, 
teachers  and  social  directors,"  met  in  New  Orleans,  about  200  dele- 
gates being  present,  of  whom  it  is  said  one-third  were  colored  preach- 
ers. Quite  a  number  were  blacks  who  had  been  brought  to  the  city 
from  the  rural  districts  of  the  state  as  witnesses  in  political  trials. 
The  convention  was  poorly  organized  and  the  proceedings  were  char- 
acterized by  turbulence,  many  of  the  delegates  preferring  to  talk  of 
"political  violence  and  intimidation"  to  discussing  the  question  of 
emigration  to  other  states.  A  few,  among  whom  was  P.  B.  S.  Pinch- 
back,  spoke  in  opposition,  but  a  majority  favored  the  exodus.  The 
name  of  Frederick  Douglass  was  hissed,  and  a  resolution  was  adopted 
"that  it  is  the  sense  of  this  convention  that  the  colored  people  of  the 
South  should  migrate."  The  convention  finally  closed  with  an  appeal 
for  material  aid  to  the  "official  and  moral  influence  of  the  president 
of  the  United  States,  the  Republican  party,  and  the  country  at 
large."  H 

The  Mississippi  Valley  labor  convention,  which  met  at-  Vicksburg, 
Miss.,  on  May  5,  was  more  pacific  in  tone.  Resolutions  were  adopted 
asserting  the  constitutional  right  of  the  colored  people  to  emigrate 
where  they  pleased,  but  at  the  same  time  urged  them  "to  proceed  in 
their  movements  toward  emigration  as  reasonable  human  beings, 
pro\'iding  in  advance  by  economy  the  means  for  transportation  and 
settlement,  sustaining  their  reputation  for  honesty  and  fair-dealing 
by  preserving  intact  until  the  completion  of  contracts  for  labor-leas- 
ing which  have  already  been  made."  The  resolutions  also  called  on 
the  colored  people  present  "to  contradict  the  false  reports  circulated 
among  and  impressed  upon  the  more  ignorant  and  credulous,  and 
to  instruct  them  that  no  lands,  mules,  or  money  await  them  in  Kansas 
or  elsewhere,  without  labor  or  price,  and  report  to  the  civil  author- 
ities disseminating  such  reports." 

Probably  the  most  extreme  utterances  and  demands  came  from  the 
colored  convention  which  assembled  at  Nashville,  Tenn.,  May  7,  with 
a  number  of  delegates  from  the  Northern  states  present.  It  demanded 
for  the  colored  people  social  and  political  equality  as  a  right ;  recom- 
mended the  several  state  legislatures  to  enact  laws  for  a  compulsory 
system  of  education;  opposed  separate  schools  as  injurious  to  both 
races,  inasmuch  as  they  tended  to  foster  color  prejudices;  and 
adopted  a  resolution  "That  it  is  the  sense  of  this  conference  that  the 
colored  people  should  emigrate  to  those  states  and  territories  where 
they  can  enjoy  all  the  rights  which  are  guaranteed  by  the  laws  and 
constitution  of  the  United  States,  and  enforced  by  the  executive  de- 
partments of  such  states  and  territories;  and  we  ask- of  the  United 


376  LOUISIAA^A 

States  an  appropriation  of  $500,000,  to  aid  in  the  removal  of  our 
people  from  the  South." 

Kansas  seemed  to  be  the  goal  of  the  emigrants,  the  first  of  whom 
reached  that  state  early  in  April,  and  by  the  end  of  the  year  there 
were  added  to  the  population  some  -iO.OOO  negroes,  about  ten  per 
cent,  of  whom  had  come  from  Louisiana.  "Many  of  these  hung 
about  Topeka  and  other  towns,  and  showed  themselves  incapable 
and  unwilling  to  try  to  provide  for  themselves."  A  Freedmen's  relief 
association  was  organized  soon  after  the  arrival  of  the  first  immig- 
rants and  within  a  year  it  had  contributed  about  $150,000  toward 
the  support  of  the  blacks.  Toward  the  close  of  1879  the  tide  of 
emigration  was  turned  to  Indiana,  and  Daniel  W.  Yoorhees.  one  of 
the  U.  S.  senators  from  that  state,  secured  the  appointment  of  a  senate 
committee  of  investigation,  on  the  ground  that  the  exodus  was  for 
the  purpose  of  colonizing  Republican  voters  in  the  close  or  doubtful 
states. 

Various  causes  have  been  alleged  for  this  unusual  procedure  on  the 
part  of  the  negroes.  Gov.  Stone,  of  Mississippi,  in  his  message  of 
1880,  said:  "A  partial  failure  of  the  cotton  crop  in  portions  of  the 
state,  and  the  iinremunerative  prices  received  for  it,  created  a  feeling 
of  discontent  among  plantation  laborers,  which,  together  with  other 
extraneous  influences,  caused  some  to  abandon  their  crops  in  the 
spring  to  seek  homes  in  the  West."  Some  writers  have  contended 
that  the  exodus  was  due  chiefly  to  the  loss  of  political  power  by  the 
negroes  at  the  end  of  the  reconstruction  period.  While  this  may  have 
been  true  to  some  extent,  it  is  quite  as  probable  that  iinscrupulous 
partisans  in  some  of  the  Northern  states  tempted  the  blacks  to  emi- 
grate, in  order  to  secure  their  support  in  close  elections.  It  is  also 
equally  probable  that  land  speculators  in  their  desire  to  induce  set- 
tlers to  their  lauds  in  the  West  circulated  glowing  reports  of  the 
possibilities  of  that  region  among  the  blacks  in  the  densely  populated 
districts  of  the  South,  and  the  promise  of  "Forty  acres  and  a  mule" 
was  too  much  for  the  negro  to  withstand.  The  exodus  continued  into 
the  early  part  of  1880 ;  the  failure  of  crops  in  South  Carolina  in  1881 
caused  a  number  of  blacks  to  leave  that  state  late  in  the  year;  and 
there  was  another  migration  in  the  fall  of  1886.  but  it  was  slight  when 
compared  with  the  great  hegira  of  1879.  While  the  excitement  in- 
cidest  to  the  exodus  was  at  its  height  the  Southern  people  were  divided 
in  their  opinions  as  to  the  effects  of  the  movement.  Plantei-s  and 
other  employers  of  labor  looked  upon  it  with  feelings  akin  to  conster- 
nation, while  othei-s.  among  whom  was  Senator  Lamar  of  Mississippi, 
hailed  it  "as  the  dawn  of  a  new  and  grand  era  for  the  South."  The 
hardships  endured  by  the  negroes  in  Kansas  taught  a  useful  lesson  to 
those  who  remained  on  Southern  plantations,  and  since  then  the  bet- 
ter class  of  colored  people  have  been  content  to  remain  there,  trusting 
to  their  industry  to  overcome  the  obstacles  that  might  present  them- 
selves, rather  than  to  attempt  to  shun  such  obstacles  by  emigration. 

Explorations,  Early. — When  Christopher  Columbiis  returned  to 
Spaii:  from  his  first  voyage  to  America,  he  was  granted  the  exclusive 
privilege  of  exploring  the  country  he  had  discovered,  but  the  order 


LOUISIANA  377 

was  revoked  a  year  or  two  later  and  freedom  of  navigation  was  given 
to  "all  merchant  adventurers"  who  might  desire  to  send  expeditions 
to  the  New  World.  Under  the  liberty  thus  extended  Amerigo  Vespucci 
came  with  an  expedition  to  the  West  Indies  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
about  1497,  which  was  followed  by  other  voyages.  Other  early  dis- 
coveries and  explorations  that  had  more  or  less  bearing  upon  the 
territory  comprising  the  present  State  of  Louisiana  were  the  discovery 
of  Florida  by  Ponce  de  Leon  in  1512 ;  the  voyage  of  Francisco 
Cordova  to  Mexico  in  1517,  and  that  of  Juan  de  Grijalva  to  the  same 
country  the  following  year;  the  expedition  under  Alfonzo  Alvarez  de 
Pineda  sent  out  from  Jamaica  by  Francisco  de  Garay  in  1519 ;  the  ill- 
starred  attempt  of  Panfilo  de  Nai-vaez  to  found  a  settlement  some- 
where on  the  Gulf  coast  in  1527-28,  and  some  others  of  minor  im- 
portance. In  the  early  years  of  the  sixteenth  centui-y  the  explorei-s 
who  were  most  active  on  behalf  of  Spain  were  Leon,  de  Garay,  Cordova 
and  Grijalva,  and  it  appears  their  several  fields  of  discovery  and  con- 
quest were  defined  by  the  patents  or  commissions  under  which  they 
operated.  Ponce  de  Leon  was  assigned  the  coast  of  Florida,  extending 
probably  as  far  west  as  Apalachicola  may.  From  that  point  to  the 
vicinity  of  Pensacola  bay  was  a  neutral  zone,  awaiting  some  am- 
bitious explorer.  Thence  to  the  west  and  southwest,  past  the  mouth 
of  the  Panuco  river,  was  the  sphere  of  action  of  de  Gara^^  and  his 
representative  Pineda,  covering  the  Louisiana  coast,  the  patents  of 
the  others  embracing  the  coast  of  Mexico.  Under  the  names  of  these 
explorers  will  be  found  a  more  detailed  account  of  their  discoveries. 
The  only  expedition  of  historic  importance  to  the  interior  was  that 
of  De  Soto,  1539-42.  (The  mad  seareh  for  Quivera  and  the  "Seven 
cities  of  Libolo"  by  Coronado  and  Penalosa  can  hardly  be  classed  as 
exploring  expeditions.)  After  nearly  a  century  of  fruitless  quest  for 
the  precious  metals,  Spain  apparently  abandoned  the  field,  the  only 
settlement  on  the  Gulf  coast  being  a  feeble  one  at  Pensacola.  It  re- 
mained for  France  to  explore  the  mighty  Mississippi,  claim  the 
country  tributary  to  it,  and  found  the  first  settlements  in  its  basin. 

The  French  did  not  begin  their  explorations  in  the  Mississippi 
valley  until  about  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century.  One  of  the 
earliest  Frenchmen  to  visit  Ihe  region  was  Jean  Nicollet  in  1643,  but 
it  was  not  until  the  expedition  of  Joliet  and  Marquette  30  years  later, 
that  the  French  government  began  to  see  the  advantages  to  be  ganied 
by  making  the  valley  of  the  great  river  a  dependency  of  France.  Even 
then  the  king  was  unwilling  to  incur  any  expense  in  exploring  the 
country,  but  generously  permitted  some  of  his  more  ambitious  sub- 
jects to  do  so  "at  their  own  expense."  Most  of  the  earl.v  French 
explorations  were  confined  to  the  upper  portion  of  the  Mississippi,  in 
the  present  states  of  Minnesota,  Wisconsin,  Iowa  and  Illinois,  but  in 
1682  Robert  Cavelier  de  La  Salle  descended  the  river  to  its  mouth  and 
claimed  all  the  country  drained  by  it  and  its  branches  for  the  French 
crown — a  claim  that  was  subsequently  sustained  by  the  tribunal  of 
nations.  (For  more  complete  information  on  the  subject  of  French 
Explorations  see  the  articles  on  Joliet,  Marquette,  Hennepin,  La  Salle, 
Iberville  and  Bienville.) 


378  LOUISIANA 

In  1627  Charles  I  of  England  granted  to  Sir  Robert  Heath  a 
tract  of  land  embracing  the  Carolina  coast  from  the  31st  to  the  36th 
parallels  of  latitude  and  extending  westward  to  the  South  sea.  This 
grant,  which  included  the  northern  part  of  what  is  now  the  State  of 
Louisiana,  was  later  acquired  by  Daniel  Coxe.  and  from  him  passed 
to  his  son.  About  1722  the  younger  Coxe  published  a  journal  setting 
forth  the  claims  that  a  Col.  "Wood  had  ascended  the  Mississippi  as 
early  as  164S :  that  he  had  again  visited  the  river  in  1676.  when  he 
spent  some  ten  years  in  exploring  it  and  its  branches;  and  that  in 
1670  a  Capt.  Bolt  had  na^dgated  the  Mississippi  in  the  interests  of 
the  English  claimants.  The  journal  was  supplemented  by  a  map, 
purporting  to  show  the  route  followed  by  Col.  Welch,  who  had  been 
sent  out  by  Daniel  Coxe  from  Carolina  to  explore  the  country.  This 
map  showed  the  location  of  settlements  and  factories  in  what  are  now 
the  states  of  Alabama  and  Mississippi.  None  of  these  expeditions  is 
well  authenticated  and  all  are  disregarded  by  historians,  the  con- 
sensus of  poinion  being  that  the  map  and  journal  were  issued  by  Coxe 
for  the  purpose  of  attracting  colonists  to  his  claim,  but  they  were 
nevertheless  brought  forward  by  some  parties  in  support  of  the 
English  claim  to  Louisiana  as  a  part  of  the  Carolinas.  Their  publica- 
tion was  too  late,  however,  to  be  of  any  material  service  in  establish- 
ing that  claim.  Another  English  claim  was  that  explorers  from  Vir- 
ginia had  crossed  the  Alleghany  mountains  in  165-1  and  again  in  1664 
and  penetrated  the  Mississippi  valley  by  way  of  the  Ohio  river,  but 
it  is  not  likely  that  any  of  these  expeditions  ever  saw  any  portion  of 
the  territory  claimed  by  the  French  under  the  name  of  Louisiana. 

Expositions,  Industrial. — Since  the  great  war  between  the  states, 
the  industries  of  Louisiana  have  derived  material  benefit  from  the 
state's  exhibits  at  various  industrial  expositions,  both  at  home  and 
abroad.  The  first  instance  of  this  kind  was  in  1867.  when  the  state 
was  represented  at  Paris,  France.  On  March  28.  1867,  the  legislature 
made  appropriations  amounting  to  $4,502.10  for  packing  and  for- 
warding specimens  of  sugar,  salt,  tobacco,  petroleum,  etc.,  to  Paris, 
and  for  other  pui-poses.  The  largest  item  of  expense  was  $1,500  to 
Edward  Gotthiel  for  services  rendered;  the  next  largest  was  $1,337 
for  plans  and  the  erection  of  a  cottage  on  the  exposition  grounds :  W. 
S.  Pike,  president  of  the  Louisiana  board  of  commissioners,  received 
$750  for  his  services  and  expenses,  and  the  remainder  was  used  for 
printing  and  advertising.  Although  this  exhibit  was  not  extensive 
and  was  made  at  a  time  when  the  state  was  in  the  throes  of  recon- 
struction, when  money  was  lavishly  expended  without  regard  to  re- 
sults, it  advertised  abroad  the  capabilities  of  the  state,  but,  owing  to 
the  unsettled  conditions  of  that  period,  it  would  be  a  difficult  matter 
even  to  estimate  the  benefits  resulting  from  the  display. 

The  same  is  true  in  a  great  measure  of  the  Centennial  exposition 
at  Philadelphia  in  1876.  By  the  act  of  Congress  of  June  1,  1872, 
which  authorized  the  "Central  Board  of  Finance"  to  secure  subscrip- 
tions to  not  more  than  $10,000,000  in  stock,  that  amount  was  appor- 
tioned among  the  states  according  to  population.  At  that  time  the 
population  of  Louisiana  was  estimated  at  726.916,  and  the  amount  of 


LOUISIANA  379 

stock  apportioned  to  the  state  was  $188,520.  in  shares  of  $10  each, 
but  there  is  no  record  as  to  whether  the  stock  was  subscribed  by  the 
citizens  of  the  state.  John  Lynch  was  appointed  commi.ssioner.  Thomas 
C.  Anderson,  alternate,  Mrs.  M.  C.  Ludeling  was  made  the  Louisiana 
member  of  the  women's  executive  committee,  and  a  board  of  finance, 
consisting  of  five  members  from  the  state  at  large  and  two  from  each 
of  the  five  Congressional  districts,  was  appointed.  Some  little  advertis- 
ing of  the  state's  resources  was  done  at  Philadelphia,  but  no  exhibit 
of  products  was  made. 

In  1877  the  state  government  was  restored  to  the  people  of  Louisi- 
ana, and  on  Jan.  23,  1878,  a  joint  resolution  was  adopted  by  both 
branches  of  the  legislature  requesting  the  governor  to  appoint  two 
honorary  commis.sioners  to  the  Paris  exposition  of  that  year,  said 
commissioners  to  serve  without  pay  and  without  expense  to  the  state. 

In  1880  came  the  first  suggestion  for  a  general  exposition  of  in- 
dustries, arts,  etc.,  at  some  point  in  the  Southern  states  as  a  means 
of  calling  attention  to  the  resources  of  that  section  of  the  country,  en- 
couraging the  development  of  those  resources,  and  stimulating  the 
trade  of  the  South  with  other  countries.  The  .sub.ject  continued  to  be 
discussed  by  Southern  newspapers  for  .some  time,  but  no  definite 
action  was  taken  until  in  Oct.,  1882,  when,  at  the  annvial  meeting  of 
the  National  Cotton  Planters'  association,  attention  was  directed  to 
the  fact  that  the  first  shipment  of  cotton  from  the  United  States  was 
made  in  1784,  when  six  bags  were  shipped  from  Charleston,  S.  C, 
and  the  association  adopted  a  resolution  that  the  proposed  exposition 
shoi^ld  be  held  in  New  Orleans  in  1884  to  celebrate  the  centenary 
of  the  event.  The  subject  was  brought  before  Congress  at  the  ensuing 
session,  and  on  Feb.  10,  1883,  President  Arthur  approved  an  act 
incorporating  the  "World's  Industrial  and  Cotton  Centennial  Ex- 
position," thus  giving  the  enterprise  the  encouragement  of  the  govern- 
ment, and  New  Orleans  was  selected  as  the  most  suitable  place,  pro- 
vided that  city  would  guarantee  the  necessary  financial  .support.  The 
citizens  of  New  Orleans,  with  the  cooperation  of  railroad  companies 
and  other  large  corporate  concerns,  subscribed  for  $500,000  of  the 
stock ;  the  city  government  contributed  $100,000,  the  state  legislature 
by  the  act  of  June  24,  1884,  appropriated  .$100,000  "to  be  applied  to 
the  erection  of  buildings  to  accommodate  the  Louisiana  exhibit  and 
to  collect,  prepare  and  display  products."  The  president  appointed 
commissioners  for  tbe  several  states,  a  majority  of  which  made  liberal 
appropriations  for  an  exhibit  of  their  products,  resources,  etc.  E.  A. 
Burke  was  appointed  director-general  and  chief  executive  officer ;  F. 
C.  Morehead,  commissioner-general;  G.  M.  Torgerson,  supervising 
architect;  F.  N.  Ogden,  chief  superintendent;  S.  H.  Oilman,  con.sult- 
ing  engineer;  and  the  following  selections  were  made  for  chiefs  or 
heads  of  departments :  Parker  Earle,  horticulture ;  George  B.  Loring, 
agriculture;  B.  K.  Bruce,  colored  exhibit;  Samuel  Mullen,  installa- 
tion; Charles  L.  Fitch,  transportation;  B.  T.  Walshe,  information  and 
accommodation ;  Thomas  Donaldson,  ores,  mines  and  forestry  exhibit ; 
John  Eaton,  education;  "W.  H.  H.  Jud.son,  printing  and  publishing; 
C.  W.  Dabney,  Jr.,  government  and  state  exhibits;  Mrs.  Julia  Ward 


380  LOUISIANA 

Howe,  women's  work.  Commissioners  were  also  appointed  l\v  the 
board  of  manasrers  to  visit  foreigrn  countries  and  different  sections  of 
the  United  States  to  awaken  interest  and  secure  representation  at  the 
exposition. 

The  site  chosen  for  the  exposition  was  a  tract  of  land  (now  Aii- 
dubon  park)  belonsrinar  to  the  city,  aboiit  4  miles  above  the  busi- 
ness center  of  the  city  and  extending:  from  the  'Mississippi  river  to 
St.  Charles  avenue.  The  main  building,  devoted  to  the  ^reneral  ex- 
hibits, foreign  displays  and  machinery,  was  905  by  1.378  feet,  and 
was  the  largest  structure  ever  erected  for  exhibition  purposes  iip  to 
that  time,  its  area  being  more  than  200.000  square  feet  greater  than 
the  famous  crystal  palace  at  the  London  exposition  of  1862.  The 
next  largest  building  was  the  government  building,  565  by  885  feet, 
devoted  to  the  exhibits  of  the  United  States  government  and  of  the 
various  states.  Other  buildings  were  the  horticultural  hall,  the  art 
building,  the  factories  and  mills  building,  devoted  chiefly  to  displays 
of  cotton,  sugar  and  rice,  the  building  for  sawmills  and  wood-working 
machinery,  live  stock  stables,  restaurants,  etc.  The  Jlexican  govern- 
ment erected  two  buildings,  one  in  the  general  style  of  a  "hacienda" 
192  by  288  feet  inclosing  an  open  court  115  by  184  feet,  and  a 
smaller  building  for  the  display  of  Mexico's  mineral  products.  The 
horticultural  hall  was  erected  with  the  $100,000  contributed  by  the 
city  government,  with  the  understanding  that  it  should  become  the 
permanent  property  of  the  city.  It  is  still  standintr.  but  the  other 
buildings  were  removed  from  the  grounds  .soon  after  the  close  of  the 
exposition.  Between  the  buildings  and  the  river  was  a  garden  of 
semi-tropical  plants,  including  groves  of  orange,  lemon,  fig  and 
banana  trees,  etc.  This  garden  proved  to  be  one  of  the  most  interest- 
ing features  of  the  exposition. 

The  original  intention  was  to  open  the  exposition  on  Dec,  1,  1884, 
but  the  time  for  preparation  was  so  .short  that  the  exhibits  were  not  in 
place  on  that  date  and  the  opening  was  postponed  until  Dec.  16.  The 
ceremonies  on  that  occasion  were  appropriate  and  impressive,  and 
Avhen  all  was  ready  President  Arthur  touched  an  electric  button  in 
the  "White  House  at  "Washington,  thus  giving  the  signal  for  starting 
the  machinery  in  the  main  building.  The  exposition  remained  open 
until  Ma.y  31,  1885,  and  was  visited  by  thousands  of  people  who  came 
from  all  parts  of  the  world  and  carried  away  with  them  a  better 
knowledge  of  the  resources  and  capabilities  of  the  Soi;th  and  partic- 
ularly of  New  Orleans, 

On  Nov.  10,  1885,  the  North,  Central  and  South  American  exposi- 
tion was  opened  at  the  same  place  in  which  the  Cotton  Centennial 
exposition  had  been  held.  It  Mas  a  continuation  of  the  latter  and  was 
fairly  successful  for  several  months. 

On  July  1.  1892,  the  Louisiana  legislature  appropriated  $18,000 
for  the  fiscal  year  beginning  on  July  1,  1892,  and  a  like  amount  for 
the  fiscal  year  beginning  Jul.v  1,  1893,  for  the  purpose  of  making  a 
display  of  the  state's  products  at  the  "World's  Columbian  exposition 
at  Chicago  in  1893,  Col,  T.  J.  Woodward  and  Davidson  P..  Penn 
were  appointed  U.  S.  commissioners,  and  Mrs.  Perkins  and  iliss  Kate 


LOUISIAiNA  .  381 

Minor  were  tlie  lady  commissioners.  The  principal  features  of  the 
exhibit  were  the  rice  a)id  sugar  displays,  showing-  the  various  steps  in 
these  industries  from  seed  time  to  harvest,  and  specimens  of  the 
finished  products.  John  C.  Wickliffe  was  at  first  in  charge  of  the 
exhibit,  and  upon  his  resignation  Gov.  Foster  appointed  T.  J.  Butler, 
who  remained  in  charge  until  the  close  of  the  exposition.  The  Louisi- 
ana state  building  at  Chicago  contained  eight  large  rooms  and  was 
visited  by  a  large  number  of  people,  who  were  attracted  by  the  novelty 
of  the  exhibits  and  entertainments  there  given.  In  this  biulding  was 
an  Acadian  exhibit  from  the  old  French  colony  in  the  Bayou  Teche 
country;  relics  of  the  French  and  Spanish  days  of  Louisiana;  the 
richly  carved  antique  furniture  of  Gov.  Galvez,  usually  kept  in  the 
mu.seum  at  Baton  Rouge;  an  educational  exhibit,  showing  the  work 
of  Louisiana  schools;  a  Creole  concert  company,  and  a  creole  kitchen 
in  which  meals  were  served. 

On  June  22,  1894,  the  legislature  adopted  a  re.solution  requesting 
the  state's  senators  and  representatives  in  Congress  to  vote  for  the 
bill  providing  for  a  government  exhibit  at  Atlanta  in  1805,  and 
another  resolution  of  the  same  date  authorized  the  Louisiana  bureau 
of  agriculture  to  make  an  exhibit  there  in  the  name  of  the  state, 
"showing  the  great  and  varied  resources  of  the  state  and  its  prod- 
ucts, with  full  information  concerning  its  institutions  and  vast  capa- 
bilities." The  legislature  further  requested  "all  cities,  citizens,  par- 
ishes, corporations  and  commercial  organizations  of  the  state  to  co- 
operate with  the  bureau  to  make  the  exhibit  worthy  of  this  state 
and  its  people."  Prof.  W.  C.  Stubbs  was  appointed  commissioner  on 
behalf  of  the  state,  and  the  lady  commissioners  from  Louisiana  were 
Mrs.  Scott  McGee,  Mrs.  Fred  G."  Freret  and  Mrs.  William  H.  Dick.son. 
The  report  of  the  commissioner  was  never  printed,  but  from  un- 
official sources  it  is  known  that  the  Louisiana  exhibit  at  Atlanta  at- 
tracted much  favorable  attention  and  won  several  awards.  No  provi- 
sion for  expenses  was  made  by  the  legislature  at  the  time  the  resolu- 
tion authorizing  the  exhibit  was  adopted,  and  on  July  6,  1896,  an  act 
was  passed  appropriating  $5,700  to  reimburse  the  parties  who  ad- 
vanced that  amount  to  the  bureau  of  agriculture.  Of  this  appropria- 
tion, .$500  went  to  Miss  M.  Evans,  in  payment  for  5.000  copies  of  her 
magazine,  "Men  and  Matters,"  distributed  by  her  at  the  exposition  in 
the  interest  of  Louisiana's  industries  and  institutions. 

No  formal  exhibit  was  made  by  Louisiana  at  the  Tennessee  Cen- 
tennial exposition  at  Nashville  in  1897,  nor  at  the  Trans-Mississippi 
exposition  at  Omaha  in  1898,  though  on  July  8.  1898,  the  legislature 
of  the  state  appropriated  $1,000  to  reimburse  Miss  Evans,  editor  and 
proprietor  of  "Men  and  Matters,"  for  her  .services  in  representing 
the  state  at  Nashville.  On  July  7,  1806,  a  re.solution  was  adopted  by 
the  legislature  authorizing  the  state  board  of  agriculture  to  make  an 
exhibit  at  Omaha,  and  a  space  of  3,000  square  feet  in  the  agricultural 
building  was  adopted  to  the  state  for  the  display,  but  for  some  reason 
the  project  was  not  carried  out. 

Through  the  efforts  and  influence  of  Gov.  Heard  a  creditable  ex- 
hibit was  made  at  the  Pan-American  exposition  at  Buffalo  in  1901. 


382  LOUISIANA 

Thi»  exhibit  M-as  collected  and  arranged  by  Maj.  J.  G.  Lee,  state  com- 
missioner of  agriculture  and  immigration,  and  Prof.  "W.  C.  Stubbs, 
director  of  the  state  agricultural  experiment  stations.  Aug.  21,  1901, 
was  Louisiana  day  at  the  exposition.  Gov.  Heard  and  his  staff  were  in 
attendance  and  addresses  were  made  by  Gov.  Heard  and  by  Profs. 
J.  B.  Aswell  and  Alcee  Fortier  (the  latter  spoke  in  French)  in  the 
Temple  of  Music  where  President  McKinley  was  assassinated  two 
weeks  later.  At  the  close  of  the  Pan-American  exposition  the  exhibit 
was  removed  to  Charleston,  where  it  remained  until  the  close  of  the 
exposition  there,  when  the  several  collections  were  returned  to  Louisi- 
ana. The  total  cost  of  the  displays  at  Buffalo  and  Charleston  was 
about  .$10,000. 

The  idea  of  an  exposition  to  celebrate  the  centenary  of  the  acquisi- 
tion of  Louisiana  by  the  United  States  was  first  proposed  by  the  Mis- 
souri Historical  society  on  Jan.  11,  1898,  and  after  some  prelimianry 
work  the  governor  of  Missouri  called  a  convention  of  delegates  from 
the  several  states  and  territories  carved  oi;t  of  the  Loiiisiana  Purchase 
to  meet  in  St.  Louis  on  Jan.  10,  1899.  This  convention  indorsed  the 
scheme,  and  on  April  24.  1901,  the  "Louisiana  Purchase  Exposition 
Company"  was  duly  incorporated  with  David  R,  Francis  as  presi- 
dent. On  July  5,  1902,  the  Louisiana  legislature  passed  an  act  pro- 
viding "That  a  board  of  commissioners  to  be  known  as  the  board  of 
commissioners  to  the  Louisiana  Purchase  exposition,  be  and  the  same 
is  hereby  created,  consisting  of  the  governor,  who  shall  be  ex-ofScio 
president  thereof,  and  four  other  members,  who  shall  be  appointed 
by  the  governor  and  hold  office  during  his  pleasure,"  and  appro- 
priated $100,000  for  the  purpose  of  making  an  exhibit.  Pursuant  to 
the  provisions  of  this  act.  Gov.  Heard  appointed  as  members  of  the 
board  Col.  Charles  Sehuler,  Judge  Emile  Rost,  Hon.  Henry  L.  Guey- 
dan  and  Maj.  Jordan  G.  Lee.  Judge  Rost  subsequently  resigned  on 
account  of  his  health  and  was  succeeded  by  Gen.  John  B.  Levert.  The 
board  met  early  in  Jan.,  1903,  and  organized,  electing  Dr.  W.  C. 
Stubbs,  state  commissioner;  Robert  Klenk,  assistant  commissioner; 
Maj,  J.  G.  Lee,  seeretarj';  and  Charles  K.  Fnqua,  assistant  secretary. 

The  commissioners  began  the  work  of  collection  and  arrangement 
with  the  intention  of  having  the  entire  state  exhibit  in  one  building, 
but  upon  learning  that  this  would  be  contrary  to  the  general  plan  of 
the  exposition  officials  the  collection  was  divided  into  groups  accord- 
ing to  the  character  of  each  displaJ^  Concerning  this  arrangement 
the  report  of  the  commission  says:  "Thousands  of  visitors,  even  many 
of  our  own  citizens,  formed  inadequate,  often  erroneous  conclusions 
relative  to  Louisiana's  display,  simplj'  because  they  saw  only  one  or 
two  of  her  exhibits,  and  these  perhaps  not  representative  of  her  chief 
resources.  *  *  *  "Without  a  guide,  it  was  almost  impossible  for 
even  a  Louisianian  during  a  visit  of  ten  days  to  find  all  the  exhibits 
from  this  state.  It  is  almost  certain  that  the  state  would  have  derived 
larger  benefits  in  attracting  immigration  had  the  policy  of  the  com- 
mission prevailed." 

In  the  agricultural  building  were  several  wax  models  of  sugar- 
cane fields,  showing  cane  in  all  stages  of  growth;  implements  used 


LOUISIANA  383 

in  eane  culture;  methods  of  transporting  the  cane  from  the  field  to 
the  sugar  house;  a  complete  model  of  a  sugar  mill,  and  numerous 
samples  of  the  finished  product.  Rice  and  cotton  culture  were  simi- 
larly illustrated,  and  there  was  a  large  and  well  selected  assortment 
of  the  various  agricultural  products  of  the  state.  The  exhibit  in 
this  building  was  under  the  control  of  Robert  Glenk,  the  assistant 
commissioner. 

Daniel  Newsham  of  New  Orleans  was  in  charge  of  the  horticul- 
tural exhibit,  which  consisted  of  pecans,  fresh  and  preserved  fruits, 
etc.,  and  in  the  conservatory  were  two  carloads  of  ornamental  plants 
from  New  Orleans,  most  of  which  collection  was  fui-nished  by  the 
florists  of  that  city. 

In  the  forestry  building  the  exhibit  was  under  the  direction  of 
Prof.  W.  R.  Dodson  of  the  state  experiment  station  at  Baton  Rouge. 
It  consisted  of  selected  specimens  of  every  variety  of  forest  growth, 
sections  of  trees,  boards,  and  various  articles  manufactured  from 
Louisiana  timber,  with  photographs  illustrative  of  logging  camps, 
sawmills,  etc.  In  this  building  was  also  the  fish  and  game  exhibit, 
containing  many  specimens  of  Louisiana's  fish,  batrachians,  reptiles, 
game  animals  and  birds,  etc. 

In  the  mines  and  metallurgy  building  were  shown  specimens  of 
brick,  sulphur,  crude  and  refined  petroleum,  iron  ores,  marble,  lig- 
nite, sandstone,  cement,  etc.,  and  in  the  center  of  the  space  was  a 
large  topographical  map  of  the  state,  prepared  by  Dr.  G.  D.  Har- 
ris, showing  the  different  geological  horizons  and  locations  of  min- 
eral deposits.  Prof.  George  Williamson  of  the  state  normal  school 
had  charge  of  the  exhibit  here,  as  well  as  that  in  the  anthropology 
building,  where  a  large  collection  of  Indian  relies  and  articles  of 
manufacture  were  shown. 

In  the  transportation  building,  where  J.  P.  Culotta  of  Xew  Or- 
leans was  in  charge  of  the  exhibit,  were  shown  models  of  various 
craft,  illustrating  the  development  of  river  transportation,  from  the 
Indian  canoe  and  the  pirogvie  of  1700  to  the  modern  sidewheel 
steamer  or  the  ocean  liner.  The  exhibit  also  included  the  original 
of  the  first  wagon  made  in  Louisiana,  an  old  cypress  affair,  116  years 
old,  made  by  Don  Juan  Filhiol  and  exhibited  by  one  of  his  descend- 
ants. 

The  educational  exhibit  occupied  space  No.  1  in  the  educational 
building,  and  was  a  fine  collection  from  the  public  schools  in  different 
cities  and  towns  of  the  state  and  the  higher  educational  institutions, 
public  and  private.  This  exhibit  was  under  the  direction  of  Dr.  Brown 
Ayres  of  Tulane  University. 

In  the  liberal  arts  building  Miss  Myra  Kennedy  was  in  charge  of 
the  display,  which  included  a  relief  map  of  the  state  showing  the 
levee  system ;  relief  maps  of  New  Orleans  in  1803  and  1903 ;  a  model 
of  the  U.  S.  dry  dock  at  New  Orleans;  and  various  geographical 
and  historical  works  relating  to  Louisiana. 

The  Louisiana  state  building  was  an  exact  reproduction  of  the 
old  Spanish  Cabildo  as  it  appeared  in  1803,  with  the  Place  d'Armes 
(now  Jackson  Square)   in  front.    The  building  was  furnished  with 


384  LOUISIANA 

pictures  and  furniture  of  the  date  of  the  transfer  of  Louisiana  to 
the  United  States  (1803).  In  the  square  in  front  was  a  reproduc- 
tion of  the  equestrian  statue  of  Gen.  Andrew  Jackson,  and  around 
the  statue  were  planted  orange  trees,  sugar-cane,  sweet  olives,  etc. 
The  historic  significance  of  this  building  and  its  antique  furnish- 
ings attracted  a  large  luimber  of  visitors  during  the  fair. 

Sept.  14,  1904,  was  Ijouisiana  day  at  the  exposition.  On  that 
occasion  the  governor  of  the  state  M'ith  his  staff  was  present  and 
commemorative  exercises  were  conducted  at  the  Cabildo.  Louisiana 
was  awarded  15  grand  prizes  (the  highest  award),  55  gold.  76  silver, 
and  4f)  bronze  medals.  After  the  exposition  the  exhibits  were  taken 
to  New  Orleans  and  installed  in  the  Washington  Artillery  hall  as  a 
permanent  museum  of  the  state's  resources  and  products. 

The  next  great  industrial  exposition  in  which  Louisiana  was  repre- 
sented was  the  Lewis  and  Clark  centennial  exposition  at  Portland, 
Ore.,  in  1905,  where  an  exhibit  was  made  under  the  solicitation  of 
Maj.  J.  G.  Lee,  commissioner  of  agriculture;  Eobert  Glenk,  curator 
of  the  state  museum  ;  and  Prof.  P.  H.  Burdette  of  the  state  university. 
As  these  gentlemen  were  all  in  the  employ  of  the  state  there  was  no 
additional  expense  for  salaries,  and  the  total  cost  of  the  exhibit  was 
about  •'fil.SOO.  A  carload  of  products,  literature,  etc.,  was  taken  from 
the  St.  Louis  collection  and  forwarded  to  Portland,  the  exhibit  being 
in  charge  of  Prof.  Burdette.  On  Louisiana  day,  Aug.  17,  1905,  over 
1,100  Louisianians  registered  at  the  exhibit,  which  was  awarded  23 
gold  medals,  23  silver  medals,  6  bronze  medals,  and  3  diplomas  of 
honorable  mention. 

By  the  act  of  July  11,  1906,  the  state  formally  accepted  the  invi- 
tation of  the  State  of  Virginia  to  take  part  in  the  Jamestown  expo- 
sition in  1907,  and  created  a  commission  to  consist  of  five  per.sons, 
of  whom  three  should  be  the  commissioner  of  agriculture  and  immi- 
gration, the  director  of  the  state  experiment  stations  and  the  curator 
of  the  state  museum,  the  other  two  'to  be  appointed  by  the  governor. 
Gov.  Blanchard  appointed  Dr.  W.  C.  Stubbs  and  Gen.  T.  W.  Castle- 
man,  and  the  pei-sonnel  of  the  commission  was  then  as  follows:  Col. 
Charles  Schuler,  commissioner  of  agriculture  and  immigration;  Wil- 
liam R.  Dodson,  director  of  the  experiment  stations:  Robert  Glenk, 
curator  of  the  state  museum;  Dr.  Stubbs  and  Gen.  Castleman.  As  no 
money  was  appropriated,  the  commission  at  its  first  meeting  called  on 
the  governor  for  the  necessary  funds  and  .i>20,000  was  secured  from 
the  fiscal  banks.  The  chief  item  of  expense  was  about  $9,500  for  the 
purchase  of  a  lot  and  the  erection  of  a  building.  Three  cars  were  re- 
quired to  transport  the  materials  for  the  exhibit,  which  occupied  4,840 
square  feet  in  the  states'  exhibit  building.  It  embraced  displays  of 
sugar,  cotton  and  rice  culture,  similar  to  those  at  St.  Louis;  an 
educational  exhibit ;  specimens  of  forest  products :  sulphur,  salt  and 
petroleum ;  oysters,  and  an  exhibit  of  grasses  and  grains  by  the  ex- 
periment stations.  A  vast  amount  of  literature  exploiting  the  re- 
sources of  the  state  was  distributed,  and  the  exhibits  were  awarded 
51  gold,  37  silver  and  34  bronze  medals.  Of  the  $20,000  received 
from  the  fiscal  banks,  over  $2,400  was  returned  to  the  state  at  the 


LOUISIANA  385 

close  of  the  exposition  on  Nov.  30,  1907.  Over  3,500  Louisianians, 
besides  many  visitors  from  other  states,  were  entertained  at  the 
Louisiana  building  during  the  fair. 

In  his  retiring  message  to  the  legislature  in  1908,  Gov.  Blanehard 
said :  ' '  The  president  and  trustees  of  the  Alaska-Yukon-Pacifie  ex- 
position to  be  held  in  the  city  of  Seattle,  in  the  State  of  Washington, 
from  June  1  to  Oct.  15,  in  the  year  1909,  have  invited  the  govern- 
ment and  the  people  of  Louisiana  to  take  part  in  the  important  event 
and  to  be  represented  by  official  commissioners,  by  an  adequate  dis- 
play of  the  arts  and  sciences,  the  resources  and  industries  of  the  state, 
and  b.y  a  state  building.  I  submit  this  matter  to  your  consideration. ' ' 
After  carefully  weighing  the  matter,  the  legislature  decided  not  to 
make  an  exhibit,  although  the  benefits  resulting  from  the  exhibits  in 
former  expositions  were  of  such  character  that  many  people  of  the 
state  favored  a  display  at  Seattle. 

In  1910  a  movement  was  launched  with  the  purpose  of  holding  an 
exposition  at  New  Orleans  in  1915  to  celebrate  the  opening  of  the 
Panama  Canal.  A  company  was  formed  and  regularly  chartered 
under  the  laws  of  Louisiana  to  promote  and  manage  the  enterprise. 
About  three  million  dollars  was  subscribed  to  the  project,  and  the 
regular  session  of  the  Legislature  of  that  year  provided  a  constitu- 
tional amendment  levying  a  State  tax  designed  to  produce  four 
million  dollars  in  aid  of  the  exposition,  the  Parish  of  Orleans  bear- 
ing a  larger  proportion  of  this  tax  than  other  parts  of  the  State. 
A  short  time  after  the  adjournment  of  the  regular  session  of  the 
Legislature,  a  special  session  was  called  and  convened  for  the  pur- 
pose of  so  increasing  this  tax  levy,  so  far  as  the  Parish  of  Orleans 
was  concerned,  as  to  produce  seven  million  dollars  instead  of  four 
laillion.  This  amendment  was  favorably  voted  upon  by  the  people 
of  Louisiana,  but  was  conditioned  upon  the  exposition  being  actu- 
ally held.  A  great  deal  of  advertising  was  done,  and  many  trips 
were  made  by  delegations  to  Washington  and  elsewhere.  The  con- 
test for  the  location  of  the  exposition  was  mainly  between  New 
Orleans  and  San  Francisco,  and  after  much  delay  the  National  Con- 
gress finally  decided  the  matter  in  favor  of  San  Francisco.  The 
expense  incurred  was  paid  out  of  subscription  funds,  and  the  State 
tax  levy  automatically  lapsed.  In  1913  an  echo  of  this  undertak- 
ing took  form  in  a  project  for  the  holding  of  an  annual  fair  at  New 
Orleans.  This  appeared  to  meet  popular  approval,  and  the  work 
went  forward  with  some  show  of  success.  In  1913  this  movement 
was  so  revised  as  to  undertake  the  "Exposition  of  Big  Ideas,"  to 
be  held  in  the  autumn  of  1914,  and  to  remain  a  permanent  exposi- 
tion thereafter.  Organization  was  perfected  and  an  expert  brought 
to  New  Orleans  to  manage  the  enterprise.  Again  much  advertis- 
ing was  done,  and  a  vigorous  subscription  campaign  conducted,  but 
this  failed  to  produce  the  funds  necessary  to  carrying  forward  the 
exposition,  and  in  the  summer  of  1914  the  undertaking  collapsed 
with  no  tangible  result  other  than  a  small  fund  from  voluntary  sub- 
scribers— very  largely  from  people  of  small  means — and  some  acri- 
monious discussion  among  leaders  in  the  undertaking. 
1—25 


386  LOUISIANA 

Extension,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  southwestern  part  of  Franklin 
parish,  is  about  8  miles  west  of  Elam,  the  nearest  railroad  station. 


Fairmont  (R.  R.  name  Kateland).  a  village  of  Grant  parish,  is 
a  station  on  the  line  of  the  Louisiana  Railway  &  Navigation  com- 
pany .5  miles  southeast  of  Colfax,  the  parish  seat.  A  postoffiee  was 
first  established  here  in  1879.  when  the  town  was  one  of  the  impor- 
tant river  shipping  points,  and  sines  the  advent  of  the  railroad  its 
volume  of  business  has  increased.  It  has  a  money  order  postoffiee.  is 
the  principal  trading  center  for  that  section  of  the  parish,  and  a 
population  of  150. 

Fairs. — One  resxilt  of  the  work  of  the  board  of  Farmers'  Institute 
managers  of  widespread  benefit  has  been  the  establishment  of  parish 
fair  associations.  These  have  been  the  outgrowth  of  the  Farmers' 
Institutes,  and  considerable  financial  aid  has  been  rendered  them  by 
the  board  of  agriculture  and  immigration  through  the  agency  of  the 
institute  corps.  As  far  back  as  1827  the  need  for  gatherings  and  ex- 
hibitions of  this  nature  was  realized  by  promient  citizens  and  planters 
of  the  state:  in  that  year  the  legislature  passed  an  act  incorporating 
the  agricultural  society  of  Baton  Rouge,  the  object  of  which  iustitu- 
tiou  was  "the  improvement  of  agriculture,  the  amelioration  of  the 
breed  of  horses,  of  horned  cattle  and  others,  and  in  short  of  all  the 
several  brandies  relating  to  agriculture  in  the  couutry. "  In  18-3.3.  the 
agricultural  society  of  Louisiana  was  incorporated  by  the  legislature 
with  13  directors  and  with  authority  to  raise  .$500,000  by  subscrip- 
tion. In  this  connection  it  was  designed  to  conduct  a  model  planta- 
tion, where  experiments  in  agriculture,  horse  culture,  etc..  could  be 
turned  to  the  benefit  of  the  husbandman.  This  movement  was  really 
an  anticipation  of  the  more  recent  agricultural  colleges  and  experi- 
ment stations,  and  speaks  well  for  ihe  early  enterprise  and  sagacity 
of  the  Louisiana  legislators ;  but  it  was  too  earlv  for  such  an  enter- 
prise to  succeed.  Such  movements  have  their  periods  of  growth,  just 
as  agricultural  products  do.  In  1836.  the  West  Feliciana  agricultural 
society  was  incorporated,  and  in  1853.  the  South  Western  industrial 
fair  association.  These  societies,  with  several  others  which  arose  at 
this  period,  were  intermittent  in  their  life  and  growth. 

Of  considerable  importance  was  the  ilechanics  and  Agricultural 
fair  association,  incorporated  by  legislative  enactment  ]\Iarch  1.  1861, 
with  a  capital  of  .$150,000.  The  objects  of  this  organization  were 
"to  promote  improvements  in  all  the  various  departments  of  agricul- 
ture   the  promotion  of  the  mechanic  arts the  im- 
provement of  the  race  of  all  \iseful  and  domestic  animals,  the  general 
advancement  of  rural  economy  and  household  manufactures,  and  the 
dissemination  of  useful  knowledge  upon  these  subjects."  The  follow- 
ing were  named  as  directors:  J.  G.  Seymour.  C.  Potthoff.  €.  H. 
Slocomb.  George  W.  Race.  J.  0.  Nixon.  Luther  Homes.  Charles  Pride, 
H.  R.  Swasey,  Lafayette  Folger,  Thomas  N.  Blake,  G.  W.  Sizer,  L. 


LOUISIANA  387 

H.  Pilie,  D.  H.  Fowler,  John  Pemberton,  F.  W.  Tilton,  I.  N.  Marks, 
T.  0.  Moore,  E.  E.  Kittridge,  P.  A.  Root,  J.  H.  Overton  and  F. 
Hardesty.  During  the  war,  public  interest  in  the  fairs  flagged  or 
ceased  entirely ;  but  on  March  28,  1867,  the  association  was  the  bene- 
ficiary of  a  legislative  grant  of  $50,000  appropriated  to  enable  the 
association  to  improve  its  ground,  erect  necessary  buildings,  and  make 
other  expenditures  incident  to  its  purposes. 

At  the  close  of  the  dark  days  of  the  reconstruction  period  agi'i- 
culture  revived  with  the  other  industries  of  the  state.  The  State 
Fair  association,  incorporated  by  legislative  enactment  May  11,  1877, 
with  a  capital  stock  of  $100,000,  was  authorized  to  lease,  purchase 
and  hold  land,  and  enjoy  the  same  rights  and  privileges  as  the 
Mechanics  and  Agricultural  fair  association.  The  objects  of  the 
association  were  to  foster  and  promote  improvements  in  all  depart- 
ments of  agi-ieulture,  horticulture,  mechanic  arts  and  home  manu- 
facturers. The  members  of  the  first  board  of  directors  were  Isaac  N. 
Marks,  Albert  Baldwin,  "William  B.  Schmidt,  Joseph  I.  Day.  Luther 
Homes,  Fred  "Wing,  J.  L.  Gubernator,  Gus  A.  Breaux,  H.  M.  Isaac- 
son, N.  E.  Bailey,  John  Geddes,  et  al.  Since  1906,  annual  state  fairs 
have  been  successfully  held  at  Shreveport,  and  have  done  much  to 
promote  the  general  agricultural  interests  of  the  state. 

The  Farmers'  Institute  and  parish  fair  system  originated  in  1897. 
In  1898,  six  agricultural  and  live  stock  fairs  were  held  in  connec- 
tion with  the  institutes,  viz.,  at  Arcadia,  Homer,  Ruston,  Calhoun, 
Farmerville  and  Minden.  These  fairs  were  open  to  exhibitors  from 
the  parishes  in  which  they  were  held  without  entrance  fee,  and  there 
was  no  admission  fee  for  visitoi's.  The  exhibits  consisted  entirely 
of  home  grown  products,  this  being  a  prerequisite  to  winning  a 
premium.  The  legislature  appropriated  $500  for  premiums,  and 
this  was  divided  among  the  different  fairs,  the  board  of  agriculture 
usually  donating  $50  or  $75  for  each  fair.  This  was  generously  in- 
creased by  contributions  from  merchants  and  citizens  at  the  places 
where  the  fairs  were  held.  The  character  of  the  fairs  and  the  excel- 
lence of  the  exhibits  reflected  much  credit  on  their  promoters,  their 
parishes,  and  the  state  at  large.  The  system  under  which  they  were 
held  met  with  general  satisfaction. 

The  institute  corps  was  also  instrumental  in  organizing  perma- 
nent parish  and  district  agricultural  fairs.  In  1902  associations  or 
clubs  had  been  organized  in  the  parishes  of  Lincoln,  Jackson,  "Winn, 
Union,  Caldwell,  Pointe  Coupee,  Avoyelles,  Grant,  Sabine,  "Vemon, 
Bienville,  Lafayette,  East  Carroll,  East  P"'eliciana,  Bessier  and  Clai- 
borne. Agricultural,  parish  and  district  fairs  were  held  during  the 
autumn  of  1902  at  Farmerville,  Ruston,  Clinton,  Mineral,  Calhoun, 
Homer,  Arcadia  and  Lake  Providence.  The  following  were  organized 
to  be  held  in  1903 :  Jone.sboro,  "Wiimfield,  Columbia,  Pontchatoula, 
Greensburg,  Pranklintou,  St.  Martiuville,  New  Roads,  Marksville, 
Colfax,  Many  and  Leesville.  In  this  bulletin,  the  commissioner  of 
agriculture  makes  the  following  statement:  "It  was  my  privilege  to 
pay  an  official  visit  to  all  these  fairs  except  two,  and  representatives 
of  the  department  visited  these.     It  was  my  observation  that  their 


388  LOUISIANA 

scope  and  usefulness  are  annually  increasing.  The  result  of  the 
stimulus  given  is  apparent  in  every  line  of  agricultural  production; 
especially  is  this  noticeable  in  the  matter  of  more  and  better  live  stock 
and  a  greater  diversity  of  farm  products.  The  ladies,  too,  have  caught 
the  spirit  of  rivalry  and  competition  and  vie  with  each  other  in  their 
excellent  exhibits  of  fancy  work,  butter,  preserves,  pickels,  jellies, 
etc.  The  fairs  were  all  well  attended,  well  conducted  and  productive 
of  social  intercoui-se.  good  feeling  and  good  fellowship,  and  their 
.social  and  educational  value  was  everywhere  apparent." 

"Within  the  past  few  years  other  fair  associations  have  been  or- 
ganized and  a  marked  improvement  has  been  sho\^Ti  in  the  number 
and  quality  of  exhibit  and  the  general  interest  displayed.  The  system 
will  be  completed  by  the  establishment  of  central  fairs  in  different  sec- 
tions of  the  state,  and  by  the  award  of  more  liberal  premiums.  These 
fairs  develop  a  keener  interest  in  the  premiums  which  are  awarded  at 
the  state  fair,  and  the  latter  being  held  after  most  of  the  local  faii-s  are 
over,  the  state  exhibition  gives  an  opportunity  for  bringing  together 
the  premium  exhibits  from  ever.y  .section  of  the  commonwealth. 

Fairview,  a  money  order  pbst-hamlet,  in  the  eastern  part  of 
Concordia  parish,  is  on  the  Mississippi  river,  about  3  miles  south- 
east of  Fish  Pond,  the  nearest  railroad  station. 

Faliah,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  southwestern  part  of  Washington 
parish,  is  about  9  miles  south  of  Frauklinton.  the  parish  seat,  and 
most  convenient  railroad  station. 

Farmers'  Alliance. — The  first  society  or  association  to  bear  this 
name  had  its  origin  in  New  York  about  1873.  Three  years  later  county 
alliances  were  organized  in  Texas,  and  in  1880  these  were  incorpo- 
rated into  a  state  alliance.  In  the  meantime  the  New  York  organiza- 
tion had  spread  rapidly  westward.  It  differed  from  the  Texas  alliance, 
in  that  it  was  an  anti-secret  society,  the  other  being  a  secret  and  benev- 
olent organization.  In  1887  there  were  over  100.000  members  in 
Texas,  and  at  the  same  time  Louisiana  had  a  Farmers'  Union  with 
about  10.000  members.  These  two  bodies  united  and  secured  articles 
of  incorporation  in  the  District  of  Columbia  under  the  name  of  the 
National  Farmei-s'  Alliance  and  Cooperative  Union.  In  the  meantime 
a  kindred  organization,  called  the  Agricultural  Wheel,  an  outgrowth 
of  the  old  Grange  movement,  had  taken  root  in  several  of  the  South- 
ern states.  On  July  28,  1886,  delegates  from  the  state  wheels  of 
Tennessee.  Kentucky  and  Arkansas  met  at  Litchfield,  Ark.,  and 
formed  the  National  Agricultural  Wheel,  which  was  also  a  secret 
society.  In  Oct.,  1889,  a  consolidation  of  the  national  alliance  and  the 
national  wheel  was  effected  under  the  name  of  tjie  National  Farmers' 
Alliance  and  Industrial  Union.  The  purposes  of  the  order,  as  ex- 
pressed in  its  declaration  of  principles,  were : 

"1.  To  labor  for  the  government  in  a  strictly  nonpartisan  spirit, 
and  to  bring  about  a  more  perfect  union  of  all  classes. 

"2.  To  demand  equal  rights  for  all,  and  special  privileges  for 
none. 

"3.  To  approve  the  motto  'In  things  essential,  unity;  and  in  all 
things,  charity.' 


LOUISIAA^A  389 

"4.  To  develop  a  better  state,  mentally,  morally,  socially  and 
financially. 

"5.  To  strive  constantly  to  secure  harmony, and  good-will  to  all 
mankind,  and  brotherly  love  among  ourselves. 

"6.  To  suppress  personal,  local,  sectional  and  national  prejudices, 
all  unhealthy  rivalry,  and  all  selfish  ambition. 

"7.  To  visit  the  homes  where  lacerated  hearts  are  bleeding,  to 
assuage  the  sufferings  of  a  brother  or  sister,  to  bury  the  dead,  care 
for  the  widows,  educate  the  orphans,  exercise  charity  toward  of- 
fenders, construe  words  and  deeds  in  their  most  favoi-able  light, 
grant  honesty  of  purpose  and  good  intentions  to  others,  and  pi-otect 
the  principles  of  the  Farmers'  Alliance  and  Industrial  Union  until 
death." 

One  of  the  first  steps  of  the  order  was  to  establish  exchanges  or 
purchasing  agencies,  with  a  large  paid-up  capital  stock,  through 
which  the  members  of  the  alliance  could  purchase  implements,  ma- 
chinery and  supplies  at  wholesale  prices.  As  soon  as  the  benefits  of 
this  plan  became  apparent,  the  membership  began  to  inci-ease,  new 
alliances  were  formed,  and  in  a  shoi't  time  every  state  in  the  Union 
was  well  represented  in  the  organization.  The  plan  of  the  alliance  in 
laboring  "for  the  government  in  a  strictly  non-partisan  spirit"  was 
to  agree  upon  needed  reforms,  then  try  to  influence  the  existing 
political  parties  to  declare  in  favor  of  the  reforms  and  secure  the 
necessary  legislation  to  bring  about  the  desired  results.  If  this  plan 
failed  the  alliance  stood  ready  to  place  its  own  candidates  in  the  field. 
At  the  annual  convention,  held  at  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  in  Dec,  1889,  the 
Knights  of  Labor  were  taken  into  confederation,  the  name  of  the 
National  Farmers'  Alliance  and  Industrial  Union  was  adopted,  and 
the  convention  authorized  the  establishment  of  national  headquar- 
ters at  Washington,  D.  C. 

The  order  now  began  to  have  a  political  significance.  In  the  gen- 
eral elections  of  1890  Alliance  tickets  were  placed  in  the  field  in  a 
number  of  states.  In  Kansas  and  Nebraska  the  Alliance  elected  a 
majority  of  both  branches  of  the  legislature,  and  held  the  balance  of 
power  in  the  general  assemblies  of  Illinois,  Minnesota  and  South 
Dakota.  Nine  members  of  the  lower  house  of  Congress  were  elected, 
and  Kansas,  South  Dakota  and  South  Carolina  sent  Alliance  men 
to  the  U.  S.  senate.  Encouraged  by  the  results  of  this  campaign,  the 
organization  grew  more  aggressive,  and  the  annual  convention  which 
met  at  Ocala,  Fla.,  in  Dec,  1890,  adopted  a  platforrd  demanding  the 
abolition  of  national  banks  and  the  substitution  of  legal-tender  treas- 
ury notes  for  national  bank  currency ;  that  Congress  should  pass  laws 
pj'ohibiting  the  dealing  in  futures  of  all  agricultural  and  mechanical 
productions;  the  free  and  unlimited  coinage  of  silver;  the  enactment 
of  laws  to  prevent  the  alien  ownership  of  land ;  the  reclamation  of  all 
lands  held  by  railroad  companies  anrl  other  corporations  not  actually 
used  by  them,  such  lands  to  be  held  for  actual  settlers;  the  issue  by 
Congressional  authority  of  a  sufficient  amount  of  fractional  paper 
currency  to  facilitate  exchanges  through  the  mails;  for  government 
control  of  all  means  of  transportation  and  communication,  and  if 


390  LOUISIANA 

this  plan  should  prove  insufficient,  then  absolute  ownership  of  all 
railway  and  telegraph  lines,  etc.  The  convention  gave  approval  to 
the  sub-treasury  bill  then  pending  in  Congress — a  bill  which  pro\  ided 
that  whenever  any  county  could  show  agricultural  products  amount- 
ing in  value  to  $500,000  in  any  one  season,  the  government  should 
establish  a  sub-treasur.v,  or  an  agricultural  warehouse,  within  the 
limits  of  such  county,  to  enable  the  farmers  to  deposit  therein  their 
surplus  produce  and  receive  therefore  notes  eqiial  to  80  per  cent  of 
its  value. 

The  only  general  election  in  Louisiana  in  1890  was  for  members  of 
Congress.  For  these  the  Alliance  made  no  nomination,  but  the  or- 
ganization came  into  prominence  in  the  campaign  for  the  election  of 
state  officers  in  April,  1891.  At  the  same  election  the  constitutional 
amendment  relative  to  the  Louisiana  lottery  was  to  be  voted  on,  and 
in  the  fall  of  1890  the  anti-lottery  Democrats  and  those  of  that  party 
who  belonged  to  the  Alliance  reached  an  agreement  by  which  the3' 
were  to  work  for  the  election  of  anti-lottery  delegates  to  the  Demo- 
cratic state  convention,  who  would  also  vote  for  the  nomination  of  a 
fusion  ticket,  which  was  to  be  headed  by  Thomas  S.  Adams,  the  presi- 
dent of  the  Louisiana  State  Alliance,  as  the  candidate  for  governor. 
In  opposition  to  this  arrangement  a  large  number  of  "regular"  Demo- 
crats favored  the  nomination  of  ex-Gov.  Samuel  D.  McEnery.  The 
convention  was  called  to  meet  on  Dec.  16.  1890.  and  in  the  primaries 
it  developed  that  there  was  to  be  n  bitter  contest  between  the  two 
factions.  The  anti-lottery  people,  in  order  to  strengthen  themselves. 
persuaded  Mr.  Adams  to  permit  the  nomination  of  Murphy  J.  Foster 
for  governor  and  accept  a  place  on  the  ticket  as  the  candidate  for  the 
office  of  secretary  of  state.  Some  other  Alliance  men  were  nominated 
and  the  ticket  thus  chosen  was  elected  in  April.  This  was  the  only 
instance  in  which  the  Alliance  achieved  any  political  distinction  in 
Louisiana.  When  the  People's  party  ,absorbed  the  Alliance  in  1892 
most  of  the  Southern  raembere  opposed  such  a  policy,  and  from  that 
time  the  order  commenced  to  lose  prestige.  On  Aug.  2.  1892.  the  State 
Union  met  at  Monroe.  In  this  address  President  Adams  recom- 
mended that  no  political  resolutions  be  passed,  and  the  convention  ac- 
cepted his  suggestion.  "To  do  good  work  in  our  ranks."  said  he,  "we 
must  try  to  capture  the  next  Democratic  state  convention  in  that 
party's  ranks."   But  the  capture  was  never  made. 

Farmers'  Institutes. — A  system  of  Farmers'  Institutes  of  ines- 
timable value  to  the  farmers  of  Louisiana  was  inaugurated  by  the 
state  board  of  agriculture  and  immigration  in  1897.  During  the 
summer  of  that  year  20  of  these  meetings  were  held,  by  means  of 
which  the  farmers  came  in  contact  with  one  another  and  Avith 
teachers  whose  special  qualifications  and  experience  enabled  them 
to  be  of  great  assistance  in  the  solution  of  the  farmers'  problems. 
At  these  institutes,  which  had  an  estimated  attendance  of  3,000 
persons,  lectures  were  delivered,  questions  asked  and  answered, 
and  discussions  participated  in,  during  the  course  of  which  much 
valuable  information  was  elicited  of  practical  use  to  the  farmer  in 
his  everyday  work.     The  gist  of  these  papers  and  talks  was  pub- 


LOUISIANA  391 

lished  in  the  Farmers'  Institute  Bulletin,  which  was  freely  dis- 
tributed over  the  state.  This  general  plan  has  since  been  followed 
with  most  satisfactory  results.  The  meetings  have  been  continued 
into  the  fall  and  parish  fairs  and  stock  shows  held  in  connection 
with  them.  Agricultural  and  truck  growing  societies  have  also 
been  organized  in  a  number  of  parishes.  "The  Farmers'  Institute 
has  been  found  to  be  a  cheap,  practical  and  available  arrangement, 
at  which  agricultural  knowledge  can  be  presented,  explained  and 
discussed.  Here  each  farmer  attending  has  opportunity  to  state 
his  difficulties,  draw  upon  his  brother  farmers'  experience  and 
reduce  to  an  available  form  in  his  own  mind  for  fixture  lase  the  in- 
formation and  expei-ience  given."  To  effect  a  permanent  organiza- 
tion, the  following  board  of  managers  was  appointed  by  the  bureau : 
the  president  of  the  Louisiana  state  university  and  agricultural  and 
mechanical  college ;  tjie  commissioner  of  agriculture  and  immigra- 
tion, and  the  director  of  the  state  experiment  stations.  The  com- 
missioner of  agriculture  and  immigration  was  made  institute  con- 
ductor. 

The  first  Louisiana  institute  conductor,  J.  G.  Lee,  opened  the 
several  institxites  by  a  clear  and  forceful  statement  of  the  object  of 
the  system,  a  practical  school  for  farmers,  the  growth  of  the  insti- 
tute system  in  other  states,  and  the  need  of  a  permanent  organiza- 
tion in  Louisiana.  His  remarks  were  enthusiastically  received  and 
a  gratifying  result  of  his  labors  was  the  increase  in  a  year  of  the 
number  of  institutes  held  from  20  to  28  and  the  increased  attend- 
ance from  3,000  to  17,663.  The  first  towns  in  which  institutes  were 
'held  were  Hammond,  Lake  Charles,  Crowley,  Lafayette,  Opelousas, 
Abbeville,  New  Iberia,  Baton  Rouge,  Columbia,  Mer  Rouge,  Mon- 
roe, Vernon,  Ruston,  Farmerville,  Arcadia,  Homer,  Minden,  Wins- 
boro,  Jennings,  Mansfield  and  Grand  Cane.  In  the  following  year 
were  added  the  towns  of  Benton,  Jewella,  Athens,  Pollock,  Bas- 
trop, Calhoun,  Coushatta,  Many,  Greensbiirg,  Amite  and  Leesville. 
Three  sessions  were  usually  held  in  a  day  and  the  meetings  con- 
tinued from  1  to  3  days.  The  institute  corps  was  composed  of  pro- 
fessors from  the  Louisiana  state  university,  the  state  normal  school, 
specialists  from  the  state  experiment  stations,  practical,  successful 
farmers  and  public-spirited  gentlemen  whose  interests  in  the  work 
prompted  them  to  enlist  their  valuable  services.  A  special  feature 
of  the  institutes  of  1898  in  northern  Louisiana  was  the  introduction 
of  hill-side  ditching,  which  has  for  years  been  successfully  prac- 
ticed in  Georgia.  This  method  was  explained  and  demonstrated 
by  a  farmer  from  Georgia,  who  had  employed  it  with  good  results 
using  only  homemade  instruments.  During  the  first  two  years 
further  extension  was  prevented  by  the  rigid  quarantine  regula- 
tions necessitated  by  a  threatened  epidemic.  Nevertheless  agricul- 
tural and  stock  fairs  were  held  in  connection  with  the  institutes  at 
Arcadia,  Homer,  Ruston,  Calhouu,  Farmerville  and  Minden. 

During  the  next  4  years  the  number  of  institutes  increased  to  45, 
held  in  41  different  parishes.  The  total  attendance  in  1902  was 
13,245.     The  institute  had  by  this  time  established  itself  as  a  per- 


392  LOUISIANA 

manent  feature  of  agricultural  education  and  its  social  opportuni- 
ties were  .also  greatly  appreciated  by  the  farmers  and  their  wives. 
A  good  roads  movement  had  been  inaugurated,  and  institutes  held 
in  the  parislies  where  large  sugar  and  cotton  plantations  were  lo- 
cated, as  well  as  among  the  tillers  of  smaller  estates.  In  1902,  in 
the  interests  of  facility  and  economy,  the  work  was  divided  into 
three  districts,  each  in  charge  of  an  institute  corps.  In  the  1st 
district  the  institutes  were  conducted  by  Prof.  W.  R.  Dodson,  assist- 
ant director  of  the  state  experiment  station;  in  the  2nd,  by  Prof. 
H.  A.  Morgan,  entomologist  of  the  state  iiniversity  and  agricul- 
tural and  mechanical  college ;  in  the  3d,  by  Dr.  W.  H.  Dalrymple, 
veterinarian  of  these  two  institutions.  Special  institutes  were 
conducted  by  Dr.  W.  C.  Stubbs,  director  of  experiment  stations. 
During  the  season  of  1902,  the  institute  corps  had  as  members,  in 
addition  to  the  Louisiana  specialists,  George  E.  Scott,  special  lec- 
turer of  Ohio  institutes.  Prof.  W.  C.  Wellborn,  special  lecturer  of 
Mississippi,  and  Prof.  N.  N.  Starnes,  special  lecturer  of  Georgia. 
Thirty  new  permanent  farmers'  clubs  were  also  organized  and  8 
parish  fairs  held. 

During  the  following  slimmer  and  autumn  (1903),  the  same  plan 
of  organization  was  adhered  to  and  the  personnel  of  the  institute 
corps  in  the  3. districts  remained  the  same.  The  total  attendance 
in  the  3  districts  was  about  the  same  as  the  preceding  year  and 
the  number  of  institutes  held  was  50.  Valuable  papers  were  read 
on  truck-farming  and  fertilizers,  the  former  industry  receiving  a 
considerable  impetus  from  the  organization  of  new  societies  for 
its  promotion  and  development  and  the  erection  of  canning  fac- 
tories in  several  districts.  Special  institutes  bearing  on  these  mat- 
ters were  held  by  request  in  the  parishes  of  Rapides,  Natchitoches, 
Ascension  and  Lafourche. 

The  year  1904  showed  the  greatest  increase  in  the  niimber  of  in- 
stitutes held  (75)  and  the  attendance  (14,541)  up  to  that  time.  The 
value  to  the  farmer  of  the  methods  and  improvements  demon- 
strated at  the  inslitiites  had  been  conchisively  proved  and  the 
meetings  became  a  permanent  feature  of  farm  life.  Commissioner 
J.  G.  Lee  of  the  board  of  agriculture  and  immigration  says  "The 
attendance  has  increased  over  previous  years  and  faith  and  confi- 
dence is  shown  in  the  good  work  by  constant  demands  on  the  de- 
partment for  institutes  in  other  parishes,  which,  owing  to  the  very 
limited  appropriation  made  for  the  purpose  of  holding  Farmers' 
Institutes,  the  department  has  been  obliged  to  defer  until  more 
available  funds  shall  enable  it  to  increase  the  number  of  institutes. 
This  applies  to  the  encouragement  and  future  development  of  the 
fruit  and  truck  growers'  associations."  Besides  the  regular  insti- 
tute corps,  a  special  boll  weevil  and  a  special  rice  corps  were  in  the 
field.  A  special  sugar  and  stock  feeding  institute  was  held  at  Re- 
serve and  a  good  roads  institute  at  Shreveport. 

Up  to  the  present  time  the  work  has  been  continued  along  the 
broad  and  comprehensive  lines  laid  out  for  it  by  its  founders,  with 
a  loyal  and  enthusiastic  support  from  the  agricultural  communi- 


LOUISIANA  393 

ties  for  whose  benefit  it  was  designed.  "With  the  fertile  soil  and 
favorable  climate  of  Louisiana  and  the  progressive  and  enlight- 
ened cooperation  of  its  farmers,  the  quality  and  quantity  of  its 
agricultural  products  should  take  a  foremost  place  in  the  world's 
markets. 

Farmerville,  the  capital  of  Union  parish,  is  located  in  the  south 
central  part  of  the  parish  and  is  the  terminus  of  a  short  line  of 
railroad  known  as  the  Farmerville  &  Southern.  It  was  made  the 
parish  seat  soon  after  the  parish  of  Union  was  organized  in  1839, 
when  the  site  was  laid  out  and  public  buildings  were  erected.  The 
first  house  in  the  town  was  built  by  a  man  named  Britt  Hunnicutt. 
Being  located  in  the  timber  belt,  lumbering  is  an  important  indus- 
try, and  Farmerville  ships  annually  large  quantities  of  shingles 
and  other  building  materials.  With  a  population  of  only  598  it 
sustains  a  bank,  several  general  stores,  and  some  minor  business 
undertakings.  It  has  a  money  order  postofSce,  from  which  rural 
delivery  routes  supply  the  surrounding  country,  telegraph  and 
express  service,  supports  a  good  public  school  system,  and  for  its 
size  is  one  of  the  busiest  and  most  enterprising  towns  in  the  state. 

Farragut,  David  Glasgow,  naval  officer,  was  born  at  Kimball 
Station,  near  Ivnoxville,  Tenn.,  July  5,  1801.  His  father  was  an 
officer  in  the  U.  S.  cavalry  and  an  intimate  friend  of  Gen.  Andrew 
Jackson.  At  the  age  of  nine  years  David  entered  the  navy  on 
board  the  Essex  under  Com.  David  Porter  and  was  in  several  naval 
engagements  during  the  war  of  1812.  After  that  war  he  made  a 
cruise  to  the  Mediterranean  on  the  Independence,  and  in  1825  was 
commissioned  lieutenant.  He  continued  in  the  navy,  crviising  in 
various  waters,  received  a  captain's  commission  in  1855,  and  three 
years  later  was  placed  in  command  of  the  steam  sloop  Brooklyn. 
When  the  Civil  war  began  Capt.  Farragut  was  60  years  old,  51  of 
which  had  been  passed  in  the  naval  service.  At  that  time  he  was 
living  at  Norfolk,  Va.,  but  as  soon  as  he  was  informed  that  his  state 
had  seceded  he  started  for  the  North,  and  reported  at  Washington 
for  duty.  In  Nov.,  1861,  Com.  David  D.  Porter  submitted  to  the 
president  and  secretary  of  the  navy  a  plan  for  the  capture  of  New 
Orleans,  and  upon  his  recommendation  Farragut  was  given  com- 
mand of  the  expedition.  After  a  week's  bombardment  of  Forts 
Jackson  and  St.  Philip,  he  ran  past  them  on  April  24,  1862,  and 
New  Orleans  capitulated  on  the  29th.  Fortier  says:  "By  his  cap- 
ture of  New  Orleans  Farragut  acquired  a  renown  that  has  placed 
him  on  a  level  with  the  greatest  naval  commanders."  (See  New 
Orleans.)  Farragut  then  passed  on  up  the  Mis.sissippi  and  gained 
control  of  the  river  between  Port  Hudson  and  Vicksburg,  opening 
communication  with  Grant's  army.  About  the  last  of  May  he 
began  the  bombardment  of  Port  Hudson,  and  from  that  time  co- 
operated with  the  land  forces  until  the  place  surrendered  on  July 
9.  His  next  achievement  was  his  victory  at  Mobile  for  which  Con- 
gress created  for  him  the  grade  of  vice-admiral,  and  on  July  25, 
1866,  he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  admiral.  In  1868  he  was  given 
command  of  the  European  squadron  and  during  the  following  year 


394  LOUISIANA 

visited  many  of  the  European  ports.  This  was  his  last  service,  as 
he  -was  taken  ill  soon  after  returning  home  and  died  at  Portsmouth, 
N.  H.,  Aug.  14,  1870. 

Pavrot,  George  Kent,  representative  of  the  6tli  Congressional 
district  in  the  lower  liouse  of  Congress,  was  born  at  Baton  Kouge, 
Nov.  26,  1868.  He  graduated  in  the  academic  department  of  the 
state  university  in  1888,  and  two  years  later  completed  the  law 
course  of  Tulane  university  at  New  Orleans.  In  1892  he  was 
elected  district  attorney  of  the  22nd  judicial  district  of  Louisiana, 
in  which  capacity  he  continued  to  act  until  the  completion  of  his 
term  of  oflSce  in  1896.  when  he  was  defeated  for  reelection.  There- 
upon he  took  up  the  practice  of  his  profession,  and  with  the  excep- 
tion of  representing  the  state  at  large  in  the  constitutional  conven- 
tion of  1898,  he  was  not  actively  engaged  in  political  affairs  until 
reelected  district  attorney  in  1900.  So  ably  did  he  acquit  himself  in 
this  ofiSee,  and  so  marked  had  been  his  executive  ability  and  judg- 
ment in  numeroiis  other  capacities,  that  the  people  of  the  district 
elected  him  to  the  office  of  district  judge  in  1904.  Two  years  later 
he  was  nominated  for  representative  by  the  Democrats  of  the  6th 
Congressional  district,  and  at  the  general  election  in  the  fall  of  that 
year  he  was  overwhelmingly  successful. 

Federal  Courts. — (See  Courts.) 

Feitel,  a  little  hamlet  in  the  southern  part  of  St.  James  parish,  is 
on  the  west  bank  of  the  Mississippi  river,  2  miles  northeast  of  De- 
logney,  the  nearest  railroad  station,  and  4  miles  southeast  of  Con- 
vent, the  parish  seat.  It  has  a  money  order  postoffice,  and  is  a  river 
shipping  point  for  the  southei-n  part  of  the  parish. 

Feliciana  Parish  was  established  in  1811.  late  in  the  territorial 
era.  It  was  known  as  one  of  the  "Florida  parishes,''  as  the  terri- 
tory east  of  the  Mississippi  river  and  south  of  31°  to  the  Pearl 
river  was  ruled  by  Spanish  governors  and  claimed  by  England  as 
a  part  of  West  Florida  until  the  Baton  Kevolution  in  1810,  when 
President  Madison  issued  a  proclamation  declaring  the  territory 
to  be  a  part  of  Louisiana  and  Gov.  Claiborne  took  possession  of  it 
in  the  name  of  the  United  States.  As  originally  laid  out  it  was 
bounded  on  tlie  north  by  the  territory  of  Mississippi ;  on  the  east 
by  the  Amite  river;  on  the  south  by  East  Baton  Rouge  and  Points 
Coupee  parishes,  from  which  it  was  separated  by  the  Mississippi 
river,  which  formed  the  entire  western  boundary.  In  1824  the 
parish  was  divided  by  an  act  of  the  legislature  into  the  parishes  of 
East  and  West  Feliciana ;  the  Comite  river,  running  north  and 
south  through  the  parish  to  be  the  boundary  line  between  the  new 
parishes. 

Felixville,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  northeastern  part  of  East  Felici- 
ana parisli,  is  situated  on  the  Amite  river  about  12  miles  northeast 
of  Clinton,  the  parish  seat. 

Fenton,  a  village  in  Jeff  Davis  parish,  situated  on  the  St.  Louis, 
Iron  ilt.  &  Southern  R.  R.,  about  20  miles  by  rail  northeast  of 
Lake  Charles,  the  parish  seat.  It  has  a  money  order  postoffice, 
an  express  office,  telegraph  station  and  telephone  facilities. 


LOUISIANA  395 

Fern,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  east-central  part  of  St.  Landry  parish, 
is  about  3  miles  south  of  Goudan,  the  nearest  railroad  station  and 
15  miles  northeast  of  Opelousas,  the  parish  seat. 

Ferriday,  a  village  in  the  northeastern  part  of  Concordia  parish, 
situated  about  8  miles  west  of  Vidalia,  at  the  junction  of  the  Nat- 
chez &  Western,  the  New  Orleans  &  Northwestern,  the  St.  Louis, 
Iron  Mountain  &  Southern,  and  the  Texas  &  Pacific  railways.  It 
has  a  money  order  po.stoffice,  an  express  office,  telegraph  station 
and   telephone   facilities.     Population  577. 

Fields  (R.  R.  name  Lucas),  a  post-village  in  Beauregard  parish, 
is  a  station  of  the  Kansas  City  Southern  R.  R.,  about  10  miles  west 
of  De  Quincy  in  the  heart  of  the  lumber  district.  Lumbering  is 
the  principal  industry. 

Fifteenth  Amendment. — While  the  14tli  amendment  to  the  Fed- 
eral constitution  secured  to  the  negroes  the  rights  and  immunities 
of  citizens  it  did  not  specifically  confer  on  the  race  the  right  of 
suffrage.  The  third  session  of  the  40th  Congress  met  on  Dec.  7, 
1868,  and  on  the  very  first  day  resolutions  were  introduced  in  both 
houses  looking  to  an  amendment  to  the  constitution  that  would 
give  the  negroes  the  right  to  vote.  A  long  and  tedious  debate 
followed,  in  which  various  amendments  and  substitutes  were  of- 
fered, and  on  Feb.  27,  1869,  the  proposed  amendment,  in  the  form 
in  which  it  now  appears  as  Article  XV  of  the  national  organic  law, 
was  submitted  to  the  general  assemblies  of  the  states  for  ratifi.ca- 
tion  or  rejection.  Gov.  Warmoth  presented  the  amendment  to  the 
legislature  of  Louisiana  on  the  very  day  it  was  submitted  (Feb.  27, 
1869),  and  it  was  immediately  ratified  by  the  senate  by  a  vote  of 
18  to  3.  On  IMareli  5  it  was  ratified  by  the  house  by  a  vote  of  55 
to  9,  while  36  Republican  members  dodged  the  question  by  not 
voting  at  all.  The  secretary  of  state  issued  his  proclamation  on 
March  30,  1870,  declaring  the  amendment  a  part  of  the  constitution, 
as  it  had  been  ratified  by  29  of  the  37  states.  Negro  suffrage  had 
been  forced  upon  the  people  of  the  South  by  the  reconstruction 
act  of  1867,  and  the  15th  amendment  was  intended  to  make  it 
obligatory  on  the  rest  of  the  states.  That  it  did  not  meet  with  uni- 
versal approval  throughout  the  North  may  be  seen  by  the  fact  that 
it  was  first  rejected  by  the  State  of  Ohio  in  ]869  and  was  ratified 
by  that  state  on  Jan.  27,  1870 ;  New  Jersey  did  not  ratify  it  until 
Feb.  21,  1871,  having  previously  rejected  it ;  New  York  ratified  it  on 
April  14,  1869,  and  the  legislature  of  that  state  passed  a  resolution 
on  Jan.  5,  1870,  withdrawing  its  consent  to  it.  The  amendment 
was  rejected  by  the  legislature  of  California,  Delaware,  Kentucky, 
Maryland,   Oregon   and  Tennessee. 

Figs. — The  fig  tree  was  introduced  in  Louisiana  from  Provence 
in  1728,  and  though  the  fruit  has  been  raised  in  the  state  ever  since 
that  time,  it  is  only  within  the  last  quarter  of  a  century  that  its 
commercial  value  has  been  realized.  The  fig  tree  is  easily  propa- 
gated from  cuttings,  is  remarkably  free  from  the  ravages  of  insects, 
and  thrives  in  all  portions  of  the  state.  In  the  third  year  after 
being  transplanted  it  begins  to  yield  a  profitable  crop,  and  a  tree 


396  LOUISIANA 

ten  years  old,  if  it  has  been  properly  cared  for,  will  yield  20  bushels 
of  fruit.  The  common  Creole  tig  has  given  way  to  more  improved 
varieties,  such  as  the  Brunswick,  White  Ischio,  Mission.  Reine 
Blanche,  Lemon  and  Celeste.  The  last  named,  which  is  the  com- 
mon blue  tig,  is  the  most  popular,  as  the  tree  is  hardy  and  prolific, 
and  the  fruit  is  sweet  and  palatable.  With  the  introduction  of 
canning  factories  the  number  of  fig  trees  is  increasing  every  year, 
and  some  liorticulturists  class  the  fig  as  ''the  leading  product  of 
the  Louisiana  orchard." 

Filhiol,  Don  Juan,  the  first  commandant  of  Fort  Miro,  where 
Monroe  now  stands,  was  born  in  Eymet,  in  Perigord,  France,  Sept. 
21,  1740.  When  23  years  of  age  he  left  France  and  went  to  Santo 
Domingo,  but  not  succeeding  there  as  well  as  he  had  anticipated, 
he  went  to  Philadelphia,  intending  to  join  Count  D'Estaing  when 
he  returned  with  the  French  squadron  to  the  mother  coimtry. 
Events  happened  which  prevented  his  carrying  out  this  original 
intention  and  he  changed  his  destination,  going  to  New  Orleans, 
where  he  arrived  in  May,  1779.  When  England  declared  war 
against  Spain,  he  enlisted  under  Gov.  Galvez  and  served  with  him 
in  the  conqiiest  of  West  Florida.  As  a  reward  for  gallant  conduct, 
the  king  of  Spain  appointed  him  captain  in  the  army  and  com- 
mandant of  the  militia,  and  he  was  assigned  by  the  local  com- 
mandant to  duty  on  the  Ouachita  river.  In  1873,  he  left  New 
Orleans  with  his  new  wife  and  a  few  attendants  and  soldiers  for  the 
then  nearly  unbroken  ■\\-ilderness  at  the  head  waters  of  the  Oua- 
chita river,  the  long  journey  up  the  Mississippi,  Red  and  Ouachita 
rivers  being  made  in  a  keel-boat.  Filhiol  located  his  first  post  at 
Ecor-a-Fabry  near  the  present  city  of  Camden,  Ark.,  but  2  years 
later  went  down  the  river  to  the  site  of  Monroe,  where  he  estab- 
lished a  fort,  calling  it  Ouachita  Post,  and  for  years  this  frontier 
settlement  went  by  that  name.  Subsequently  the  name  was  changed 
to  Fort  Miro,  in  honor  of  the  Spanish  governor  of  Louisiana.  A 
heavy  square  log  palisade  was  built  some  distance  from  the  bank  of 
the  river  as  a  protection  from  the  Indians  and  to  assert  the  right 
of  Spain  to  tliis  territory.  Trading  was  carried  on  at  the  post  and 
in  time  a  village  sprang  up  around  the  fort,  which  was  called  Fort 
Miro  until  the  name  was  changed  to  Monroe  in  1819.  Don  Juan 
Filhiol  commanded  here  from  the  establishment  of  the  post  until 
1803,  M-heu  the  United  States  purchased  the  province  of  Louisiana. 
He  continued  to  reside  in  the  settlement  after  it  became  the  terri- 
tory of  the  United  States,  platted  the  town  of  Monroe  and  donated 
the  site  of  the  courthouse  to  the  city  in  1811. 

Fillmore,  an  extinct  village  in  the  eastern  part  of  Bossier  parish, 
was  located  about  18  miles  northeast  of  Shreveport.  Before  the 
Civil  war  it  was  a  thriving  business  center,  but  the  war  changed 
all  this,  the  school  buildings,  homes  and  stores  that  stand  empty 
and  deserted  being  all  that  remain  to  show  a  community  once  ex- 
isted here. 

Finances,  State. — From  the  time  Louisiana  was  admitted  into 
the  Union  in  1S12  to  the  passage  of  the  secession  ordinance  in  1861, 


LOUISIANA  397 

the  financial  history  of  the  state  presents  no  features  of  an  ex- 
traordinary nature.  The  financial  conditions  prevailing  in  Louisi- 
ana during  this  period  were  not  essentially  different  from  those 
in  other  states,  the  current  income  being  generally  sufficient  to 
provide  for  current  needs,  though  at  times  moderate  bond  issues 
were  made  necessary  by  unusual  expenditures  in  founding  new  in- 
stitutions, or  to  meet  some  emergency.  Between  1830  and  1850 
Louisiana,  in  common  with  other  states,  sold  bonds  in  the  interest 
of  banks,  railroad  companies,  etc.,  and  the  greater  portion  of  her 
bonded  debt  at  the  outbreak  of  the  war  was  due  to  this  cause.  At 
the  beginning  of  the  year  1861  the  debt  of  the  state  was  $10,157,- 
882,  and  there  was  in  the  treasury  a  surplus  of  $193,416.  Imme- 
diately upon  the  adoption  of  the  secession  ordinance  the  legislature, 
in  special  session,  appropriated  $960,000  for  military  purposes,  and 
in  his  message  at  the  opening  of  the  legislative  session  in  Nov., 
1861,  Gov.  Moore  reported  that  $768,466  of  this  amount  had  been 
expended.  As  the  appropriations  far  exceeded  the  surplus  funds 
in  the  treasury,  the  parishes  made  appropriations  and  public-spir- 
ited citizens  subscribed  to  the  defense  fund,  though  the  conditions 
necessitated  the  incurrence  of  some  debt  by  borrowing  from  the 
local  banks.  The  total  military  expenses  of  the  state  during  the 
first  year  of  the  war  amounted  to  $1,596,807,  which  was  charged  to 
the  general  government  of  the  Confederate  States,  as  were  the  ex- 
penses incurred  on  behalf  of  the  Confederacy  during  the  next  four 
years.  This  portion  of  the  debt  was  liquidated  by  the  "logic  of 
events. ' ' 

The  legislation  during  the  decade  of  reconstruction — 1866  to  1876 
— presents  examples  of  financiering  without  a  parallel  in  history. 
The  general  assembly  of  1866  began  the  augmentation  of  the  state 
debt  by  aiithorizing  the  issue  of  6  per  cent  certificates  of  indebt- 
edness "to  the  amount  of  $1,500,000.  The  legislature  of  1867  author- 
ized a  bond  issue  of  $3,000,000,  bearing  interest  at  the  rate  of  6 
per  cent;  legalized  New  Orleans  city  notes  to  the  amount  of  $3,- 
650,000  (then  circulating  as  money),  and  permitted  a  further  issue 
of  these  notes  amounting  to  $2,500,000.  At  the  close  of  that  year 
the  claims  against  the  state  treasury  exceeded  the  receipts  for 
the  year  by  $1,313,000.  This  condition  of  affairs  led  the  governor 
to  notify  Gen.  Hancock,  the  military  commander  of  the  district, 
that  "the  state  treasurer  is  totally  bankrupt,  no  adequate  means 
are  provided  to  meet  current  expenses,  and  unless  some  remedy 
is  applied,  the  machinery  of  civil  government  in  the  state  must 
stop." 

Although,  as  a  rule.  Gen.  Hancock  was  not  disposed  to  inter- 
meddle in  civil  matters,  he  deemed  it  necessary  in  this  case  to  exer- 
cise his  authority  for  the  relief  of  the  state.  Accordingly  on  Feb. 
22,  1868,  he  issued  an  order  providing: 

"1 — That,  from  and  after  this  day,  all  the  licenses  on  trades,  pro- 
fessions, and  occupations,  the  revenues,  dues  and  taxes,  of  the 
State  of  Louisiana,  shall  be  payable  and  collected  in  L^nited  States 
legal-tender  treasury  notes.    It  is  made  the  duty  of  the  state  treas- 


398  LOUISIANA 

urer,  and  of  all  other  persons  charged  with  these  collections,  to 
exact  payments  as  above. 

"2 — The  auditor  and  treasurer  of  the  state  shall  be  required  to 
keep  a  special  and  separate  account  of  all  dues,  taxes,  fimds  or 
other  public  moneys,  which  shall  be  received  by  them,  hereafter, 
from  any  and  all  collectors  of  taxes,  or  from  other  sources :  and  it 
shall  be  their  duty  to  appropriate  the  same  to  the  payment  of  the 
salaries  of  the  judicial,  executive  and  civil  oflSeers  of  the  state :  and 
to  pay  and  discharge  all  the  appropriations  made  in  favor  of  the 
charitable  institutions,  the  free  public  schools,  for  the  rent  of  the 
Mechanics'  Institute,  and  for  the  support  of  the  state  convicts. 
*  *  *  Provided,  however,  that  the  treasurer  of  the  state  shall 
not  pay  any  other  outstanding  warrants  or  other  obligations  of  the 
state  than  those  that  are  issued  against  appropriations  for  the  last 
quarter  of  the  year  1867,  restricting  himself,  in  the  payment  of 
these  last-mentioned  obligations,  to  those  applicable  to,  and  issued 
in  favor  of,  the  officers  and  institiitions  hereinbefore  referred  to  in 
this  order,  and  for  whose  special  benefit  and  protection  this  order 
provides  and  for  no  others." 

A  few  days  later  a  supplementary  order  was  issued  by  Gen.  Han- 
cock, limiting  the  application  of  the  above  order  to  the  taxes  col- 
lected for  the  year  1867 ;  directing  that  all  state  notes  then  in  the 
treasury,  or  that  might  be  afterward  received,  should  be  destroyed ; 
and  instructing  the  treasurer  that,  "when  a  sufficient  sum  shall 
have  been  collected  to  satisfy  the  purposes  expressed  in  said  order, 
any  further  receipts  into  the  treasury  may  be  applied  to  the  liqui- 
dation of  other  obligations  impaired  by  said  order,  as  if  the  same 
had  not  been  issued."  The  constitutional  convention  then  in  ses- 
sion severely  criticised  Gen.  Hancock's  order,  but  aside  from  this 
it  seems  to  have  given  satisfaction.  The  financial  embarrassments 
contimied  into  1869.  At  the  beginning  of  that  year,  according  to 
Gov.  Warmoth's  statement  in  his  message  at  the  opening  of  the 
legislative  session  of  Jan.  4.  the  floating  debt  of  the  state  was 
$1,929,500.62  and  the  bonded  debt  was  $6,777,300.  which  he  claimed 
could  be  at  once  reduced  to  .$6,000,000.  The  previous  legislature 
had  failed  to  provide  for  the  payment  of  the  interest,  which  caused 
the  bonds  to  depreciate,  and  the  credit  of  the  state  was  somewhat 
further  impaired  during  the  year  by  the  feud  between  the  governor 
and  the  state  auditor. 

On  Jan.  3,  1870,  the  general  assembly  met  in  what  proved  to  be 
the  most  extravagant  session  in  the  history  of  the  state.  "Within 
four  days  from  the  time  the  legislature  was  organized  Gov.  "War- 
moth  had  vetoed  21  bills  appropriating  $6,875,000  for  various 
Bchemes,  the  largest  single  appropriation  being  $8,000,000  to  the 
Missouri  "Valley  levee  company.  Besides  these  acts  making  ap- 
propriations to  corporations  and  authorizing  bond  issues  to  raise 
the  money  therefore,  the  legislatiire  was  lavish  in  its  expenditures. 
State  funds  were  voted  to  aid  in  building  negro  churches,  and  so 
many  clerks,  doorkeepers,  messengers,  etc.,  were  employed  that 
some  of  the  members  finally  grew  ashamed  of  the  situation  and 


LOUISIANA  399 

asked  for  an  investigation  "to  see  if  some  could  not  be  dispensed 
with."  The  various  departments  of  the  state  government  were 
likewise  prodigal  in  the  administration  of  their  affairs.  According 
to  the  reports  of  the  state  treasurer's  office,  the  receipts  for  the  year 
ending  on  Nov.  20,  1870,  were  $6,537,959,  and  the  total  expenditures 
for  the  same  period  were  $7,050,636.  At  the  same  time  the  state 
auditor  reported  the  state  debt  as  follows :  Bonds  actually  issued, 
$22,560,233.22;  obligations  of  the  state  to  issue  bonds  (estimated), 
$15,000,000;  outstanding  warrants,  $1,300,311,81;  outstanding  cer- 
tificates of  indebtedness,  $293,655.62 ;  miscellaneous  indebtedness, 
$867,533.96,  making  a  grand  total  of  $40,021,734.61. 

At  the  election  of  1870  the  people  ratified  an  amendment  to  the 
constitution  limiting  the  total  amount  of  the  state  debt  up  to  the 
year  1890  to  $25,000,000.  This  led  to  a  spirited  controversy  early  in 
1871,  when  the  auditor  refused  to  draw  his  warrant  for  a  claim  of 
$50,331.46,  on  the  ground  that  the  law  authorizing  the  claim  was 
a  violation  of  the  constitution,  in  that  it  increased  the  state  debt, 
which  was  already  in  excess  of  the  $25,000,000  limitation.  Appli- 
cation was  made  to  the  8th  district  court  in  New  Orleans  for  a  writ 
of  mandamus  to  compel  the  auditor  to  issue  his  warrant,  but  the 
writ  was  refused  and  the  case  was  taken  to  the  supreme  court, 
which  in  April  sustained  the  auditor,  holding  that  the  debt  did 
exceed  the  constitutional  limit  on  March  1,  1871.  On  March  18, 
pending  the  decision  of  the  supreme  court,  the  following  "Address 
to  the  Public"  appeared  in  the  New  Orleans  newspapers: 

"The  undersigned,  property-owners  and  taxpayers  of  the  city  of 
New  Orleans,  satisfied  that  the  state  legislature  has,  at  its  late  ses- 
sions, excelled  its  power  in  the  loans,  endorsements,  and  other 
obligations  and  grants  authorized  on  the  part  of  the  state,  the  total 
amount  of  which  is  limited,  by  the  recent  amendment  to  the  con- 
stitution, to  $25,000,000  (already  incurred),  as  .shown  by  the  an- 
nexed official  statement  of  the  auditor,  take  this  early  opportunity 
of  notifying  bankers,  brokers  and  dealers  in  securities,  in  this  coun- 
try and  Europe,  that  they  consider  all  such  loans,  endorsements 
and  pledges  as  null  and  of  no  value ;  that  they  will  sustain  the 
authorities  in  resisting  their  issue,  and,  if  issued,  will,  by  every 
legal  means,  endeavor  to  prevent  the  payment  of  any  interest  or 
principal,  or  of  any  tax  levied  for  that  purpose.  They  only  recog- 
nize the  state  debt  proper,  amounting  to  $25,061,734.40,  as  shown 
by  the  accompanying  exhibit  of  the  auditor,  and  they  class  the 
'accruing  debt'  with  the  illegal  legislation  previously  referred  to." 

This  address  was  signed  by  nearly  400  of  the  most  substantial 
business  men  of  New  Orleans.  The  accruing  debt  mentioned  in 
the  address  amounted  to  about  $15,000,000,  all  of  which  was  in- 
curred through  giving  state  aid  to  railroad,  canal  and  navigation 
companies. 

On  June  1,  1871,  the  auditor  published  a  corrected  statement, 
showing  the  absolute  state  debt  to  be  $22,295,790.58;  the  actual 
contingent  debt,  $6,653,683.33 ;  and  the  estimated  contingent  debt 
that  might  be  incurred  by  securing  first   and  second  mortgages 


400  LOUISIANA 

under  acts  prior  to  1871  was  $12,245,000,  making  a  grand  total  of 
$41,194,473.91,  for  ■wliicli  the  state  ■was  at  that  time  or  might  be- 
come liable.  These  figures  were  disputed  by  Gov.  Warmoth,  who, 
in  his  message  to  the  legislature  in  Jan.,  1872,  sharply  criticized  the 
auditor  for  publishing  such  a  statement.  He  admitted  its  accuracy 
so  far  as  the  absolute  debt  was  concerned,  but  denied  the  state's 
liability  in  the  matter  of  the  contingent  debt.  On  this  subject  he 
said:  "This  is  no  more  a  debt,  to  be  emploj'ed  as  such  at  the  ex- 
pense of  our  state  credit,  than  is  the  endorsement  of  a  promissory 
note  by  an  individual  who  is  secured  for  the  liability  he  assumes 
by  a  pledge  of  five-twenty  bonds  or  real  estate  in  the  proportion  of 
four  dollars  to  one.  In  the  first  place,  there  is  not  the  slightest 
probability  that  any  of  these  roads,  except  the  New  Orleans,  Mobile 
&  Texas,  will  be  constructed ;  and,  in  the  second  place,  if  every  one 
of  them  should  be  built,  the  state  would  be  amply  secured  from 
ever  having  to  pay  the  endorsement,  for  the  reason  that  the  roads 
chartered,  if  constructed,  would  be  worth  four  times  the  amoimt 
guaranteed.  This  unwise  course  of  the  auditor  has  tended  to  depre- 
ciate our  securities  and  has  given  the  enemies  of  reconstruction 
capital  from  which  to  misrepresent  our  government  and  to  throw 
discredit  upon  us  abroad." 

It  will  be  remembered  that  Gov.  Warmoth,  in  his  message  of 
1869,  stated  the  bonded  debt  of  the  state  as  being  $6,777,300,  and 
the  floating  debt  as  $1,929,500,  or  a  total  of  $8,706,800.  In  his  mes- 
sage of  1872  he  said :  "In  1861  oiu- debt  was  $10,157,882.  In  1868 
when  the  present  administration  came  into  power,  it  was  $14,347,- 
051,  and  it  is  now  $23,045,790."  These  statements  do  not  harmon- 
ize, and  the  discrepancy  in  the  utterances  of  the  chief  executive 
only  emphasizes  the  unsettled  condition  of  the  state  finances  at  this 
period.  The  legislature  passed  a  bill  making  it  "the  duty  of  the 
treasurer  to  ascertain  and  classify  the  public  obligations,  and  creat- 
ing a  ftmd  for  the  redemption  of  the  floating  debt  of  the  state." 
The  old  "redemption  of  the  state  debt  fund,"  and  the  "free  school 
fund"  were  transferred  to  the  new  fund,  and  bonds  were  author-- 
ized,  for  which  warrants  and  certificates  of  indebtedness  could  be 
exchanged. 

"W.  P.  Kellogg  succeeded  "Warmoth  as  governor  in  1873,  and  soon 
after  his  induction  into  office  he  appointed  a  board  of  examiners 
to  investigate  and  report  on  the  condition  of  the  state's  finances. 
On  Dec.  25,  1873,  this  board  reported  the  debt  to  be  as  follows: 
Bonds  and  .school  fund,  $24,419,214.14:  miscellaneous  debt,  $3,283,- 
050.70:  prior  limitation  contingent  liabilities,  $13,003,000;  post 
limitation  contingent  liabilities,  $8,087,500;  loans  to  Citizens'  bank 
and  the  Consolidated  association,  $4,828,780.83,  making  a  total  of 
$53,621,545.67.  Of  this  amount  the  board  reported  $30,646,649, 
including  all  the  contingent  liabilities,  the  loans  to  the  Citizens 
bank  and  Consolidated  association  and  $2,500,000  of  bonds  sub- 
scribed to  the  New  Orleans,  Mobile  &  Texas  railway,  as  unconsti- 
tutional, lapsed,  or  for  other  reasons  not  entitled  to  payment,  leav- 
ing an  interest  bearing  debt  of  a  little  less  than  $23,000,000.    Even 


LOUISIAiNA  401 

part  of  this  the  board  considered  as  being  of  "doubtful  legality 
and  should  be  tested  in  the  courts." 

Acting  upon  this  suggestion,  Kellogg,  in  his  message  to  the  legis- 
lature in  Jan.,  1874,  recommended  the  refunding  of  the  state  debt 
by  the  issue  of  a  new  series  of  bonds,  to  be  known  as  consolidated 
bonds,  which  were  to  be  made  payable  in  40  years  and  were  to  be 
offered  to  creditors  at  the  rate  of  60  cents  in  the  consolidated  bonds 
for  each  dollar  of  outstanding  obligations.  Following  the  gov- 
ernor's recommendations  the  general  assembly  created  a  "board 
of  liquidation,"  consisting  of  the  governor,  lieutenant-governor, 
secretary,  auditor  and  treasurer  of  state,  and  the  speaker  of  the 
house  of  representatives,  to  cause  to  be  prepared  and  to  issue  "con- 
solidated bonds  of  the  State  of  Louisiana,"  to  the  amount  of  $15,- 
000,000,  or  so  much  thereof  as  might  be  necessary,  in  denominationa 
of  $100,  $500  and  $1,000,  payable  in  40  years,  with  interest  at  7  per 
cent  per  annum,  for  the  redemption  of  valid  outstanding  bonds, 
which  were  to  be  canceled  and  destroyed.  The  act  limited  the  debt 
to  $15,000,000,  levied  a  tax  of  5i/4  mills  on  the  dollar  for  the  pay- 
ment of  the  interest,  and  expressly  provided  that  "no  court  shall 
have  the  power  to  enjoin  payment  of  the  consolidated  bonds."  By 
the  supplementary  act  of  May  17,  1875,  the  board  was  prohibited 
from  issuing  bonds  in  exchange  for  any  outstanding  obligations 
made  previous  to  the  creation  of  the  board,  "the  legality  or  validity 
of  which  may  be  questioned,  and  any  taxpayer  was  given  power  to 
institute  proceedings  to  test  the  validity  of  any  bonds  or  warrants. 
A  list  of  bonds,  aggregating  $14,320,000,  was  submitted  with  the 
act  and  declared  to  be  of  doubtful  legality.  (See  Act  of  May  17, 
1875.) 

In  his  last  message  to  the  legislature,  in  Jan.,  1877,  Kellogg 
reported  the  amount  of  consolidated  bonds  issued  up  to  that  time 
as  being  $9,318,342,  which  would  be  increased  by  $2,537,580  when 
all  the  old  outstanding  bonds  were  refunded,  making  a  total  debt 
of  $11,855,922.  Thus  matters  stood  when  the  U.  S.  troops  were 
withdrawn  from  the  state  on  April  24,  1877.  Gov.  Nicholls,  with 
both  branches  of  the  legislature,  then  took  possession  of  the  state- 
house  and  commenced  a  work  of  retrenchment.  It  was  reported  in 
the  state  senate  in  1878  that,  by  reducing  fees  and  salaries  and 
abolishing  a  number  of  nugatory  offices  a  saving  of  $2,748,252  had 
been  effected  in  the  state,  parish  and  municipal  expenses  during 
the  first  year  of  Nicholl's  administration.  The  effect  was  soon 
noticeable  in  the  financial  condition  of  the  state.  Warrants  which 
sold  for  55  cents  on  the  dollar  in  March,  1877,  were  at  a  discount 
of  less  than  1  per  cent  in  December.  In  Jan.,  1878,  the  state  debt 
in  consolidated  bonds  amounted  to  $11,724,800;  estimated  amount 
to  be  refunded,  $488,100 ;  outstanding  general  fund  warrants,  $188,- 
720.92. 

One  of  the  first  acts  of  the  constitutional  convention  of  1879  was 

to  appoint  a  committee  of  17  to  investigate  and  report  on  the  status 

of  the  state  debt.    To  a  sub-committee  of  4  members  was  delegated 

the  duty  of  examining  all  the  acts  of  the  legislature  with  regard  to 

1—26 


402  LOUISIANA 

bond  issues  or  other  pledges  of  the  state's  faith  to  the  payment  of 
certain  obligations,  and  whether  adequate  provisions  had  been  made 
for  the  payment  of  interest  and  redemption  of  the  bonds  at  ma- 
turity. The  questions  upon  -which  they  were  expressly  charged  to 
report  were:  1 — Was  the  legislature  of  1874  competent  to  bind 
the  people  of  a  free  state?  2 — Do  the  records  in  the  secretary  of 
state's  ofBce  present  any  evidence  that  the  constitutional  amend- 
ments of  1874  were  adopted  by  the  people?  Three  members  of  the 
sub-committee  reported  that  the  legislature  of  1874  had  not  been 
chosen  by  the  people,  but  had  been  upheld  by  the  military  forces  of 
the  national  government,  and  that  the  funding  act  passed  by  that 
assembly  was  therefore  invalid.  With  regard  to  the  constitutional 
amendments  these  three  members  said:  "They  were  not  ratified 
by  the  people,  the  returns  having  been  counted  by  the  reti;rning 
board  in  violation  of  the  facts."  They  recommended  the  payment 
of  bonds  amounting  to  $3,486,000,  which  sum  was  subseciuently  in- 
creased to  $4,000,000  by  additions  for  interest,  and  presented  a  list 
of  bonds,  amounting  to  $19,69.3.447,  issued  chiefly  in  the  interests 
of  railroad,  levee  and  navigation  companies,  which  they  recom- 
mended not  to  he  paid. 

Another  siib-committee  of  two  members  made  a  similar  report 
on  the  same  questions,  and  the  committee  of  17  then  reported  an 
ordinance  to  the  convention  recommending  the  payment  of  claims 
aggregating  $4,082,358,  which  they  considered  as  valid.  The  re- 
port of  the  committee  says:  "The  theory  or  principle  upon  which 
your  committee  have  prosecuted  their  inquiry  and  based  their  rec- 
ommendation is,  that  no  invalid  or  fraudulent  debt  should  be  paid 
by  the  people  of  the  state,  and  that  the  valid  and  honest  debts 
should  be  paid.  They  are  unable  to  concede  that  the  funding  of  any 
portion  of  the  debt  has  given  it  any  greater  validity  than  it  origin- 
ally possessed;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  they  do  not  admit  that  the 
absolute  repudiation  of  40  per  cent  of  debt  detracts  in  the  least 
from  the  validity  of  that  which  was  legal  and  honest."  This  report 
was  signed  by  10  members  of  the  committee,  but  the  other  7  pre- 
sented a  minority  report,  citing  as  part  of  the  argument  in  support 
of  their  po.sition  a  decision  of  the  supreme  court,  handed  down  by 
Chief  Justice  :\Ianning  in  Jlay,  1878,  to  wit :  '  'We  regard  the  faith 
of  the  state  as  irrevocably  pledged  to  the  payment  of  her  consoli- 
dated bonds  issued  under  the  authority  of  that  act  (1874).  and  to 
the  payment  of  such  others  as  may  be  issued  under  the  sanction  of 
the  decree  we  shall  make  herein.  The  contract  with  the  holders  of 
these  bonds  is  (me  which,  in  the  language  of  the  constitutional 
amendment,  the  state  can  by  no  means  and  in  no  wise  impair." 

After  considerable  discussion  the  convention,  by  a  vote  of  71  to 
41,  adopted  an  ordinance  to  be  submitted  to  the  people  at  the  same 
time  as  the  constitution,  but  to  be  voted  upon  as  a  separate  prop- 
osition.    The  provisions  of  this  ordinance  were  as  follows: 

"1.  Be  it  ordained.  That  the  interest  to  be  paid  on  the  consoli- 
dated bonds  by  the  State  of  Louisiana  be,  and  is  hereby  fixed  at 
two  per  cent  for  five  years  from  the  1st  of  Jan.,  1880,  three  per  cent 


LOUISIANA  403 

for  15  years,  and  four  per  cent  thereafter ;  and  there  shall  be  levied 
an  annual  tax  sufficient  for  the  full  payment  of  said  interest,  not 
exceeding  three  mills,  the  limit  of  all  state  tax  being  hereby  fixed 
at  six  mills.  Provided  the  holders  of  consolidated  bonds  may,  at 
their  option,  demand  in  exchange  for  the  bonds  held  by  them  bonds 
of  the  denomination  of  ISO,  $100,  $500,  $1,000  to  be  issued  at  the 
rate  of  75  cents  on  the  dollar  of  bonds  held  and  to  be  surrendered 
by  such  holders,  the  said  new  issue  to  bear  interest  at  the  rate  of 
4  per  cent  per  annum,  payable  semi-annually. 

"2.  The  holders  of  the  consolidated  bonds  may  at  any  time  pre- 
sent their  bonds  to  the  treasurer  of  the  state,  or  to  an  agent  to  be 
appointed  by  the  governor — one  in  the  city  of  New  York  and  the 
other  in  the  city  of  London ;  and  the  said  treasurer  or  agent,  as  the 
case  may  be,  shall  endorse  or  stamp  thereon  the  words,  'Interest 
reduced  to  2  per  cent  for  five  years  from  Jan.  1,  1880,  3  per  cent 
for  15  years,  and  4  per  cent  thereafter ; '  provided,  the  holder  or 
holders  of  such  bonds  may  apply  to  the  treasvirer  for  an  exchange 
of  bonds,  as  provided  in  the  preceding  article. 

"3.  Be  it  further  ordained.  That  the  coupons  of  said  consoli- 
dated bonds  falling  due  the  1st  day  of  Jan.,  1880,  be  and  the  same 
are  hereby  remitted,  and  any  interest  tax  collected  to  meet  such 
coupons  is  hereby  transferred  to  defray  the  expenses  of  the  state 
government." 

At  the  election  on  Dec.  8  the  vote  was  59,932  in  favor  of  the 
ordinance  to  49,445  against  it,  and  in  this  manner  the  question  of 
the  bonded  debt  was  finally  settled.  In  some  quarters  the  cry  of 
"repudiation"  was  raised,  but  in  view  of  all  the  facts  there  is  no 
question  that  the  people  of  Louisiana  accorded  to  the  holders  of 
her  bonds  all  that  was  justly  their  due,  if  not  more.  The  wind  had 
been  sown,  and  the  crop  of  whirlwind  was  now  ready  for  the 
reaper. 

Pursuant  to  an  ordinance  of  the  conventfcn,  "for  the  relief  of 
delinquent  taxpayers,"  the  general  assembly  of  1880  created  a 
funding  board,  the  duties  of  which  were  to  fund  all  valid  auditor's 
warrants  that  came  within  the  provisions  of  the  ordinance,  and 
certain  obligations  of  the  public  institutions,  in  bonds  of  the  denom- 
ination of  $5,  with  interest  coupons  attached,  at  the  rate  of  3  per 
cent  from  Jan.  1,  1880,  and  payable  on  Jan.  1,  1886,  or  sooner,  at 
the  option  of  the  state.  The  total  amount  of  bonds  issued  under 
this  act  (called  "baby  bonds"  because  of  their  small  denomina- 
tion) was  $1,381,297.52,  but  tliey  were  not  redeemed  in  1886,  as 
provided  by  law.  Gov.  McEnery,  in  his  message  to  the  legislature 
in  May  of  that  year,  reported  the  state  debt  as  follows:  Pour  per 
oent  bonds  and  certificates,  $11,967,752.02 ;  coupons  1  to  11  inclusive, 
$543,784.58;  baby  bonds  and  coupons,  $1,437,025.39;  warrants  1878 
and  previous,  fundable,  $16,396.65 ;  warrants  1878  and  previous, 
neither  fundable  nor  payable,  having  been  issued  since  adoption  of 
the  constitution  of  1879,  $4,605.72;  levee  contractor  and  repair  war- 
rants, 1878  and  previous,  $10,700;  making  a  total  debt  of  $13,- 
980,264.36.     Perhaps  the  most  important  financial  legislation  since 


404  LOUISIANA 

that  time  was  the  act  of  1804.  which  authorized  the  board  of  liqui- 
dation "to  apply  the  surplus  of  the  general  fund  to  the  purchase  or 
payment  of  such  valid  bonds  and  auditor's  warrants  of  the  state 
as  it  may  seem  to  the  best  interests  of  said  state."  The  board  de- 
cided to  purchase  state  bonds  and  advertised  for  proposals.  The 
bonds  immediately  appreciated  in  value  in  the  estimation  of  the 
holders,  and  in  Nov.,  1895,  bonds  to  the  amount  of  $1,122,000  were 
offered,  over  one-half  at  par  or  above.  The  board  purchased  bonds 
aggregating  $200,300  at  99v8  cents,  and  during  the  year  the  levee 
board  redeemed  $22,000  of  its  first  issue  of  bonds  at  par.  This 
purchase  and  redemption  did  much  to  establish  the  credit  of  the 
state  on  a  firm  footing.  The  policy  was  continued  and  Gov.  Foster, 
in  his  message  to  the  legislature  in  1896,  said:  "Every  current  ob- 
ligation of  the  state  has  been  met  and  promptly  paid  in  cash  when 
due.  There  have  been  paid  and  canceled:  Warrants  outstanding 
for  1885-6,  $318,116;  interest  coupons  1  to  11,  $483,183.91;  total, 
$801,299.91,  at  a  total  cost  to  the  state  of  $413,858.97 ;  consolidated 
constitutional  bonds,  $712,000.  at  a  cost  of  $690,731.57 ;  and  baby 
bonds,  $359,510,  at  a  cost  of  $148,834.84.  "Without  increasing  as- 
sessments to  any  appreciable  extent,  and  after  providing  for  all 
the  current  expenses  and  all  lawful  demands,  there  have  been  paid 
out  of  the  surplus  of  the  treasury  $1,872,809.91,  at  a  cost  of  $1,- 
253,425.38,  and  when  the  taxes  for  1895  are  collected  and  every 
current  obligation  met,  there  will  be  a  surplus  to  the  credit  of  the 
two  funds  of  about  $300,000.  The  consolidated  bonds  retired, 
amounting  to  $712,000,  bore  interest  at  4  per  cent,  which  will  result 
in  an  annual  saving  in  interest  of  $28,480." 

The  revenues  of  the  State  of  Louisiana  are  derived  from  an  ad 
valorem  tax  upon  the  assessed  valuation  of  the  property  in  the 
state,  and  a  license  tax  upon  individuals  or  corporations  engaged  in 
certain  trades,  professions  or  occupations.  In  1880  the  assessed 
value  of  the  property  ^vas,  in  roimd  numbers,  $177,000,000,  and  the 
ad  valorem  tax  was  then  fixed  at  6  mills  on  the  dollar.  By  1906 
the  assessment  had  increased  to  approximately  $397,000,000,  and 
the  general  assembly  of  that  year  reduced  the  tax  to  5  mills.  The 
state  assessment  for  1907  showed  a  valuation  of  $508,079,419.  Gov. 
Blanchard,  in  his  message  to  the  legislature  on  IMay  12,  1908,  ar- 
gued for  a  further  reduction  in  the  tax  rate.  "As  assessments  in- 
crease," said  he,  "the  rate  of  taxes,  state  and  local,  should  be  low- 
ered. All  men  who  give  the  matter  impartial  con.sideration  agree 
that  it  is  far  better  for  the  honor  and  reputation  of  the  state  to 
have  triie  rendition  of  property  for  taxes  with  low  rate  than  pov- 
erty-stricken tax  rolls  with  high  rate."  No  tax  is  levied  on  pub- 
lic property,  places  of  religious  worship  or  burial,  charitable  insti- 
tutions, buildings  iised  exclusively  for  educational  purposes,  nor 
on  household  property  to  the  value  of  $500.  Since  Jan.  1,  1900,  no 
tax  has  been  levied  for  parochial  or  municipal  purposes  on  the  cap- 
ital, machinery  or  other  property  employed  in  certain  lines  of  man- 
ufacture, provided  the  factory  so  exempted  employed  five  or  more 
persons.    This  exemption  is  to  la.st  until  Jan.  1.  1910,  and  railroada 


LOUISIANA  405 

completed  before  Jan.  1,  1908,  are  to  be  exempt  from  taxation 
for  a  period  of  ten  years.  The  public  money.s  of  the  state  are  di- 
vided into  iour  funds,  viz :  The  general  hind,  for  defraying  the 
ordinary  expenses  of  the  state  government ;  the  public  school  fund, 
for  the  maintenance  of  the  public  school  system ;  the  interest  tax 
fund,  for  the  payment  of  the  interest  on  the  bonded  debt ;  and  the 
general  engineer  fund,  for  the  purpose  of  constructing  and  main- 
taining a  system  of  levees. 

According  to  the  report  of  State  Treasurer  James  M.  Smith  on 
April  20,  1906,  the  bonded  debt  of  the  state  on  March  1  of  that 
year  was  .$11^108,300,  divided  as  follows:  Old  consolidated  bonds 
of  1874,  .$11,500;  constitutional  bonds  of  1880,  $101,700;  new  con- 
solidated bonds  of  1892,  $10,995,100.  Under  the  law  the  old  con- 
solidated bonds  must  be  exchanged  for  the  new  issue  before  they 
can  be  paid.  At  the  same  time  this  report  was  made  there  were 
balances  in  the  several  funds  amounting  to  $1,235,977.12,  showing 
that  the  finances  of  the  state  are  in  a  reasonably  healthy  condition. 

Fish. — Most  plentiful  are  the  edible  creatures  of  the  waters  of 
Louisiana,  for  both  the  salt  and  fresh  water  varieties  abound  in 
manifold  numbers.  The  salt  water  branch  of  the  pisces  family  is 
well  represented  by  the  mackerel,  pompano  and  herring,  while  the 
fresh  water  varieties  include  the  red  fish,  mullet,  perch,  red  snapper, 
pickerel,  black  bass  and  green  trout,  so  that  lovers  of  the  piscatorial 
art  have  unlimited  opportunities  to  test  their  skill,  and  especially 
do  they  zealously  seek  the  pompano.  Its  meat  when  brought  in 
contact  with  the  human  palate  produces  a  gastronomical  effect 
not  soon  to  be  forgotten,  and  the  tourist  who  comes  and  goes 
without  having  partaken  of  the  delicious  pompano  might  be  said 
to  have  visited  the  state  in  vain.  The  invertebrates  of  the  water 
kingdom  are  also  numerous,  in  the  form  of  oysters  (q.  v.),  clams, 
and  shrimp.  Indeed  it  would  seem  that,  if  the  fishing  industry 
were  pursued  here  with  the  same  vigor  that  it  is  on  the  Atlantic 
coast,  Louisiana  would  be  as  famous  in  this  line  as  are  the  waters 
about  Cape  Cod  or  the  Chesapeake  bay. 

The  fish  canning  industry  is  pursiied  to  some  extent.  The  U.  S. 
census  report  for  1900  shows  that  616,000  pounds  were  preserved 
for  the  market  in  this  manner,  the  total  value  of  such  output  for 
that  year  amounting  to  $91,000,  more  shrimp  being  canned  than  any 
other  species.  Very  few  fish  are  preserved  by  the  smoking  process, 
nor  are  they  extensively  preserved  by  salting,  although  in  1900 
about  95,000  pounds  were  so  prepared,  of  which  mackerel  consti- 
tuted more  than  one-half. 

On  Feb.  16,  1873,  the  legislature  of  Louisiana  passed  a  joint  reso- 
lution requesting  the  .state's  representatives  in  Congress  to  do  all 
within  their  power  to  have  the  fresh  waters  of  the  state  stocked 
with  fish  by  the  U.  S.  fisli  commission.  The  latter  body  responded 
on  July  29,  1875,  by  stocking  the  waters  of  the  state  with  60,000 
young  shad ;  on  May  27,  1878,  the  commission  placed  100,000  shad 
in  the  Amite  river,  and  on  May  8,  1879,  the  Tensas,  Boeuf  and 
Ouachita  rivers,  Bayou  Macon,  Clear  Lake  and  Roundavig  creek 


406  LOUISIAIs'A 

were  stocked  witli  200,000  of  the  above  fish.  On  Jan.  1,  1875,  15,000 
young  California  salmon  were  placed  in  the  Tangipahoa  river,  and 
on  Dec.  22  of  the  following  year  28,000  of  the  same  variety  of  fish 
were  about  equally  distributed  between  the  waters  of  the  Natalbany 
and  the  Tangipahoa  rivers.  In  March,  1880,  another  joint  legisla- 
tive resolution  on  the  same  lines  was  adopted,  and  during  the  suc- 
ceeding decade  the  U.  S.  commission  placed  a  large  quantity  of 
voung  fish  in  the  waters  of  the  state.  Among  the  distributions  thus 
made  were  about  13.000  carp  in  the  year  1882:  810.000  shad  and 
herring  fry  at  Pass  ^lanchac,  LaFourche  and  Vermilion,  on  June 
8,  1883 ;  and  about  800  carp  distributed  in  .the  waters  of  17  par- 
ishes in  the  early  part  of  December  of  the  same  year.  Since  then 
the  Federal  commission  has  made  liberal  distributions  of  young 
fish  in  the  state's  waters. 

Louisiana  legislators  believe  in  fair  play.  They  believe  as  firmly 
in  giving  the  finny  trilie  a  chance  to  multiply  and  develop  as  they 
do  in  aft'ording  true  lovers  of  the  piscatorial  art  a  chance  to  enjoy 
their  pastime,  and  as  a  result  they  have  enacted  as  progressive  a 
code  of  restrictive  fish  laws  as  are  to  be  found  upon  the  statute 
books  of  any  state  in  the  Union.     (See  Game  Laws.) 

Fisher,  a  village  in  the  central  part  of  Sabine  parish,  is  located 
about  6  miles  south  of  Many,  the  parish  seat,  at  the  junction  of  the 
Kansas  City  Southern  and  the  Victoria,  Fisher  &  'Western  rail- 
roads, which  makes  it  a  good  shipping  point  for  that  section  of  the 
parish.  It  has  a  money  order  postoffice.  an  express  ofiBee,  tele- 
graph and  telephone  service,  and  considerable  lumbering  interests. 

Fish  Pond,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  eastern  part  of  Concordia  parish, 
is  situated  on  a  small  body  of  water  bearing  the  same  name,  about 
3  miles  west  of  the  Mississippi  river.  It  is  a  station  on  the  Texas 
&  Pacific  R.  R.,  has  a  telegraph  station  and  express  office,  and  is  the 
shipping  point  for  a  large  area  in  that  part  of  the  parish. 

Fisk   Library. — (See  Libraries.) 

Flag. — Prior  to  the  war  between  the  states  Louisiana  had  no 
state  standard,  but  on  Feb.  11,  1861,  the  state  convention  adopted 
a  state  flag.  It  has  been  described  as  "consisting  of  a  red  ground, 
upon  which  appears  a  single  star  of  pale  yellow.  The  groimd  is 
crossed  by  bars  of  l)lue  and  white,  making  of  the  three  colors  thir- 
teen stripes."  On  the  occasion  of  its  adoption  the  chairman  of  the 
committee,  J.  K.  Elgee,  of  Rapides  parish,  spoke  as  follows:  "We 
dedicate  the  thirteen  stripes  upon  our  flag  to  the  memory  of  those 
whose  unconquerable  love  of  freedom  has  taught  us,  this  day,  how 
peacefully  to  vindicate  our  rights  and  protect  our  liberties.  The 
committee,  too,  could  not  forget  that  another  race.  bold,  warlike 
and  adventurous,  had  planted  the  first  colony  of  white  men  on  the 
shores  of  Louisiana :  tlie  name  of  our  state,  that  of  oiu-  city,  nay, 
even  the  morning  roll-call  of  the  convention,  as  it  summoned  us  to 
our  duties,  bade  us  remember  that  some  tribute  was  due  to  the 
children  and  descendants  of  the  founders  of  the  colony — the  blue, 
the  white,  the  red,  emblems  of  hope,  virtue  and  valor,  to  the  mem- 
ory of  those  who  first  on  this  soil  laid  the  foundation  of  an  empire. 


LOUISIANA  407 

Still  another  race  and  another  nation  remained,  who  equally  de- 
manded a  recognition  in  a  flag  destined  to  be  national.  If  to  France 
we  are  indebted  for  the  foundation  of  the  colony,  Spain  merits  an 
acknowledgment  at  our  hands,  for  by  her  was  the  infant  structure 
built  up.  Her  mild  and  paternal  rule  is  yet  spoken  of  by  the  oldest 
inhabitant,  whilst  the  great  body  of  our  law  stands  this  day  a 
monument  of  her  wisdom.  To  the  children  of  Spain  we  dedicate 
the  colors  of  red  and  yellow,  which  we  have  woven  into  our  plan. 
The  star  cannot  fail  to  remind  you  that  Louisiana  has  arisen  to 
take  her  place  in  the  political  firmament.  Uniting,  then,  our  three 
distinct  nationalities  into  one,  we  present  a  flag  which  carries  with 
it  a  symbol  dear  to  every  American,  whether  it  be  at  the  last  hour 
of  dissolution,  or  the  dawn  of  a  new  birth — it  is  the  badge  of 
Union." 

On  the  12th  the  flag  was  formally  inaugurated  with  dramatic 
ceremonies  at  New  Orleans.  Two  brigades  of  troops  were  drawn 
up  in  Lafayette  square,  and  at  11  o'clock  a.  m.  they  stood  at 
"present  arms"  while  the  new  ensign  was  hoisted  over  the  city  hall. 
The  bells  of  the  city  rang  out  a  joyful  peal,  the  midtitude  responded 
with  cheers,  and  the  "Washington  Artillery  fired  a  salute  of  21  guns. 
Had  the  Confederacy  been  successful  in  establishing  the  indepen- 
dence of  the  South,  this  flag  would  doubtless  have  remained  the 
state  standard,  but  since  the  war,  by  common  consent  it  would 
seem,  the  blue  flag  is  usually  displayed  as  the  emblem  of  Louisiana. 
Both  were  glorified  in  song  and  story  during  the  war. 

Flanders,  Benjamin  Franklin,  military  governor  of  Louisiana 
for  a  short  time  in  1867,  was  born  at  Bristol,  Grafton  county,  N.  H., 
Jan.  26,  1816.  In  1842  he  was  graduated  at  Dartmouth  college,, and 
a  year  later  came  to  New  Orleans  to  study  law  in  the  office  of 
Charles  M.  Emerson,  also  a  graduate  of  Dartmouth.  For  some 
reason  he  did  not  adhere  to  his  original  plan,  and  after  teaching 
school  for  two  years  he  bought  an  interest  in  a  new.spaper  called 
"The  Tropic."  The  paper  did  not  live  long  and  Mr.  Flanders  again 
sought  a  livelihood  as  a  teacher,  remaining  connected  with  the  pub- 
lic schools  until  1852.  In  the  meantime  he  became  interested  in 
political  matters;  was  elected  alderman  in  1848  and  reelected  in 
1852 ;  and  for  the  next  ten  years  was  president  of  the  Opelousas  & 
Great  Western  railroad  company.  Just  before  the  breaking  oiit  of 
the  Civil  war  he  became  so  caustic  in  some  of  his  remarks  about  the 
South  that  he  was  threatened  with  violence,  which  caused  him  to 
seek  refuge  in  the  North,  where  he  remained  until  after  the  occu- 
pation of  New  Orleans  by  the  Federal  forces.  On  his  return  to  that 
city  Gen.  Butler  appointed  him  city  treasurer,  which  office  he  held 
from  July  20  to  Dec.  10,  1862,  when  he  resigned  to  enter  Congress. 
He  was  sworn  in  as  a  Congressman  on  Feb.  20,  1863,  his  term  ex- 
piring on  March  4,  following.  In  18'64  he  was  the  "Free  State" 
candidate  for  governor  of  Louisiana,  but  was  defeated  by  Michael 
Hahn.  He  was  then  special  agent  of  the  U.  S.  treasury  department 
for  Louisiana,  Mississippi  and  Texas,  by  appointment  of  See.  Chase, 
until  1866,  when  he  was  chosen  president  of  the  First  National 


408  LOUISIANA 

bank  of  New  Orleans.  When  Gen.  Slieridau  removed  Gov.  "Wells, 
in  June,  1867,  Mr.  Flanders  was  appointed  military  governor,  but 
resigned  at  the  end  of  six  months.  In  1870  Gov.  Warmoth  ap- 
pointed him  mayor  of  New  Orleans.  In  November  of  that  year 
he  was  elected  mayor  and  lield  the  oflSce  for  tM'o  years.  He  was 
then  appointed  assistant  V.  S.  treasurer  at  New  Orleans  by  Presi- 
dent Grant,  and  remained  in  this  position  until  1885.  He  died 
near  New  Orleans  on  March  13,  1896. 

Flanders'  Administration. — On  June  8,  1867,  Gen.  P.  H.  Sheri- 
dan, commanding  the  oth  Military  District,  wrote  to  Gen.  Grant 
as  follows:  "Gen.  Flanders  assumed  the  duties  of  his  office  this 
morning.  He  is  a  man  of  integrity  and  ability,  and  I  now  feel  as 
though  I  was  relieved  of  half  my  labor.  As  it  has  heretofore  been, 
there  was  no  security,  and  I  feel  as  the  people  of  the  whole  state 
feel,  that  we  have  got  rid  of  an  unprincipled  governor  (Gov. 
Wells)  and  the  set  of  disreputable  tricksters  he  had  about  him. 
Nothing  will  answer  here  but  a  bold  and  strong  course,  and  in 
taking  it  I  am  supported  by  every  class  and  party." 

The  student  of  history  40  years  later  will  hardly  agree  with 
Gen.  Sheridan's  statements  that  he  was  "relieved  of  half  his  labor," 
or  tliat  his  "bold  and  strong  course  was  supported  by  every  class 
and  party."  During  the  brief  period  that  Mr.  Flanders  occupied 
the  governor's  chair,  he  was  only  a  nominal  executive,  the  real 
governor  being  Gen.  Sheridan.  In  fact  the  military  reconstruction 
of  the  state  had  been  commenced  under  the  acts  of  Congress 
two  months  before  the  removal  of  Gov.  Wells  and  the  appointment 
of  Flanders.  On  April  10,  1867,  Sheridan  issued  orders  giving  spe- 
cific directions  for  the  registration  of  voters,  and  a  board  of  regis- 
ters was  appointed  for  tlie  parish  of  Orleans.  On  July  31  the 
registration  was  stopped  by  Sheridan's  order.  The  number  of 
voters  registered  was  127,639,  of  whom  44,732  were  whites  and 
82,907  were  negroes.  In  September  an  election  was  held  for  dele- 
gates to  a  constitutional  convention  and  resulted  in  75.083  votes 
being  cast  in  favor  of  the  convention  and  4,006  against  it,  many  of 
the  white  people  refusing  to  vote.  Civil  officers  were  removed  by 
wholesale  and  without  compunction.  The  president  of  the  United 
States  finally  became  di.ssatisfied  with  Sheridan's  "bold  and  strong 
course,"  and  on  Aug.  17,  1867,  relieved  him  of  the  command  of 
the  5th  district  and  ordered  him  to  Fort  Leavenworth,  Kan.,  in 
spite  of  the  protestations  of  Gen.  Grant  that  he  had  "performed 
his  duties  faithfully  and  intelligently,  and  that  his  removal  would 
be  looked  upon  as  an  effort  to  defeat  the  laws  of  Congress."  Gen. 
George  H.  Thomas  was  assigned  to  the  'command  of  the  district, 
but  on  account  of  his  health  was  allowed  to  remain  in  the  De- 
partment of  the  Cumberland,  and  Gen.  Winfield  S.  Hancock  was 
appointed  in  his  stead.  Gen.  Hancock  did  not  arrive  in  New  Or- 
leans until  Nov.  28,  the  temporary  command  of  the  district  in  the 
meantime  devolving  upon  Gen.  Joseph  A.  ]\Iower,  who  continued 
Sheridan's  policy  and  removed  a  number  of  civil  officers,  among 
them  Lieut.-Gov.  Voorhies  and  Sheriff  Harry  T.  Hays  of  Orleans 


LOUISIANA  409 

parish.  Gen.  Grant  at  last  ordered  Iiim  to  suspend  further  re- 
movals until  the  arrival  of  Gen.  Hancock.  If  Gov.  Flanders  had 
more  to  do  with  the  affairs  of  state  during  this  period  than  merely 
signing  his  name  now  and  then  to  some  executive  document,  it 
does  not  appear  in  the  records.  The  creature  of  the  military- 
power,  he  was  expected  to  do  its  bidding,  and  he  did  not  disap- 
point the  expectations.  Gen.  Hancock  assumed  command  of  the 
district  on  Nov.  29,  and  soon  afterward  issued  his  Specail  Order 
No.  203,  in  which  he  said:  "The  true  and  proper  use  of  military 
power,  besides  defending  the  national  honor  against  foreign  na- 
tions, is  to  uphold  the  laws  and  civil  government,  and  to  secure 
to  every  person  residing  among  us  the  enjoyment  of  life,  liberty 
and  property."  He  reinstated  several  of  the  officers  removed  by 
Sheridan  and  Mower,  among  them  Lieut.-Gov.  Voorhies.  Shortly 
after  Gen.  Hancock  took  command  of  the  district,  Gov.  Flanders 
resigned  and  in  Jan.,  1868,  Joshua  Baker  was  appointed  military 
governor  by  Hancock.  (See  also  the  articles  on  Reconstruction 
and  Constitiitional  Conventions.) 

Flatcreek,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  southeastern  part  of  Winn  par- 
ish, is  situated  on  Beech  creek  about  7  miles  west  of  Thalia,  the 
nearest  railroad  town. 

Flatwoods,  a  post-hamlet  in  tlie  northwestern  part  of  Rapides 
parish,  situated  on  a  branch  of  Cypress  bayou,  about  5  miles  north 
of  Poe,  the  nearest  railroad  town. 

Floods. —  (See  Levees,  Mississippi  River  and  Jetties.) 

Flora   (R.   R.  name  Weaver's   Mill),  a  post-village   and  station 
in  the  southeastern  part  of  Natchitoches  parish,  is  on  the  Texas 
&  Pacific  R.  R.,  about  10  miles  south  of  Natchitoches,  the  parish 
seat. 
■  Florence. — (See  Sicily  Island.) 

Florien,  a  village  in  the  southern  part  of  Sabine  parish,  is  a 
station  on  the  Kansas  City  Southern  R.  R.  about  10  miles  south 
of  Many.  It  has  a  money  order  postoffice,  express  office  and  tele- 
graph station,  and  a  population  of  200. 

Floumoy,  a  village  in  the  southwestern  part  of  Caddo  parish, 
is  on  the  Missouri,  Kansas  &  Texas  R.  R.,  about  10  miles  south- 
west of  Shreveport.  It  has  a  money  order  postoffice,  express  of- 
fice and  telegraph  station,  and  is  a  trading  center  for  the  neighbor- 
hood. 

Floyd,  the  seat  of  justice  of  West  Carroll  parish,  is  located  in  the 
southeastern  part  of  the  parish  on  Bayou  Macon,  and  was  selected 
as  the  parish  seat  when  old  Carroll  parish  was  divided  into  East 
and  West  Carroll  in  1877.  It  was  named  for  James  Floyd,  who 
settled  on  a  section  of  land  in  the  vicinity  in  1803.  Floyd  is  one 
of  the  smallest  parish  seats  in  the  state,  having  a  population  of 
only  200.  It  is  also  without  direct  railroad  facilities,  Floyd  Sta- 
tion on  the  St.  Louis,  Iron  Mountain  &  Southern  R.  R.  being  about 
3  miles  west  of  the  town.  Notwithstanding  its  small  population 
and  lack  of  railroad  facilities  it  is  a  place  of  considerable  activity, 
as  it  has  a  large  cooperage  establishment,  a  sawmill,  four  general 


410  LOUISIAA^A 

stores,  a  money  order  postoffice,  good  schools,  churches,  a  large 
river  trade,  etc. 

Fluker,  a  money  order  post-village  in  the  northwestern  part  of 
Tangijiahoa  parish,  is  situated  on  the  main  line  of  the  Illinois  Cen- 
tral R.  K.,  about  7  miles  north  of  Amite,  the  parish  seat,  in  a  large 
truck  farm  and  berry  district. 

Flynn,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  southern  part  of  St.  Landry  parish, 
is  al)out  3  miles  northwest  of  Geneva,  the  nearest  railroad  station. 
Population  150. 

Folsom,  a  post-village  in  the  northwestern  part  of  St.  Tammany 
parish,  is  located  a  short  distance  east  of  the  Tehefuncte  river  and 
about  12  miles  northwest  of  Covington,  the  parish  seat.  If  is  the 
terminus  of  a  l>ranch  of  the  New  Orleans  Great  Northern  E.  R., 
that  connects  with  the  main  line  of  that  .sj'stem  at  Florenville 
Junction,  has  some  himber  interests,  an  express  office,  a  good  re- 
tail trade,  and  a  population  of  300. 

Fontainebleau,  Treaty  of. — (See  Treaties.) 

Forage  Crops. — The  fertile  soils  of  Louisiana  are  splendidly 
adapted  to  the  growing  of  forage  crops  of  many  varieties.  Ac- 
cording to  the  LT.  S.  census  report  for  1900,  nearly  3  per  cent  of 
all  the  land  under  cultivation  in  the  state  for  the  year  1899,  was 
given  over  to  the  raising  of  forage,  the  total  acreage  devoted  to 
all  crops  amounting  to  3,421,751,  of  which  97,136  acres  were  given 
over  to  forage. 

Among  the  grasses  are  the  following:  A  fox-tail  grass  (Setaria 
glauca),  which  grows  hixuriantly  in  the  southern  and  middle  sec- 
tions: the  Japan  clover  (Lespedeza  striata)  flourishes  throughout 
the  northern  and  middle  portions;  the  so  called  carpet  grasses, 
known  among  the  Creoles  as  Gazon,  are  to  he  foimd  in  great  abun- 
dance in  the  south  and  central  parts  of  the  state :  the  Bermuda 
grass  grows  extensively  all  through  the  state;  the  Crab  grass 
(Pancum  sanguinale),  also  flourishes  all  over  the  state;  the  tall 
meadow  oat  grass  (^Vi-rhenathirum  avenaceum),  and  the  Rescue 
grass  (Bromus  Shraderi),  are  also  extensively  grown  throughout 
all  portions  of  the  state.  The  following  new  and  imported  grasses 
have  also  been  eidtivated  with  success:  Hairy  Oat  (Avena  Steri- 
lis),  Bromus  pinnatus.  grown  chiefly  in  the  winter:  Japanese  rye, 
grown  through  the  fall,  winter  and  spring ;  Phalaris  coerulescens, 
a  meritorioiis  sunuuer  grass,  and  Panciinn  palmeri,  a  summer  grass 
of  wonderful  growth. 

Red  Clover  can  be  successfully  grown  upon  any  of  the  fertile 
lands  of  the  state,  provided  the  seed  be  soi\-n  in  early  fall,  but 
the  crimson  clover  is  of  a  more  certain  growth,  and  is  better 
adapted  to  the  lighter  soils  of  the  state.  When  sown  in  the  early 
autumn  it  almost  invariably  yields  a  fine  crop  of  hay  during  the 
next  spring. 

Alfalfa  can  be  readily  grown  upon  either  the  alhivial  or  the  best 
uplands  of  the  state.  If  it  be  sown  in  September  or  October,  at 
the  rate  of  about  15  lbs.  to  the  acre,  upon  well  drained,  deeply 
ploughed,  and  thoroughly  pulverized  soil,  and  a  good  stand  be  ob- 


LOUISIANA  411 

tained  it  should  be  ready  for  harvesting  early  in  the  following 
March,  to  be  followed  by  six  or  seven  cuttings,  during  the  summer 
and  fall.  It  produces  a  Iiay  rich  in  albuminoids,  which  is  relished 
by  stock,  grows  continually  during  the  summer  and  winter,  and  is 
the  sole  forage  crop  in  the  state  which  will  afford  a  cutting  of 
green  matter  every  day  in  the  year.  It  is  easily  cured  and  always 
finds  a  ready  market.  Several  thousand  acres  have  been  sown  in 
alfalfa  in  the  last  few  years  in  the  state,  and  the  acreage  is  an- 
nually increasing. 

Cowpeas  of  both  the  bunch  and  running  varieties  are  profusely 
grown  throughout  the  state.  Wlien  the  berries  are  desired  for 
feed  the  former  variety  is  employed,  when  hay  or  soil  improvement 
is  the  desired  end  in  view  the  latter  subserves  the  purpose.  They 
make  a  most  excellent  soil  restorative,  and  any  system  of  crop  rota- 
tion that  omits  them  is  a  most  flagrant  error. 

Spanish  peanuts  are  now  largely  used  both  as  feed  for  stock  and 
soil  improvers.  Among  the  other  forages  which  have  been  grown 
with  more  or  less  success  are :  Red  top,  on  damp  low  soils ;  English 
blue-grass,  on  rich  soil ;  Kentucky  b'ue-grass,  on  soils  containing  an 
abundance  of  lime;  velvet  bean,  in  all  parts  of  the  state;  Soja  beans 
do  well  in  the  light  soils  of  the  eastern  and  northern  portions  of  the 
state;  Vetches  have  given  only  fair  results;  saccharine  sorghiuns, 
when  planted  in  early  spring  afford  two  or  even  three  abundant  crops 
each  year;  the  non-saccharine  sorghums,  of  the  yellow  and  white  milo 
maize  and  the  African  millet  varieties,  also  do  well  throughout  the 
state;  the  Pearl  millet,  used  largely  for  soil  restoring  in  the  fall  and 
spring;  the  German  and  Golden  Wonder  millet  have  lieen  successfully 
growni,  throughout  the  South,  as  have  the  numerous  wild  salt  and 
prairie  grasses.  Corn  stalks  are  extensively  used  for  feed  by  stock 
raisers. 

Forbing,  a  post-village  and  station  in  the  southeastern  part  of 
Caddo  parish,  is  situated  on  the  Kansas  City  Southern  R.  R.,  about 
9  miles  south  of  Shreveport,  the  parish  seat. 

Ford,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  northern  part  of  Webster  parish,  is 
on  Bayou  Dorcheat,  about  5  miles  east  of  Cotton  Valley,  the  nearest 
railroad  station,  and  15  miles  north  of  Minden,  the  parish  seat. 

Fordoche,  a  village  in  the  southwestern  part  of  Pointe  Coupee 
pari.'^h.  is  situated  on  the  Bayou  Fordoche  and  the  Texas  &  Pacific 
R.  R.,  about  25  miles  northwest  of  Baton  Rouge.  It  has  a  money 
order  7)ostoffiee,  express  office,  telegraph  station  and  telephone  facili- 
ties.   Population  200. 

Foreman,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  southeastern  part  of  East  Baton 
Rouge  parish,  is  on  a  tributary  of  the  Amite  river,  about  5  miles 
nortlieast  of  Kleinpeter,  the  nearest  railroad  station. 

Forest,  a  town  in  the  eastern  part  of  AVest  Carroll  parish,  is  on 
the  St.  Louis,  Iron  Moimtain  &  Southern  R.  R.,  about  8  miles  north  of 
Floyd  Station.  It  has  a  money  order  postoffice,  express  ofiSce,  tele- 
graph and  telepjione  facilities,  and  does  some  shipping. 

Forest  Hill,  a  village  in  the  southwestern  part  of  Rapides  parish, 
is  a  station  on  the  St.  Louis,  Watkins  &  Gulf  R.  R.,  about  16  miles 


412  LOUISIAIS^A 

southwest  of  Alexandi-ia,  the  parish  seat.  It  is  sitiiated  in  the  pine 
belt,  has  some  lumber  industries,  a  mouey  order  postofiSce,  express  and 
telegraph  service,  and  is  a  trading  center  for  that  part  of  the  parish. 
Population  250. 

Fort  Adams. — This  military  post  was  erected  by  Gen.  Wilkin- 
son in  1799.  shortly  after  the  evacuation  of  the  Natchez  district  by  the 
Spanish.  The  site  chosen  was  at  the  first  highland  point  on  the 
Mississippi  above  the  Spanish  line  of  demarcation.  After  Wilkinson's 
arrival  at  Natchez  in  Aug.,  1798,  he  consulted  Gov.  Sargent  about  the 
propriety  of  remaining  at  Natchez  or  descending  the  river,  and  was 
advised  "to  take  post  at  or  near  som«  heights,  elevated  300  feet  above 
the  Mississippi  commanding  the  river  and  called  Loftus  clilfs. "  These 
heights,  known  during  the  French  period  as  Davion's  Koek.  and  called 
by  the  English  Loftiis  heights,  were  not  quite  7  miles  above  the  line. 
The  fort  comprised  a  strong  earthwork,  magazine  and  barracks,  and 
was  built  under  the  immediate  supervision  of  jMaj.  Thomas  Freeman, 
who  had  been  previously  emploj'ed  in  survej'ing  the  boundary  line, 
under  Commissioner  Ellieott.  It  was  named  in  honor  of  President 
Adams,  and  the  historic  old  location  is  now  the  seat  of  the  little  town 
of  the  same  name  in  Wilkinson  county.  Miss. 

Fort   Assumption. —  (See    Chickasaw   Bluffs.) 

Fort  Balise. — The  original  fort  of  this  name  was  built  by  the 
French  in  1722.  It  was  named  from  the  French  word  "balise," 
meaning  beacon,  because  the  French  had  set  up  a  seamark  for 
guidance  of  ships  seeking  the  mouth  of  the  river.  The  southeast 
pass  was  the  only  practicable  entrance  for  vessels  drawing  14 
feet,  and  to  preserve  it  as  well  as  to  improve  it,  a  mole  built  of 
piles  was  thrown  up  which  preserved  the  channel  from  the  extreme 
point  of  mainland  to  the  sea.  Here  in  the  above  year  the  French 
established  a  water  battery,  a  military  post,  store  houses,  a  powder 
magazine  and  chapel,  on  the  bank  formed  by  these  piles.  They 
usually  maintained  a  garrison  of  50  men,  as  well  as  pilots  and  a 
few  sailors,  at  the  post.  The  spot  as  originally  occupied  by  the 
French  was  the  little  flat  island  called  by  them  Toulouse,  about  a 
half  mile  in  circumference,  and  their  biiildings  were  erected  at 
the  extreme  edge  of  the  gulf  shore  beyond  the  bar.  The  magazine, 
and  part  of  the  fortifications,  were  swept  into  the  river,  and  in 
the  year  1768  a  new  Balize  was  established  by  Don  Ulloa,  and 
chiefly  used  as  a  pilot  station.  It  is  the  site  of  the  present  village 
of  Balize,  but  by  reason  of  the  enormous  sedimentarj^  deposit  from 
the  Mississippi  river,  Balize  is  some  3  or  4  miles  from  the  sea  shore 
and  the  mouths  of  the  river. 

Fort  Baton  Rouge. — During  the  control  of  West  Florida  by 
Great  Britain  this  was  the  most  important  English  post  on  the 
Mississippi  river.  The  English  had  cleared  the  channel  of  the 
Manchac  in  1765,  and  thus  enabled  a  safe  and  convenient  means 
of  reaching  the  Mississippi  from  Mobile  by  the  inside  passage. 
Baton  Rouge  was  selected  as  a  highly  defensible  location,  and  here 
they  caused  some  strong  works  to  be  constructed.  Says  Gayarre: 
"The  fort  was  surrounded  by  a  ditch,  18  feet  wide  and  9  in  depth; 


LOUISIANA  413 

it  had,  besides,  very  high  walls,  with  a  parapet  protected  by  che- 
veaux  de  frise,  and  (in  1779)  a  garrison  of  400  regulars  and  100 
militiamen,  and  was  supplied  with  thirteen  pieces  of  heavy  ar- 
tillery." On  May  8,  1779,  during  the  progress  of  the  American 
Revolution,  Charles  III  of  Spain  formally  declared  war  against 
Great  Britain.  The  conquest  of  the  Floridas  was  one  of  the  ob- 
jects held  in  view,  and  she  clearly  perceived  the  importance  of 
adding  them  to  her  possessions  before  the  end  of  the  struggle  be- 
tween the  colonies  and  the  mother  country,  July  8,  1779,  Spanish 
subjects  in  America  were  authorized  to  participate  in  hostilities. 
(See  Spanish  Conquest.)  Gov.  Galvez  raised  a  force,  marched 
against  the  English  posts,  and  when  he  arrived  within  a  mile  and 
a  half  of  Baton  Rouge,  he  halted  his  army,  and  proceeded  to 
mount  his  artillery,  preparatory  to  an  assault.  The  guns  were  ad- 
vantageously posted  where  they  were  screened  from  the  enemy, 
and  some  of  his  Indians,  militia  and  negroes  were  disposed  in  a 
wooded  spot  near  the  fort,  with  orders  to  make  a  feigned  attack 
in  order  to  draw  the  enemy's  fire.  On  Sept.  21  Galvez  opened 
with  his  batteries  on  the  fort  and  an  artillery  duel  ensued  which 
lasted  until  half  past  three  in  the  afternoon,  when  a  flag  of  truce 
was  sent  out  with  an  offer  to  capitulate.  Galvez  demanded  the  un- 
conditional surrender  of  Baton  Rouge  and  of  Fort  Panmure  at  the 
Natchez,  together  with  the  dependent  districts,  and  these  terms 
were  finally  accepted.  Lieut.  Dickson  and  his  regulars  were  al- 
lowed to  march  out  with  the  honors  of  war,  delivering  up  their 
arms  and  flags  and  becoming  prisoners  of  war.  The  militia  and 
free  negroes  within  the  fort  were  not  held,  but  were  sent  to  their 
homes  under  parole.  Galvez  at  once  sent  a  captain  and  a  detach- 
ment of  80  men  to  take  possession  of  Fort  Panmure,  130  miles  dis- 
tant, and  upon  his  withdrawal  to  New  Orleans  with  his  prisoners, 
he  left  his  subordinate,  Carlos  de  Grandpre,  in  command  of  the 
conquered  region,  with  headquarters  at  Baton  Rouge.  The  post 
at  Baton  Rouge  was  destined  to  remain  for  30  years  longer  under 
Spanisli  dominion  and  control,  and  was  constantly  garrisoned  by 
her  troops.  True,  after  the  Louisiana  cession  of  1803,  the  United 
States  government  persistently  asserted  its  claim  to  all  the  gulf 
coast  region  east  of  the  Mississippi  to  the  Perdido,  but  for  diplo- 
matic reasons  took  no  active  measures  to  occupy  the  region  of 
West  Florida  until  the  Baton  Rouge  revolution  of  1810  forced 
President  Madison  to  take  decisive  measures  looking  to  the  asser- 
tion of  United  States  sovereignty.  In  1710  the  fort  at  Baton 
Rouge  was  commanded  by  the  young  Lieut.  Louis  de  Grandpre, 
son  of  the  gallant  old  Creole  colonel,  and  had  a  garrison  of  prob- 
ably less  than  50  men.  The  full  details  of  the  capture  of  the  fort 
may  be  found  under  the  title  West  Florida  Revolution.  Shortly 
after  this,  acting  under  orders  from  the  president,  W.  C.  C.  Clai- 
borne, governor  of  the  Orleans  Territory,  took  possession  of  the  . 
province  of  West  Florida,  including  the  fort  at  Baton  Rouge. 

Fort  Beauregard,  an  earthwork  on  a  hill  overlooking  the  town 
of  Harrisonlnu'g,  in  Catahoula  parish,  was  erected  by  the  Confed- 


414  LOUISIANA 

erates  in  the  early  part  of  the  -war.  Early  in  ^lay,  1863,  the  Fed- 
eral gunboats  eoiuinaudod  by  Commodore  Woodworth  ascended 
the  Ouachita  river  and  at  2  a.  m.,  on  the  10th,  anchored  a  short 
distance  from  the  fort  and  sent  a  flag  of  truce  demanding  an  un- 
conditional surrender.  At  that  time  the  fort  was  garrisoned  by 
about  400  men  under  Lieut. -Col.  George  W.  Logan,  who  replied 
that  he  would  "hold  the  fort  forever."  After  a  steady  shelling 
of  the  fort  until  6  p.  m.  the  gunboats  withdrew,  having  done  no 
injury  except  slightly  damaging  the  parapet  and  destroying  one 
house  in  the  town.  A  second  effort  of  the  fleet  to  pass  the  fort 
was  attended  by  no  better  success,  but  a  land  expedition  from 
Natchez,  ]\Iiss.,  under  Gen.  Crocker,  approached  the  fort  on  Sept. 
4,  1863,  and  Col.  Logan,  having  only  40  eft'eetive  men,  evacuated 
the  fort,  saving  all  the  property  he  could  and  destroying  the  re- 
mainder. 

Fort  Bute  was  one  of  the  three  posts  maintained  by  the  British 
on  the  lower  ^Mississippi  (the  others  being  located  at  Baton  Eouge 
and  Natchez)  after  their  acquisition  of  the  region  east  of  the 
Mississippi,  known  as  West  Florida.  Early  in  1765,  Col.  Taylor, 
commanding  the  British  troops  in  "West  Florida,  began  the  work 
of  clearing  out  the  channel  of  the  Iberville  river  (Bayou  Man- 
ehac),  in  order  to  complete  the  famous  inside  passage  from  Mo- 
bile to  the  Mississippi,  thereby  avoiding  contact  Avith  the  French 
at  New  Orleans,  and  affording  an  easy  means  of  communication 
witli  the  upper  posts  on  the  [Mississippi.  To  protect  the  men  en- 
gaged in  this  Avork,  a  little  stockade,  called  Fort  Bute,  Avas  built 
on  the  ilanchac,  and  a  small  garrison  was  maintained  there.  When 
Gov.  Galvez  started  on  his  career  of  conquest  against  the  British, 
in  1779,  Fort  Bute  proved  to  the  initial  point  of  attack.  After  a 
fatiguing  march  of  115  miles  from  New  Orleans,  the  little  army 
of  invasion  came  in  siglit  of  the  flag  of  Fort  Bute  on  Sept.  6.  Lieut. 
Dickson,  commanding  the  British,  had  previously  withdrawn  with 
most  of  his  force  to  the  more  defensible  position  of  Baton  Eouge, 
and  only  a  little  garrison  of  23  men  was  left  to  man  the  fort.  Gal- 
vez assaulted  on  the  7th,  and  the  post  Avas  taken  after  a  nominal 
resistance.  One  private  was  killed,  6  escaped,  and  the  others  be- 
came prisoners  of  Avar. 

Fort  Charlotte,  (see  Fort  Louis  de  la  [Mobile.) 

Fort  Chartres,  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Mississippi  about  a  mile 
and  a  half  from  the  river  bank,  and  25  miles  above  the  village  of 
the  Caskasquias,  Avas  built  by  the  French  under  de  Boisbriant  in 
1720.  It  Avas  located  in  the  so-called  Illinois  district,  and  was 
deemed  one  of  the  strongest  French  i)osts  in  North  America.  Its 
form  Avas  .-niadrilateral,  Avith  four  bastions,  ])uilt  of  stone,  and  well 
cemented  Avith  lime.  Each  side  was  340  feet  in  length,  the  Avails 
were  three  feet  thick  and  15  feet  high.  Within  the  walls  Avere 
spacious  stone  barracks,  a  large  magazine,  Avell,  etc.  The  cornices 
and  casements,  port-holes  or  loops,  were  of  solid  blocks  of  stone. 
The  post  Avas  for  juany  years  the  heaquarters  of  the  commandant 
of  Upper  Louisiana,  and  also  served  as  a  base  for  the  numerous 


LOUISIANA  415 

trading  and  exploring  expeditions  which  ascended  the  Jlissouri, 
as  well  as  the  upper  Llississippi  and  its  branches.  Its  establish- 
ment was  followed  by  the  erection  of  numerous  other  trading  posts 
and  settlements  on  the  banks  of  the  Mississippi  and  the  ^Missouri. 
The  villages  of  Prairie  du  Rocher,  St.  Philippe  and  Cahokia  were 
built  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  post.  The  Sulpicians  erected 
a  water  mill  for  grinding  corn  and  sawing  lumber  at  Cahokia,  and 
a  large  warehouse  was  established  at  Fort  Chartres  by  the  Com- 
pany of  the  Indies.  The  post  was  ceded  to  the  British  by  the 
Treaty  of  Paris,  1763,  but,  on  account  of  the  hostility  of  the  In- 
dians, it  was  not  until  the  fall  of  1765  that  ilaj.  Farmer,  in  com- 
mand of  the  34th  regiment,  went  up  the  Mississippi  to  the  Illi- 
nois country,  and,  in  conjunction  with  an  expedition  from  Pitts- 
burg, finally  effected  the  occupation  of  the  famous  fort.  IMean- 
while,  Nyon  de  Villiers,  commandant  at  the  Illinois,  grew  tired 
of  waiting  for  the  arrival  of  the  British  garrison,  and  in  the  sum- 
mer of  1764  descended  the  river  to  New  Orleans,  accompanied  by 
6  officers,  63  soldiers,  and  80  inhabitants,  including  the  women 
and  children.  In  1770  the  river  Ijroke  through  its  banks,  and  two 
years  later  two  of  the  fort's  bastions  fell  into  the  water.  It  was 
then  allowed  to  fall  into  decay,  and  is  now  only  known  as  one  of 
the  picturesque  ruins  on  the  Jlississippi. 

Fort  Conde,  (see  Fort  Louis  de  la  Mobile.) 

Fort  De  Russy,  a  Confederate  fortification,  was  located  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Red  river,  aboiit  3  miles  northeast  of  Marks- 
ville.  In  April,  1863,  the  garrison  there  was  commanded  by  Col. 
Aristide  Gerard  of  the  13th  Louisiana,  who  was  ordered  by  Gen. 
Taylor  to  evacuate  the  fort  and,  if  possible,  save  all  guns  and 
stores.  Col.  Gerard  was  afterward  tried  by  a  court-martial  for 
not  having  "used  proper  diligence  and  obedience  to  said  orders, 
but  did  destroy  a  considerable  of  government  property,  etc,"  but 
was  acquitted,  released  from  arrest  and  returned  to  duty.  Capt. 
John  Kelso  was  sent  with  the  gunboats  Cotton  and  Grand  Duke 
to  remove  the  property,  and  on  j\Iay  4,  1863,  a  spirited  fight  took 
place  near  the  fort  between  his  vessels  and  a  Federal  gunboat.  In 
the  action  the  Cotton  was  disabled,  with  a  loss  of  14  men  in  killed, 
wounded  and  missing,  and  7  men  were  wounded  on  the  Grand 
Duke.  The  property  was  removed,  however,  and  the  Federal  ad- 
vance up  the  river  was  delayed  for  48  hours. 

As  an  incident  of  Gen.  Bank's  Red  River  campaign  the  follow- 
ing year,  the  fort  was  attacked  on  March  14,  1864,  by  the  Federal 
forces  under  Gen.  A.  J.  Amith,  and  after  a  heroic  resistance  of  two 
hours  the  garrison  of  350  men  surrendered  to  vastly  superior  num- 
bers. 

Fort  Dout. — This  was  one  of  the  far  western  barrier  posts  es- 
tablished by  the  French,  to  maintain  its  territorial  claims  to  the 
region  west  of  the  Sabine,  and  also  to  prevent  Spanish  aggression. 
It  was  located  near  the  source  of  the  Sabine,  and  was  maintained 
until  Louisiana  changed  masters.     (Stoddard's  Louisiana,  p.  31). 

Fort  Iberville  (known  also  as  Fort  Maurepas),  an  early  French 


416  LOUISIANA 

post,  named  in  honor  of  its  builder,  the  founder  of  Louisiana,  was 
not  advantageoiislj'  located  and  'had  only  a  brief  existence.  On 
the  occasion  of  d 'Iberville's  second  return  to  Louisiana  in  1700, 
lie  was  informed  by  Sauvolle  and  Bienville  that  an  English  armed 
vessel,  under  command  of  Capt.  Bar,  had  sought  to  ascend  the 
Mississippi  river,  but  had  been  induced  to  turn  back.  This  infor- 
mation greatly  alarmed  Iberville,  and  he  immediately  departed 
from  Biloxi  for  the  Mississippi  on  another  voyage  of  exploration. 
On  his  way  up  tlie  river  he  selected  a  site  for  a  fort  some  54  miles 
from  tlie  mouth  aud  on  his  return  superintended  the  completion 
of  the  fort,  which  was  located  below  the  "English  Tiu-n,"  (q.  v.). 
His  brother  Bienville  was  placed  in  command  with  a  force  of  25 
men.  Iberville  caused  a  cross  to  be  erected  before  the  fort,  and 
at  the  foot  of  the  cross  a  leaden  plate  was  buried  with  the  inscrip- 
tion: "D.  0.  M.  The  French  first  came  here  from  Canada  under 
M.  de  la  Salle,  1G82.  From  the  same  place  under  M.  de  Tonti,  in 
1685.  From  the  sea  coast  under  M.  d 'Iberville,  in  1700,  and  planted 
this  cross  Feb.  14,  1700."  The  post  was  abandoned  during  Bien- 
ville's administration,  in  1705.  It  was  not  until  1722,  when  New 
Orleans  was  establislied,  that  the  principal  entrance  by  the  south- 
east pass  was  protected  by  Balize  Fort  (q.  v.). 

Fort  Jackson. —  (See  Military  Reservations.) 

Fort  Jesup,  village  in  the  central  part  of  Sabine  parish,  is  about 
7  miles  northeast  of  i\Iany,  the  parish  seat.  It  was  originally  estab- 
lished as  a  military  post  by  the  U.  S.  government  in  1823.  The 
fort  and  buildings  were  erected  on  the  high  laud  that  forms  the 
divide  between  the  Red  and  Sabine  rivers,  near  the  old  "Natchi- 
toches and  San  Antonio  trace,"  and  several  officers  commanded 
here  who  afterwards  took  prominent  parts  in  the  Mexican  and 
Civil  wars.  Fort  Jesup  became  one  of  the  most  important  posts 
on  the  western  frontier,  during  the  third  and  fourth  decades  of 
the  19th  century.  Jefferson  Davis,  Phil  Sheridan,  Col.  Many,  Capt. 
Bragg  aud  other  famous  men  were  at  the  fort,  either  as  command- 
ants or  visitors. 

Shawnee  Town  aud  other  trading  hamlets  sprang  up  around 
the  military  reservation  and  many  dark  tragedies  occurred  here 
during  the  opening  years  of  the  century,  for  this  Avas  practically 
"No  ]\Iau's  Land."  The  country  was  filled  with  desperados,  and 
their  rendezvous  became  famous  from  the  Atlautic  to  the  Pacific. 
When  the  soldiers  cleared  the  ground  for  the  cantonment,  they 
found  an  old  lime  kiln  which  was  used  to  make  lime  for  all  this 
locality  for  many  years.  Fort  Jesup  was  an  old  settlement  years 
before  ]\Iany  was  dreamed  of  and  the  site  of  the  parish  seat*  still 
an  unbroken  wilderness.  A  Masonic  lodge  was  chartered  in 
March,  1850,  and  in  1877-78  a  large  Masonic  hall  was  erected.  Gen. 
Taylor  had  his  headquarters  where  the  college  buildings  now 
stand,  and  the  well  lie  had  excavated  is  the  water  supply  for  the 
college  today.  Since  the  military  post  has  been  abolished  and  the 
railroad  built  to  the  west,  Fort  Jesup  has  lost  its  early  importance 


LOUISIANA  417 

and  today  is  a  village  of  about  100  inhabitants,  with  nothing  re- 
maining but  the  deserted  cantonment  to  tell  of  its  early  glory. 

Fort  Louis  de  la  Mobile,  built  by  Bienville  in  1702,  was  located 
12  leagues  above  the  present  city  of  Mobile,  on  the  right  or  west  bank 
of  the  Mobile  river.  The  headquarters  of  the  infant  colony  had 
previously  been  at  Port  Maurepas  (q.  v.)  on  the  Bay  of  Biloxi,  but 
on  the  occasion  of  Iberville's  return  to  the  colony  late  in  1701,  Bien- 
ville was  ordered  to  evacuate  Biloxi  and  remove  to  the  Mobile  river. 
The  latter  took  up  his  march  for  the  Mobile  on  Jan.  5,  1702,  and  on 
the  16th  he  commenced  to  build  Fort  St.  Louis  de  la  Mobile,  which 
continued  to  be  the  official  center  of  the  colony  for  the  next  9  years. 
Then,  on  account  of  a  disastrous  rise  in  the  river  in  the  spring  of 
1710,  which  flooded  the  fort  and  all  the  houses  in  the  vicinity,  Bien- 
ville constructed  a  new  fort  on  the  present  site  of  Mobile.  This  latter 
fort  was  afterward  reconstructed  with  bastions,  half-moons,  deep 
ditches,  covered  way  and  glacis,  with  houses  for  the  officers,  barracks 
for  the  soldiers,  and  was  mounted  with  16  cannon.  After  the  year 
1720  the  French  called  it  Fort  Conde.  Speaking  of  the  transfer  of 
Bienville's  old  fort  to  the  British  after  the  Treaty  of  Paris,  1763,  the 
historian  Hamilton  says:  "In  October,  a  detachment  of  Highland- 
ers reached  Mobile,  and  the  proces  verbal  of  transfer  was  signed  by 
De  Velle  and  Fezende  for  France,  and  Robert  Farmar  for  Great 
Britain.  The  lilies  were  lowered,  the  red  flag  ascended  to  the  music 
of  bagpipes,  and  Bienville's  fort  was  renamed  Fort  Charlotte  for  the 
young  Queen  of  England."  The  British  tlag  continued  to  fly  from 
the  old  fort  until  its  capture  bj^  the  Spanish  Gen.  Galvez,  March  14, 
1780.     (See  Galvez,  Spanish  Conquest,  etc.). 

Fort  Maurepas,  the  seat  of  the  tirst  French  colony  in  Louisiana, 
was  established  by  Iberville  during  the  month  of  April,  1699.  It 
was  located  on  the  northeast  shore  of  the  Bay  of  Biloxi,  about  a  league 
east  of  the  present  city  of  Biloxi,  and  near  the  present  town  of  Ocean 
Springs.  Iberville  had  expected  to  found  his  colony  on  the  banks 
of  the  ilississippi,  but  found  the  river  in  flood  when  he  ascended  it 
in  March,  1699,  and  was  unal)le  to  find  a  suitable  location.  He  had, 
however,  found  a  splendid  anehoi-age  for  his  ships  off  Ship  island, 
and  after  spending  a  few  days  in  exploring  the  coast  east  and  west 
of  their  anchorage,  including  the  Bay  of  St.  Louis  and  Paseagoula 
bay,  on  Tuesday,  April  7th,  he  and  Surgeres  observed  "an  elevated 
place  that  appeared  very  suitable."  As  their  provisions  were  now 
falling  short,  they  concluded  to  commence  operations  at  tliis  point, 
which  was  4  leagues  northwest  of  the  place  where  the  ships  were  an- 
chored, and  could  be  approached  at  a  distance  of  2  leagues.  They 
found  from  7  to  8  feet  of  water  at  the  entrance  of  the  bay,  and,  says 
Iberville,  "we  made  choice  of  this  place,  merely  on  account  of  the 
road,  where  the  small  vessels  could  go  and  come  at  all  times,  and 
where  we  could  assist,  without  fear,  with  a  portion  of  the  crew,  in 
building  the  fort  which  I  ordered  to  be  constructed  there,  whilst,  in 
the  meantime,  the  place  most  convenient  for  the  colony  can  be  selected 
at  leisure."  His  journal  continues:  "On  Wednesday,  the  8th,  we 
commenced  to  cut  away  the  trees  preparatory  for  the  construction  of 
1—27 


418  LOUISIANA 

the  fort.  All  our  men  worked  vigorously,  and  at  the  end  of  the  month 
it  was  finished.  In  the  meantime  the  boats  were  actively  engaged 
transporting  the  powder,  guns,  and  ammunition,  as  well  as  the  live 
stock,  such  as  bulls,  sows,  hogs,  fowls,  turkeys,  ete.  »  *  *  The 
fort  was  made  with  four  ])astions,  two  of  them  squared  logs,  from  two 
to  three  feet  thick,  placed  one  upon  the  other,  with  embrasures  for 
port  holes,  and  a  ditch  all  around.  The  other  two  bastions  were  stock- 
aded with  heavy  timbers  which  took  4  men  to  lift  one  of  them.  Twelve 
guns  were  mounted."  When  Iljerville  returned  to  France  early  in 
May  he  left  about  100  people  at  the  fort.  M.  de  Sauvolle  de  la  Vil- 
lantraj^,  lieutenant  of  a  company  and  naval  ensign  of  the  frigate  Le 
Marin,  was  left  in  command  as  governor;  Bienville,  king's  lieutenant 
of  the  marine  guard  of  the  frigate  La  Badine,  was  next  in  command ; 
Le  Vasseur  de  Roussouelle,  a  Canadian,  was  major;  de  Bordenac, 
chaplain ;  M.  Care,  surgeon ;  there  were  besides  2  captains,  2  can- 
noneers, 4  sailors,  18  filibusters,  10  mechanics,  6  masons,  13  Cana- 
dians and  20  sub-officers  and  soldiers  who  composed  the  garrison. 
This  was  the  feeble  beginning  of  the  first  white  settlement  on  the 
shores  of  the  gulf.  On  Dee.  18,  1701,  a  shallop  arrived  from  Pensa- 
cola  with  the  news  that  Iberville  had  again  arrived  in  the  New 
World,  and  at  the  same  time  orders  were  given  P>ienville  to  evacuate 
Biloxi,  and  remove  to  Mol)ile  river  (See  Port  Louis  de  la  Mobile). 
The  exact  location  of  Fort  Maurepas  at  Old  Biloxi  is  now  a  matter 
of  conjecture,  as  the  buildings  were  accidentally  l)urned  in  1719 
and  every  trace  of  them  has  been  obliterated  by  time. 

Fort  Natchitoches. — This  important  western  frontier  post  of  the 
French  was  established  by  Bernard  de  la  Harpe  in  Jan.,  1719,  and 
from  that  time  a  small  garrison  was  almost  continuously  maintained 
there.  La  Harpe,  a  French  officer  of  distinction,  had  arrived  at 
Mobile  in  Aug.,  1718,  to  found  a  colony  on  the  Red  river.  Accom- 
panied by  some  50  people  whom  he  had  brought  over  to  settle  on 
his  concession,  he  arrived  in  the  vicinity  of  Natchitoches  near  the 
close  of  the  same  year,  built  the  fort  near  the  present  town  of  the 
same  name,  and  it  constituted  his  base  when,  under  instructions  from 
Gov.  Bienville,  he  proceeded  further  west  to  explore  the  Texas  coun- 
try and  ascertain  the  intentions  of  the  Spaniards.  The  fort  was  the 
usual  square,  palisaded  affair,  and  the  post  thus  established  was  ever 
after  the  chief  barrier  against  Spanish  aggression  from  J\Iexico  and 
the  west.  Prior  to  this,  in  1714,  two  strong  storehouses  had  lieen  con- 
structed by  Juchereau  de  St.  Denis  (().  v.)  at  Natchitoches  during  his 
overland  journey  to  establish  commercial  relations  with  the  Spanish 
colonies  on  the  west.  Friendly  relations  were  also  established  at  this 
time  witih  the  Natchitoches  Indians.  When  St.  Denis  proceeded  fur- 
ther west  to  the  Rio  Grande  and  Mexico,  he  left  a  part  of  his  force 
behind  to  guard  the  buildings  at  Natchitoches.  He  failed  to  return 
within  a  reasonable  time,  and  his  men  forsook  the  post  and  returned 
to  Mobile  bay.  Gov.  Cadillac  luiderstood  the  strategic  importance  of 
the  place,  and  shortly  after  despatched  a  sergeant  and  a  few  soldiers 
to  occupy  the  buildings  and  guard  French  interests  iu  that  ({uar- 
ter.     St.  Denis  proceeded  via  Natchitoches  during  his  second  expedi- 


LOUISIANA  419 

tion  to  the  west  in  1715,  and  he  was  also  in  command  of  this  impoi'- 
tant  post  in  1731,  wheii  the  final  blow  was  administered  to  the  Natchez 
Indians,  under  their  famous  leader,  the  Flour  Chief.  The  post  retained 
its  military  importance  well  down  into  the  19th  century,  as  the  region 
east  and  west  of  it  was  disputed  territory  between  the  French  and 
Spanish,  and  later  between  the  United  States  and  Spain. 

Port  Necessity,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  southwestern  part  of  Frank- 
lin parish,  is  about  6  miles  west  of  Gilbert,  the  nearest  railroad  sta- 
tion, and  8  miles  southwest  of  Winnsboro,  the  parish  seat. 

Fort  Nogales. — By  the  Spanish-Choctaw  treaty  of  Natchez  in 
1790,  the  boundaries  of  the  British  district  of  West  Florida  were  re- 
affirmed on  the  old  lines,  and  in  addition  the  Choetaws  ceded  a  site 
for  Fort  Nogales  on  the  Walnut  hills.  In  May,  1791,  two  blockhouses 
and  a  large  barracks  were  completed,  and  additional  works  were  in 
process  of  construction.  David  Smith,  who  was  there  in  that  month, 
reported  to  Gov.  Blount  of  Tennessee,  that  the  site  of  the  fort  was  a 
mile  and  a  half  below  the  mouth  of  the  Yazoo,  on  a  high  bluff.  Be- 
sides other  laborers,  "about  30  United  States  deserters"  were  en- 
gaged in  the  work.  A  gallej'  and  Spanish  gunboat  were  lying  in  the 
river  close  at  hand.  The  best  description  of  the  fort  is  that  of  Gen. 
Victor  Collot  (q.  v.),  who  visited  it  in  1796  in  his  capacity  of  military 
spy.  He  wrote:  "The  post  of  Nogales,  called  by  way  of  irony  the 
Gibraltar  of  Louisiana,  is  situated  on  the  left  of  the  river,  near  a 
deep  creek,  and  on  the  sunnnit  of  different  eminences  connected  with 
each  other  and  running  northeast."  The  main  work,  on  the  south 
side  of  the  creek,  called  the  fort  of  the  great  battery,  was  an  inclosure 
made  on  the  river  side  by  a  wall  of  masonry  12  feet  high  and  4  feet 
thick,  and  on  the  land  side  a  ditch  4  feet  wide  and  3  deep,  and  pali- 
sades 12  feet  high.  Twelve  cannon  were  mounted  in  the  river  battery, 
and  a  blockhouse  with  four  howitzers,  placed  on  an  eminence  in  the 
rear,  was  included  in  the  quadrangle,  within  which  were  also  a  pow- 
der magazine,  the  commander's  liouse  and  barracks  for  200  men.  On 
a  hill  across  the  creek  was  a  blockhouse  with  4  cannon,  called  Fort 
Sugar  loaf.  About  1,000  yards  behind  these  works,  on  a  chain  of 
small  heights,  was  built  Port  Mount  Vigie,  a  sfjuare  earthwork,  with 
ditch  and  palisades,  blockhouse  and  4  cannon,  and  400  yards  to  the 
right  and  left  two  small  blockhouses,  called  Port  Gayoso  and  Port 
Ignatius.  The  garrison  of  80  men  did  not  STiffice  to  keep  the  works 
from  decay.  When  Andrew  Ellicott,  commissioner  for  the  United 
States  to  determine  the  boundary  between  the  United  States 
and  Spain  under  the  treaty  of  1795,  reached  Fort  Nogales  with 
his  party  in  Feb.,  1797,  his  boats  were  greeted  by  the  Spanish  com- 
mandant, not  with  a  salute,  but  with  a  discharge  of  artillery  aimed 
to  bring  them  to,  though  they  were  making  for  the  landing  as  fast 
as  possible.  Ellicott  wrote  that  the  "Spaniards  have  erected  some 
considerable  works.  The  post  is  a  very  important  one,  and  capable 
of  being  made  very  strong."  The  commandant  at  the  post  during 
these  last  years  of  Spanish  occupancy  was  Capt.  Elias  Beauregard, 
a  French  Creole.  When  Capt.  Isaac  Guion,  who  had  been  commis- 
sioned by  Gen.  Wilkinson  to  take  possession  of  the  military  posts 


420  LOUISIANA 

previously  held  by  the  Spanish  on  the  Mississippi,  ai-rived  at  the 
Waln^it  hills  on  Dee.  1,  1797.  he  was  coiirteonsly  informed  by  Beaure- 
gard that  he  was  not  ready  to  give  possession,  and  Gnion  and  his 
men  proceeded  do^vn  to  Natchez.  Fort  Nogales  was  finally  evacuated 
by  Beauregard  in  March,  1798,  upon  four  days'  notice  previously 
given  to  Capt.  Minor,  the  commander  for  the  Spanish  at  Natchez, 
who  in  turn  notified  Guion.  The  latter  took  no  steps  to  occupy  the 
post,  because  his  ordei-s  were  that  ilaj.  Kersey  would  arrive  with 
reinforcements  for  that  purpose.  As  a  result  the  fort  was  not  gar- 
risoned for  a  time.  When  Beauregard  left.  Guion 's  courier  was 
there,  "besides  sixteen  or  seventeen  inhabitants,  particularly  one  Mr. 
Glass,  that  for  their  own  interests  would  not  suffer  the  Indians  to 
make  depredations."  The  Americans  changed  the  name  of  the  fort 
to  Fort  MeHenry.  in  honor  of  the  then  secretarj-  of  war,  but  only 
occupied  it  until  the  close  of  the  18th  century." 

Fort  Orleans. — This  early  French  post  was  established  on  the 
Missouri  about  1722  and  was  garrisoned  from  New  Orleans.  The 
entire  garrison  was  wiped  out  during  an  Indian  uprising  in  1725  and 
the  post  destroyed.  The  location  of  the  fort  is  somewhat  iincertain, 
but  is  believed  to  have  been  on  the  Missouri  near  the  old  mouth  of 
the  Grand  river,  in  Carroll  county.  In  1745  Gov.  Yaudreuil  estab- 
lished some  other  posts  on  the  Missouri  to  protect  the  trade  in  that 
region,  and  to  restrain  the  constant  lawlessness  of  the  coureurs  des 
bois.  One  of  these  is  kiiown  to  have  been  located  at  the  Kansa  vil- 
lage, near  the  present  site  of  Fort  Leavenworth. 

Fort  Pickering. — (See  Chickasaw  Bluffs.) 

Fort  Prudhomme. —  (See  Chickasaw  Bluffs.) 

Port  Rosalie,  built  where  the  city  of  Natchez,  ]\riss.,  now  stands, 
was  established  as  a  protection  for  the  French  trading  post  and  set- 
tlement against  the  Natchez  Indians,  who  had  been  guilt.y  of  various 
acts  of  aggression  against  the  French  and  Canadians,  Bienville  had 
been  superseded  as  governor  by  Cadillac  under  the  Crozat  regime, 
and  with  the  title  of  lieutenant-governor  and  "Commandant  of  the 
Mississippi,'"  was  ordered  to  take  two  companies  of  infantry,  place  one 
at  Natchez,  the  other  on  the  Ouabache,  and  to  remove  his  headquarters 
to  Natchez.  (See  French  Coll.,  1851).  According  to  the  statement 
of  La  Harpe.  "Cadillac  would  not  give  him  but  thirty-five  men;  al- 
though he  knew  that  M.  de  la  Loire  des  Ursins  had  brought  the  news 
that  five  Frenchmen  had  been  killed  by  the  Natchez,  and  he  had  barely 
escaped  by  the  advice  of  a  chief,  who  had  given  him  the  means  to  save 
his  life."  He  accordingly  proceeded  up  the  Mississippi  with  his  little 
force  in  April,  1716.  He  halted  at  the  Tonieas  post,  two  leagues  above 
the  mouth  of  the  Red  river,  and  awaited  the  arrival  of  the  pirougues, 
laden  with  provisions  and  utensils  in  charge  of  MM.  de  Paillou  and 
de  Richebourg.  Approaching  Natchez,  he  learned  that  the  Indians 
had  lately  killed  2  Frenchmen  and  plundered  6  Canadians,  and  he 
promptly  sent  an  interpreter  to  solicit  provisions  and  to  bring  the 
calumet  of  peace.  In  the  negotiations  which  followed  with  the  Great 
Sun  of  the  Natchez  and  his  representatives,  the  Indians  surrendered 
the  6  Canadians,  and  also  brought  him  the  heads  of  the  chiefs  respon- 


LOUISIANA  421 

sible  for  the  murders.  The  Natchez  also  agreed  with  Bienville  to 
furnish  posts  and  lumber  to  build  a  fort.  The  work  on  this  fort 
was  begun  in  June,  under  the  direction  of  M.  Paillou,  who  after- 
wards became  its  tirst  commandant.  The  Indians  supplied  all  the 
timbers,  performed  most  of  the  labor  on  the  earthworks,  and  the 
fort  was  finally  completed  by  the  soldiers  of  Bienville,  who  arrived 
in  August.  It  was  named  Rosalie  in  honor  of  Madame  la  duchesse 
de  Pontchartrain.  The  site  selected  for  the  fort  was  on  the  sum- 
mit of  a  hill  about  670  yards  from  the  shore  of  the  river,  and  about 
180  feet  above  its  surface.  (His.  Coll.  of  La.,  p.  84,  part  iii.)  The 
historian  Claiborne  also  locates  this  original  fort  some  670  yards 
from  the  river,  while  Monette  states  that  it  was  built  at  some  dis- 
tance from  the  bluffs,  probably  near  the  eastern  limits  of  the  pres- 
ent city  of  Natchez.  The  early  chroniclers  describe  it  as  an  irreg- 
ular pentagon  25  fathoms  long  by  15  broad,  inclosed  by  palisades 
of  thick  plank,  and  without  bastions.  The  buildings  within  the 
inclosure  consisted  of  a  stone  house,  magazine,  houses  for  the  offi- 
cers and  barracks  for  the  soldiers.  The  ditch  surrounding  it  was 
partly  natural  and  partly  artificial,  and  in  most  places  19  feet  from 
the  bottom  to  the  top  of  the  rampart.  The  original  fort  was  de- 
stroyed by  the  Natchez  at  the  time  of  the  great  massacre  of  the 
French  in  1729,  but  a  new  fort  was  soon  after  erected  by  the  Chev- 
alier de  Loubois,  whom  Perier  had  sent  with  a  small  army  to  ex- 
terminate the  Natchez.  This  new  fort  was  built  on  the  brow  of  the 
bluft's  some  distance  from  the  first,  and  some  traces  of  it  still  re- 
main below  the  Natchez  compress,  though  it  was  largely  effaced 
by  the  great  landslide.  The  following  is  a  list  of  the  commandants  of 
Port  Rosalie  as  far  as  it  is  possible  to  ascertain  them  from  the  con- 
temporary records :  M.  de  Paillou ;  Sieur  de  Barnaval,  who  was  in 
command  during  the  Natchez  uprising  of  1723;  Sieur  de  Liette; 
Sieur  Broutin ;  de  Tisenet ;  M.  de  Merveilleiix ;  M.  de  Chopart,  who 
is  commonly  charged  with  the  responsibility  for  the  massacre  of 
1729 ;  and  Chevalier  Baron  de  Cresnay,  whom  Loubois  left  in  com- 
mand of  the  new  fort,  completed  in  1730.  During  the  summer  of 
1764,  a  considerable  detachment  of  British  troops  was  conveyed 
to  Port  Rosalie  on  a  frigate,  and  the  old  works,  which  were  then 
little  more  than  ruins,  were  repaired  and  fitted  up  for  a  garrison. 
The  post  was  rechristened  Port  Panmure  by  the  British.  In  1769 
the  troops  in  British  West  Florida,  including  those  at  Port  Pan- 
mure,  were  withdrawn  to  St.  Augustine,  on  orders  from  London. 
One  man,  John  Bradley  by  name,  received  possession  of  Port  Pan- 
mure,  charged  with  the  duty  of  keeping  it  in  order  and  defensible. 
In  1778,  shortly  after  the  Willing  Expedition,  says  the  historian- 
gaologist  Wailes,  "Gov.  Chester  sent  Col.  IMagellan  to  raise  four 
companies  of  militia,  and  with  orders  to  fit  up  Port  Panmure.  The 
command  of  these  troops  was  given  to  Lyman,  Blomart  and  Mc- 
intosh, who  were  soon  ordered  to  Baton  Rouge  in  consequence  of 
the  prospect  of  war  with  Spain,  and  a  Capt.  Poster,  with  100  men, 
was  left  in  command  of  Natchez."  After  this,  it  appears,  occurred 
the  conflict  between  Capt.  Michael  Jackson,  whom    the     governor 


422  LOUISIANA 

at  Pensacola  seut  to  take  charge,  with  a  company  of  royalist  refu- 
gees and  Col.  Anthony  Hutchins  and  Capt.  Lyman,  during  which 
the  possession  of  the  fort  was  contested  with  some  bloodshed. 
Fort  Panmure  and  two  small  posts  on  the  Amite  river  and  Thomp- 
son's creek  were  included  in  the  capitulation  of  Lieut.  Dickson  to 
Gen.  Galvez,  at  Baton  Rouge,  Sept.  22,  1779.  The  garrison,  which 
then  consisted  of  a  company  of  80  Waldeckers  (Hessians),  surren- 
dered Fort  Panmure  without  resistance,  but  did  not  finally  leave 
the  post  until  the  succeeding  October.  During  the  revolt  of  1781, 
the  garrison  under  the  Spanish  flag  was  besieged  by  the  Natchez 
district  people  and  compelled  to  surrender,  but  the  fort  was  soon 
returned  to  the  control  of  the  Spanish,  and  so  continued  until  the 
evacuation  of  March  80.  1798,  whereupon  the  United  States  flag, 
that  had  flow^l  for  a  year  and  a  month  from  the  camp  of  Ellicott  or 
Guion  hard  by,  was  raised  over  the  ancient  works.  The  several  Span- 
ish commandants  at  the  post  and  district  of  Natchez,  who  exercised 
both  civil  and  military  duties,  subject  to  the  governor-general  of 
Louisiana,  were  as  follows:  Don  Carlos  de  Grandpre,  July  29, 
1781.  to  Sept.,  1782;  Col.  Estevan  Miro,  Sept.  to  Nov.,  1782;  Don 
Pedro  Piernas,  Nov.,  1782  to  June,  1783;  Capt.  Francisco  CoUel, 
June  to  Aug.  3,  1783 :  Lieut. -Col.  Phelipe  Trevino,  Aug.  3,  1783,  to 
1785 ;  Don  Francisco  Bouligny,  1785  to  March,  1786 ;  Col.  Grandpre, 
1786  to  1792;  Lieut. -Col.  Manuel  Gayoso  de  Lemos,  July,  1792,  to 
July  26,  1797;  Capt.  Stephen  Elinor,"  July  26.  1797.  to  the  evacua- 
tion in  1798. 

Fort  Saint  Claude. — This  post  Avas  designed  as  a  protection  to 
the  Yazoo  district,  one  of  the  nine  civil  and  military  districts  into 
which  the  Province  of  Louisiana  was  divided  by  the  French.  A 
detachment  of  30  men,  under  Lieut,  de  la  Boulaye,  proceeded  to 
the  Yazoo  river  in  1718,  and  constructed  the  fort  on  an  elevated 
situation  about  10  miles  from  the  mouth.  The  site  chosen  was  on 
tlie  left  bank  of  the  river,  only  a  short  distance  from  the  village 
of  the  Yasous  Indians.  Writing  of  this  fort  in  1721.  Father  Char- 
levoix says:  "I  was  obliged  to  go  up  it  (the  Yazoo  river)  three 
leagues  to  get  to  the  fort,  which  I  found  all  in  mourning  for  the 
death  of  M.  Bizart,  who  commanded  here.  He  had  chosen  a  bad 
situation  for  his  fort,  and  he  was  preparing,  when  he  died,  to  re- 
move it  a  league  higher  in  a  very  fine  meadow,  where  the  air  is 
more  healthy,  and  where  there  is  a  village  of  Yasous,  mixed  with 
Curoas  and  Osogoulas  (with)  at  most  200  men  fit  to  bear  arms.  "We 
live  pretty  well  with  them,  liut  do  not  put  too  much  confidence  in 
them,  on  account  of  the  connections  which  the  Yasous  have  always 
had  with  the  English.  The  fort  and  the  land  belong  to  a  society 
composed  of  il.  le  Blanc,  secretary  of  state,  M.  le  Comte  de  Belle- 
Isle,  ]\I.  le  Marquis  d'Asfeld.  and  ]\I.  le  Blond,  brigadier  engineer. 
The  last  is  in  the  colony  with  the  title  of  director  general  of  the 
company.  I  can  see  no  reason  why  they  chose  the  river  of  the 
Yasous  for  the  place  of  their  grant.  There  was  certainly  choice 
of  better  land  and  a  better  situation.  It  is  true  that  it  is  of  im- 
portance to  secure  this  river,  the  source  of  which  is  not  far  from 


LOUISIANA  423 

Carolina ;  but  a  fort  with  a  good  garrison,  to  keep  under  the  Yasous, 
who  are  allies  to  the  Chicachas,  would  be  sufficient  for  the  purpose. 
It  is  not  the  way  to  settle  a  colony  on  a  solid  foundation,  to  be  always 
on  their  guard  against  the  savages  who  are  neighbors  of  the  English." 
The  fort  and  settlement  at  this  point  were  destroyed  by  the  Yasous 
and  Curoas  (the  Osogoulas  were  absent  on  the  chase  and  did  not  par- 
ticipate) on  Dec.  12,  1729.  They  were  incited  thereto  by  their  allies, 
the  Natchez,  who  had  just  engaged  in  the  wholesale  massacre  of  the 
French  in  the  Natchez  district.  The  commander  of  the  post,  M.  de 
Codere,  happened  to  be  on  a  visit  at  Fort  Rosalie,  and  had  already 
met  his  fate  at  the  hands  of  the  Natchez  Indians.  The  little  garrison 
of  17  men  at  St.  Claude,  under  the  command  of  the  Chevalier  des 
Roches,  were  surprised  and  all  were  murdered.  The  Yasous  had 
treacherously  slain  the  good  Father  Souel  the  day  before  in  the  vicin- 
ity of  the  post,  and  they  now  adopted  the  resolution,  says  Father  Petit 
in  his  Journal,  "of  putting  a  finishing  stroke  to  their  crime  by  the 
destruction  of  the  whole  French  post.  'Since  the  Black  Chief  is 
dead,'  said  they,  'it  is  the  same  as  if  all  the  French  were  dead — let 
us  not  spare  any.'  " 

Fort  Saint  Louis  de  Carlorette,  built  by  Benard  de  la  Harpe  in 
1719  at  the  village  of  Natsoos,  in  N.  lat.  33  deg.  55  min.,  was  one 
of  the  distant  barrier  settlements  established  by  the  French  for  the 
twofold  purpose  of  asserting  the  territorial  claims  of  France  and 
arresting  the  progress  of  the  Spaniards.  It  was  located  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Red  river,  in  what  is  now  northeastern  Texas.  Both 
France  and  Spain  laid  claim  to  the  region  now  called  Texas,  and 
Gov.  Bienville  was  especially  anxious  to  conserve  the  rights  of  the 
French  in  the  country  of  the  upper  Red  river.  La  Harpe,  in  ac- 
cordance with  tihe  traditional  policy  of  the  French,  cultivated  friendly 
relations  with  the  Indians  of  the  region,  and  also  sought  to  open  trade 
relations  with  the  Spanish  on  the  west,  but  without  avail.  His  rather 
acrimonious  correspondence  with  the  Spanish  commandant  at  the 
Assinais  is  recounted  in  his  manuscript  journal  of  the  first  establish- 
ment of  the  French  in  Louisiana,  a  translation  of  which  is  to  be  found 
in  Vol.  Ill  of  the  Historical  Collections  of  Louisiana  (1851).  The 
upshot  of  the  affair  was  that  the  Spanish  failed  to  make  good  their 
threats  to  attack  the  post,  and  the  same  was  maintained  by  the  French 
without  molestation  until  Louisiana  fell  into  the  hands  of  Spain. 
The  chief  defensive  works  built  by  La  Harpe  consisted  of  a  strong 
log  blockhouse,  which  served  both  as  a  protection  against  the  Indians 
and  the  Spanish,  and  as  a  store-house  for  goods  and  merchandise.  A 
mill  was  also  built,  the  settlers  cultivated  wheat,  corn  and  tobacco, 
and  also  carried  on  considerable  trade  with  the  Indians  up  and  down 
the  Red  river.  With  the  fort  as  a  base,  he  explored  the  region  to  the 
Arkansas  I'iver,  and  also  went  up  the  Red  as  far  as  the  base  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains. 
Fort  Saint  Philip. — (See  Military  Reservations.) 
Fort  Saint  Philip,  a  money  order  post-village  in  the  south- 
eastern part  of  Plaquemines  parish,  is  situated  on  the  east  bank  of  the 
Mississippi  river,  near  the  foi'tification  of  the  same  name  and  about 


424  LOUISIANA 

25  miles  below  Pointe  a  la  Hache.  Buras.  6  miles  west,  is  the  nearest 
railroad  station.   The  population  in  1900  was  51. 

Fort  Toulouse. — This  early  French  oxitpost  was  established  in 
the  district  of  Alabama  and  served  primarily  as  a  protection  against 
English  encroachments  from  Carolina  and  Georgia.  It  was  built  by 
Capt.  de  la  Tour  under  ordere  of  Gov.  Cadillac,  in  1714;  was  located 
on  the  east  bank  of  the  Coosa  river,  4  miles  above  its  junction  with 
the  Tallapoosa :  was  kept  constantly  garrisoned  by  the  French  during 
their  control  of  the  region,  and  was  occupied  by  the  English  aft*r 
the  peace  of  1762.  Fort  Jackson  was  built  on  its  ruins  during  the 
"War  of  1812. 

Fortier,  Alcee,  author  and  educator,  was  born  in  St.  James 
parish.  La..  June  5.  1856.  and  is  a  descendant  of  one  of  the  oldest 
French  families  in  the  state.  Francois  Fortier.  his  first  ancestor  in 
Loiiisiana.  came  from  St.  Malo,  Brittany,  in  the  eai'ly  part  of  the  18th 
century,  ilichel  Fortier,  a  sou  of  Francois  Fortier,  was  one  of  the 
signers  of  the  petition  protesting  against  the  transfer  of  the  province 
from  France  to  Spain.  Col.  Michel  Fortier,  another  ancestor,  men- 
tioned elsewhere  in  this  work,  was  an  officer  in  G«lvez's  army  in  his 
wars  against  the  British  (1770-1781),  and  a  member  of  the  fii"st  city 
council  of  New  Orleans  in  1803.  Alcee  Fortier  was  a  son  of  Florent 
and  Edwige  (Aime)  Fortier,  the  former  a  sugar  planter  of  St.  James 
pai-ish :  the  latter  a  daughter  of  Valcoi;r  Aime  and  a  niece  of  Gov. 
A.  B.  Roman.  After  comjileting  the  course  in  one  of  the  best  schools 
in  New  Orleans,  Alcee  Fortier  entered  the  University  of  Virginia, 
but  was  prevented  by  failing  health  from  gradiiating  at  that  historic 
institution.  He  then  read  law  for  about  two  years,  when,  his  father 
meeting  with  financial  revei-ses,  he  abandoned  his  legal  stiidies  to  be- 
come a  clerk  in  a  banking  house  in  New  Orleans.  He  continued  his 
studies  at  every  opportunity  and  finally  gave  up  banking  for  educa- 
tional work  by  accepting -a  position  as  teacher  in  the  city  high  school. 
From  the  high  school  he  became  principal  of  the  preparatory  depart- 
ment of  the  Univereity  of  Louisiana :  was  made  professor  of  French 
in  that  institution  in  1880;  was  reelected  when  it  took  the  name 
of  Tulane  University,  in  which  he  became  the  professor  of  Eomance 
languages.  He  studied  also  at  Paris  and  is  well  known  in  university 
circles  in  that  city.  From  1888  to  1896  he  was  a  member  of  the  State 
Board  of  Education :  has  served  as  \'ice-president  of  the  Ciril  Servaee 
Commission  of  the  city  of  New  Orleans :  as  vice-president  and  presi- 
dent of  the  Board  of  Curators  of  the  State  Museum ;  had  been  presi- 
dent of  the  Louisiana  Historical  society  since  1894.  of  the  Athenee 
Louisianais  .since  1892 ;  was  president  of  the  Catholic  "Winter  School 
of  America  from  1897  to  1902 :  vice-president  of  the  American  Dialect 
Society;. corresponding  secretary  of  New  Orleans  Academy  of 
Sciences;  president  of  the  Modern  Langiiage  Association  of  Ahierica, 
of  the  American  Folk-lore  Societv^  of  the  Federation  of  the  Alliance 
Franeaise  of  the  T'nited  States  and  Canada,  and  was  president  of 
the  Public  School  Alliance  of  New  Orleans.  He  was  chairman  of  the 
history  jury  at  the  World 's  Fair  at  St.  Louis  in  1904 ;  a  member  of 
the  Congress  of  Arts  and  Science  at  that  exposition,  where  he  read  one 


LOUISIANA  425 

of  the  two  principal  papers  iii  the  section  of  Romance  literatures; 
and  was  a  member  of  the  advLsory  council  of  the  Warner  Library. 
Prof.  Fortier  has  delivered  lectures  on  French  history  and  literature 
and  on  Louisiana  history  and  literature  before  a  number  of  learned 
societies  and  at  many  American  universities.  During'  the  summer 
sessions  he  has  been  a  member  of  the  faculty  of  the  universities  of 
Chicago,  California,  Tennessee,  Kansas,  Colorado,  and  Wisconsin, 
and  at  Harvard  University.  He  received  from  the  French  govern- 
ment the  decoration  of  "Officer  de  I'lnstruction  Publique"  and 
"Chevalier  dd  la  Legion  d'honneur;"  from  Washington  and  Lee  and 
Laval  Universities  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Letters.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  Academy  of  Macon  in  France;  of  the  American  Antiquarian 
Society ;  the  American  Historical  Association ;  the  Sons  of  the  Amer- 
ican Revolution;  the  Raven  Society  of  the  Univei-sity  of  Virginia; 
and  an  honorary  member  of  the  Minnesota  and  Missouri  Historical 
Societies,  and  of  the  Geographical  Society  of  Quebec.  Prof.  Fortisr 
has  written  many  articles  for  literary  and  historical  magazines  and 
journals,  has  edited  several  French  texts  for  American  colleges,  and 
has  published  the  following  books:  Gabriel  d'Ennerieh,  a,  liistorical 
novellette  (1886)  ;  Bits  of  Louisiana  Folk-lore  (1888)  ;  Histoire  de  la 
Litterature  Francjaise  (1893)  ;  Louisiana  Studies  (1894)  ;  Louisiana 
Folk-Tales  (1894)  ;  Voyage  en  Europe  (1895)  ;  Precis  de  I'Histoire 
de  France  (1899)  ;  History  of  Louisiana,  four  volumes,  (1904)  ;  His- 
tory of  Mexico  (1907).  In  1881  Prof.  Fortier  married  Miss  Marie 
Lanauze,  daughter  of  a  highly  esteemed  French  merchant  of  New 
Orleans,  and  a  niece  of  M.  Feraud-Giraud,  one  of  the  greatest  French 
jurists  in  Paris.  Mrs.  Foriiei'  is  descended  also  from  one  of  the  oldest 
families  in  Louisiana,  which  was  among  the  earliest  settlers  of 
St.  Louis  in  Upper  Louisiana — the  Sarpy  family.  Prof.  Fortier  had 
four  sons  and  one  daughter.  His  eldest  son,  Edward  Joseph,  is  fol- 
lowing the  profession  of  his  father,  and  is  a  member  of  the  faculty 
lof  Columbia  University;  the  second  son,  James  J.  A.,  is  now  a 
prominent  young  attorney  of  the  New  Orleans  Bar,  and  the  two 
other  sons,  Prank  and  Gilbert,  are  students  in  Tulane  University. 
Prof.  Fortier  was  active  as  a  citizen,  as  an  educator,  and  as  a  writer 
on  historical  and  literary  subjects,  and  was  one  of  the  most  widely 
known  members  of  the  faculty  of  the  Tulane  University  of  Lou- 
isiana. His  death  occurred  early  in  the  year  1914  and  caused  uni- 
versal grief  among  all  classes  of  Louisiana  citizens.  Resolutions 
were  passed  by  many  prominent  societies  extolling  his  virtues  and 
lamenting  his  early  death  in  the  midst  of  great  usefulness. 

Fortier,  Florent,  a  member  of  an  old  French  colonial  family  of 
Louisiana,  was  born  in  1811  in  St.  Charles  parish.  He  was  educated 
at  Sorreze  college  in  France,  and  on  his  return  home  was  sent  by  his 
father  to  Transylvania  university  at  Lexington,  Ky.,  to  study  Eng- 
lish. He  married  in  1836  ]\Iiss  Edwige  Aime,  the  eldest  daughter 
of  the  wealthy  and  enterprising  sugar  planter,  Valcour  Aime,  of 
St.  James  parish,  and  contributed  greatly  to  the  success  of  his  father- 
in-law  in  the  management  of  the  latter 's  plantation  and  refinery.  Mr. 
Fortier  was  a  man  of  high  literary  culture  and  wrote  graceful  French 


426  LOUISIANA 

verse.  He  died  in  1886.  leaving  one  son,  Prof.  Aleee  Fortier,  and 
four  daughtei-s — Mrs.  Nelvil  Le  Beuf.  Mrs.  Edward  Roman,  Mrs.  Al- 
fred Fortier  and  Mrs.  Edmoud  Le  Breton. 

Fortier,  Col.  Michel,  merchant,  planter  and  soldier,  was  born  in 
Louisiana  in  1750.  his  family  ha\'ing  been  among  the  early  French 
pioneers  of  the  colony.  He  was  a  member  of  the  first  city  council  of 
New  Orleans,  and  when  Gov.  Galvez  called  the  mass-meeting  in  the 
Place  d 'Amies  in  1779,  to  decide  on  the  question  of  making  an  attack 
on  the  British  posts,  Mr.  Fortier  enlisted  and  took  part  in  all  the  cam- 
paigns of  the  young  governor.  For  his  bravery  in  these  campaigns 
he  was  made  a  captain  of  artillery  by  Charles  III.  King  of  Spain,  and 
his  commission  is  still  in  the  possession  of  his  descendants  in  Louisi- 
ana. Gov.  Claiborne,  in  a  letter  to  Gen.  Jackson,  dated  Aug.  12, 
1814,  mentioned  a  battalion  of  picked  men  of  color  commanded  by 
Col.  Michel  Fortier,  "a  respectable  and  rich  merchant  of  New  Or- 
leans." During  the  war  of  1812  he  rendered  valuable  services  ^\•ith 
this  battalion,  and  at  the  time  of  the  British  invasion  of  Louisiana 
he  performed  duty  in  New  Orleans  among  the  veterans  who  guarded 
the  city.  His  eldest  son.  Col.  Michel  Foi'tier,  Jr.,  was  aide-de-camp 
to  Gov.  Claiborne  and  took  an  active  part  in  the  battle  of  New  Or- 
leans. In  a  series  of  resolutions  the  legislature  said  of  the  conduct 
of  Col.  Fortier  on  this  occasion:  "In  town.  Col.  Fortier,  Sen.,  con- 
tributed in  a  great  measure  to  the  prompt  departure  for  Chef  Men- 
teur  of  the  free  men  of  color,  already  embodied,  by  furnishing 
them,  at  his  own  cost,  with  such  articles  as  they  stood  in  need  of. 
To  him  also  the  country  owes  the  forming  and  organizing  a  second 
corps  of  free  men  of  color,  to  whom  the  brave  Savary  was  appointed 
a  captain.  At  his  call,  both  captain  and  soldiers  repaired  to  his 
house  to  be  enlisted.  He  personally  attended  to  the  arming  and 
equipping  of  them ;  and  through  his  exertions  that  company,  under 
command  of  Maj.  Dauquin.  was  enabled  to  take  the  field  and  face  the 
enemy  a  few  hours  after  its  formation.  M.  Fortier  caused  also  several 
hiindreds  of  miiskets  imfit  for  use  to  be  repaired."  Col.  Fortier 's 
death  occurred  in  1819,  and  he  was  laid  to  rest  in  the  old  St.  Louis 
cemetery  at  New  Orleans.  His  grave  was  decorated  in  July,  1908.  by 
the  "Sons  of  the  Amerieaji  Revolution"  in  Louisiana. 

Foster  (R.  R.  name  Bayou  Sale),  a  village  in  the  central  part 
of  St.  Mary  parish,  is  situated  at  the  junction  of  two  divisions  of  the 
Southern  Pacific  R.  R.,  4  miles  southeast  of  Franklin,  the  parish  seat. 
It  has  a  money  order  postoffice,  express  office,  telegraph  station  and 
telephone    facilities. 

Foster,  Murphy  Jaanes,  lawyer,  governor  and  U.  S.  senator,  was 
born  at  Franklin,  St.  Maiy's  parish.  La.,  Jan.  12,  1849.  After  the 
Civil  war  he  attended  a  preparatory  school  near  Na.shville,  Term., 
for  two  years,  and  in  1867  entered  Washington  and  Lee  college  at 
Lexington,  Va.  The  following  year  he  left  that  institution  for  Cum- 
berland university,  Lebanon,  Tenn.,  where  he  gi-aduated  in  1870.  In 
1871  he  graduated  at  the  law  school  of  Tulaue  university,  and  in  1872 
was  elected  a  member  of  the  John  McEnery  legislature,  but  as  this 
government  was  not  recognized,  did  not  take  his  seat.    In  1879  he 


LOUISIANA  427 

was  elected  to  the  Louisiana  state  senate  under  the  constitution 
adopted  that  year,  and  continued  a  member  of  that  body  for  12  years, 
being  president  pro  tem,  during  his  last  term.  In  1890  he  led  the  anti- 
lottery  fight  in  the  legislature,  and  this  led  to  his  nomination  for 
governor  on  the  anti-lottery  ticket  in  1892.  Four  years  later  he  was 
reelected,  and  at  the  close  of  his  second  term  he  was  elected  to  the  U. 
S.  senate  to  succeed  Donelson  Caffery,  his  terra  beginning  on  March 
4,  1901.  Before  the  expiration  of  his  term  the  legislature  of  Louisiana 
passed  the  primary  election  law,  and  Senator  Foster  requested  that 
the  U.  S.  senatorship  be  included  in  the  primary.  He  received  42,990 
votes  in  the  primary,  his  opponent,  B.  F.  Jonas,  receiving  26,122, 
which  insured  his  reelection  for  the  term  expiring  on  March  3,  1913. 

Foster's  Administration. — Gov.  Murphy  J.  Foster  took  the  oath 
of  office  on  May  9,  1892,  Charles  Parlange  being  at  the  same  time 
inaugurated  lieutenant-governor.  The  lottery  question  had  been  the 
paramount  issue  in  the  campaign,  and  Francis  T.  Nicholls,  the  retir- 
ling  governor,  in  his  concluding  message  to  the  legislature,  said : 
"From  that  contest  Louisiana  emerges  victorious,  her  virtue  vindi- 
cated, her  morality  strengthened,  her  future,  I  trust,  assured.  Again 
she  stands  among  her  sister  states  as  fair  as  any,  as  pure  as  any,  as 
proud  as  any.  The  shadow  has  passed  away.  Once  more  she  is  moving 
to  the  front,  and  it  will  be  for  you  to  see  that  her  course  be  steadfast 
and  true.  It  will  be  for  you  to  see  that  what  has  been  faithfully  and 
gloriously  won  shall  be  firmly  and  successfully  maintained." 

Immediately  upon  the  inauguration  of  Foster  and  Parlange,  the 
Republicans  entered  a  protest  before  the  general  assembly,  claiming 
that  Albert  H.  Leonard  and  H.  D.  Coleman  had  received  the  highest 
number  of  votes  for  governor  and  lieutenant-governor  respectively, 
and  these  defeated  candidates  demanded  an  investigation.  With  the 
exception  of  this  incident,  which  in  the  end  amounted  to  nothing, 
Gov.  Foster  began  his  administration  under  the  most  favorable  aus- 
pices. During  the  legislative  session  a  number  of  ballots  were  taken 
for  a  U.  S.  senator  to  succeed  Gen.  Randall  L.  Gibson,  whose  term 
would  expire  on  March  4,  1893,  but  the  general  assembly  finally  ad- 
journed without  an  election.  Gen.  Gibson  died  on  Dec.  15,  following, 
and  Gov.  Foster  appointed  Donelson  Caffery  to  fill  out  the  unexpired 
term.  The  governor  approved  110  acts,  one  of  which  prohibited  the 
sale  of  lottery  tickets,  or  the  drawing  of  any  lottery  or  scheme,  in  the 
state  after  Dec.  31,  1893.    (See  Lotteries.) 

Oct.  21,  1892,  the  400th  anniversary  of  the  discoveiy  of  America 
by  Christopher  Columbus,  was  celebrated  by  appropriate  ceremonies 
in  all  the  schools,  in  many  of  the  New  Orleans  churches,  and  by  a  great 
popular  meeting,  preceded  by  a  grand  civil  and  military  parade,  in 
Lafayette  square,  at  which  speeches  were  made  in  English,  French, 
Spanish,  German  and  Italian.  Mayor  Fitzpatrick  presided  at  the 
meeting,  and  among  the  other  speakers  introduced  James  D.  Cole- 
man, who  said  the  success  of  the  celebration  was  due  chiefly  to  the 
patriotic  efforts  of  Archbishop  Janssens;  that  the  Catholics  had  as- 
sembled on  Oct.  12 — the  true  anniversary  of  the  discover}- — at  the 
call  of  the  Pope  to  commemorate  the  anniversary  of  the  event,  and  that 


428  LOUISIANA 

the  present  meeting  had  been  called  by  the  president  of  the  United 
States  for  a  similar  purpose. 

In  the  presidential  eampaign  of  1892  a  fusion  was  effected  by  the 
Republicans  and  Populists,  the  ticket  consisting  of  5  Harrison  and  3 
Weaver  electors.  At  the  election  in  November  the  Cleveland  electors 
received  87.922  votes,  and  the  highest  vote  received  by  any  elector  on 
the  Fusion  ticket  was  26.563.  On  that  ticket  the  Weaver  electors  ran 
about  1.200  ahead  of  the  Republicans.  In  Aug.  1893.  Judge  Charles 
E.  Fenner,  of  the  supreme  court,  resigned,  and  Lieut. -Gov.  Parlange 
was  appointed  to  till  the  vacancy.  Early  the  following  year  Judge 
Parlange  was  appointed  to  the  Federal  judgeship  for  the  eastern  dis- 
trict of  Louisiana  to  fill  the  vacancy  causetl  by  the  death  of  E.  C. 
Billings. 

Developments  with  regard  to  the  assessment  of  propert.y  for  ta^c 
purposes  this  year  caused  a  great  deal  of  dissatisfaction  in  some  of 
the  parishes  where  the  people  felt  that  they  were  paying  more  than 
their  just  proportion  of  the  public  expenses.  Constitutional  amend- 
ments were  recommended  by  some  to  correct  the  glaring  inequalities, 
while  others  argued  that  the  legislature  already  had  ample  power  of 
provide  some  method  of  etpializing  valuations.  Toward  the  close  of 
the  year  the  assessor  of  St.  Landry  parish  issued  a  call  for  a  conven- 
tion of  assessors  to  meet  in  New  Orleans  on  Jan.  16,  1894.  to  consider 
and  if  possible  devise  .some  plan  by  which  the  desired  end  might  be 
attained,  Imt  nothing  definite  was  accomplished  along  this  line  until 
after  the  adoption  of  the  constitution  of  1898.  Some'  trouble  also 
came  up  this  year,  with  regard  to  the  use  of  surplus  that  had  ac- 
cumulated in  the  fund  set  apart  for  the  pa.yment  of  interest  on  the 
state  bonds.  At  a  meeting  of  the  state  board  of  liquidation  it  was 
decided  to  apply  the  surplus  to  the  purchase  of  state  bonds,  under  the 
act  of  1874,  and  thereby  reduce  the  bonded  debt.  The  state  treasurer 
was  not  present  at  the  meeting,  and  when  informed  of  the  action  of  the 
board  he  .set  up  the  claim  that  the  act  of  1874  had  been  annulled  bj' 
the  constitution  of  1879,  and  refiLsed  to  pay  out  money  for  the  pur- 
chase of  bonds  unless  ordered  to  do  so  by  an  act  of  the  general  as- 
sembly. The  attorney-general  held  that  the  law  left  nothing  to  tha 
discretion  of  the  board,  and  applied  to  the  civil  district  court  of  New 
Orleans  for  a  writ  of  mandamus  to  compel  the  treasurer  to  obey  the 
order  of  the  board.  The  district  court  decided  that  the  board  had  the 
authority  to  order  the  purchase  of  the  Iwnds.  whereupon  the  treas- 
urer appealed  to  the  supreme  court,  which  afiSrmed  the  decision  of  the 
lower  court.  During  the  next  three  years  bonds  to  the  amount  of 
$206,700  were  bought  and  canceled.  These  bonds,  bearing  4  per  cent 
interest,  were  purchased  for  .'{il99.825.73,  a  saving  of  uearly  $6,000, 
besides  stopping  the  payment  of  interest  on  the  bonds  thus  redeemed. 

In  the  first  half  of  1893  Louisiana  was  scourged  by  storm  and 
flood,  which  caused  much  suffering  and  greatly  injured  the  growing 
crops.  In  March,  the  parishes  of  Catahoula  and" Concordia  were  partly 
overflowed;  bad  breaks  occurred  at  several  places  along  the  Mississippi 
in  Jlay,  and  the  governor,  vvith  others,  made  a  tour  of  inspection 
along  the  levees,  extending  their  observation  into  Arkansas.    The 


LOUISIANA  429 

substance  of  the  governor's  report  was  as  follows:  "Most  of  the  old 
levees  in  Arkansas  are  in  a  wretched  condition,  poorly  constructed, 
'and  inadequate  to  resist  any  flood  of  the  magnitude  of  that  which  now 
threatens  us.  The  levees  in  Louisiana  I  find  in  fine  condition.  Im- 
mense dikes  have  been  built  which  will  resist  almost  any  flood  in  the 
river,  and  at  points  where  any  weakness  has  manifested  itself  the 
danger  has  been  promptly  met."  After  this  report  was  made  a  break 
occurred  in  East  Carroll  parish,  and  by  May  30  it  was  3,000  feet 
wide.  Over  5,000  people  were  driven  from  their  homes  and  were 
sheltered  in  two  large  camps.  In  June  two  breaks  occurred  on  the 
east  bank — one  above  and  the  other  below  tlie  city  of  New  Orleans — 
and  late  in  the  month  the  New  River  country  was  flooded  by  an  over- 
flow from  the  Rescue  crevasses.  During  the  entire  summer  the  gov- 
ernor and  the  state  officers  were  at  their  posts  doing  what  they  could 
to  avert  disaster,  or  to  i-elieve  distress  after  the  disaster  came. 

The  legislature  of  1894  met  on  May  6  and  remained  in  session  until 
July  12.  Some  time  was  spent  in  the  consideration  of  the  report  sub- 
mitted by  the  constitutional  commission  appointed  at  the  preceding 
session.  (See  Constitutional  Commission.)  A  resolution  was  adopted 
declaring  it  to  be  the  sense  of  the  legislature  that  U.  S.  senators  should 
be  elected  by  direct  vote  of  the  people,  and  that  Louisiana  senators 
and  representatives  in  Congress  should  work  to  that  end.  In  response 
to  a  general  demand  for  a  radical  change  in  the  election  laws,  an  act 
was  passed  to  regiilate  elections,  but  it  was  not  satisfactory  to  the  peo- 
ple, who  wanted  the  Australian  ballot  system,  and  was  generally  de- 
nounced by  the  new.spapers  throughout  the  state.  An  appropriation 
of  $1,200  was  made  for  the  purpose  of  locating  the  positions  of  the 
Loiiisiana  regiments  on  the  battlefields  of  Chickamauga  and  Gettys- 
burg, and  several  acts  relating  to  the  sale  of  intoxicating  liquors  were 
passed. 

The  political  campaign  of  1894  was  more  exciting  than  the  usual 
"off  year"  contest,  owing  to  the  "Wilson  tariff  bill,  one  feature  of 
which  was  the  proposal  to  discontinue  the  bounty  on  sugar  manu- 
facture in  the  United  States.  In  May  the  sugar  planters  of  Louisiana 
held  a  convention,  adopted  a  series  of  resolutions,  setting  forth  the 
fact  that  they  regarded  the  bounty  as  one  of  the  provisions  of  eon- 
tract  with  the  government,  to  run  for  15  yeai*s,  on  the  strength  of 
which  they  had  expended  large  sums  for  improving  their  plants  for 
the  production  of  sugar,  and  sent  a  copy  of  the  resolutions  to  the 
senators  and  representatives  of  the  state  in  Congress,  with  a  memorial, 
in  which  they  said:  "If  this  governmental  policy  be  now  suddenly 
reversed  and  the  sugar  planters  of  Louisiana  be  abandoned  to  hope- 
less competition  with  the  superior  natural  advantages  of  tropical 
countries  and  with  the  government-aided  sugar  industry  of  European 
countries,  the  sugar  industry  of  Louisiana  will  be  instantly  annihi- 
lated, all  these  extensive  improvements  will  become  mere  useless  in- 
cumbrances on  the  soil  and  utterly  valueless,  our  plantations  will  pass 
under  the  sheriff's  hammer  in  foreclosure  of  mortgages  which  they  will 
not  satisfy,  half  the  people  of  the  state  will  be  thro\vn  helpless  on  the 
world  without  employment,  and  Louisiana  will  present  a  picture  of 


430  LOUISIANA 

desolation  comparable  only  to  the  Palatinate  after  its  devastation 
by  the  armies  of  its  invaders." 

Notwithstanding  this  vigorons  protest  the  bill  was  passed  by  Con- 
gress, the  bounty  clause  of  the  McKinlcy  tarift*  bill  was  repealed,  and 
on  Sept.  17  the  planters  held  another  convention,  in  which  they  came 
out  openly  for  the  Republican  party.  Candidates  were  nominated, 
but  at  the  election  in  November  the  Democrats  carried  the  state, 
electing  all  six  of  the  Congressmen,  though  the  opposition  charged 
that  intimidation,  fraud  and  violence  had  been  used  to  carry  the  1st, 
2nd  and  3d  districts.  An  attempt  was  made  by  the  Miles  planting 
company  to  test  the  bounty  question  in  the  courts  by  an  application 
to  the  supreme  court  of  the  District  of  Columbia  for  a  mandamus  to 
compel  the  secretary  of  the  treasury  to  appoint  the  necessary  in- 
spectors to  determine  the  amount  of  sugar  produced,  etc.  In  Novem- 
ber the  case  came  before  the  court  of  appeals,  and  in  Jan..  1895,  it 
was  decided  adversely  to  the  planters,  the  court  holding  that  the 
boiinty  was  unconstitutional. 

The  drought  of  1893-94  had  produced  wide-spread  suffering  in 
Nebra.ska.  and  about  the  close  of  1894  Gov.  Foster  issued  a  call  to  the 
charitably  inclined  people  of  Louisiana  to  contribute  supplies  for  the 
relief  of  the  needy  of  the  former  state.  On  Jan.  6  a  train  of  20  loaded 
cars  was  started  for  Nebraska.  Among  the  supplies  were  over  500  bar- 
rels of  molasses.  93  barrels  of  siigar,  about  100  barrels  and  sacks 
of  rice,  flour,  cornmeal,  potatoes,  clothing,  a  carload  of  dressed  lum- 
ber, and  a  carload  of  salt  from  the  Avery  island  mines,  and  many 
other  useful  products. 

In  1890  the  First  National  bank  of  Shreveport  refused  to  pay  its 
taxes.claiming  that  the  assessment  was  illegal  and  excessive ;  that  the 
board  of  reviewers  had  assessed  the  stock  of  the  bank,  which  was  in 
U.  S.  bonds,  and  therefore  exempt  from  taxation ;  and  that  the  stock 
had  been  assessed  at  a  higher  rate  than  the  property  of  individuals, 
which  was  a  violation  of  the  Federal  constitution.  The  case  was  taken 
to  the  courts,  and  in  Aug.,  1895,  it  was  decided,  the  court  sustaining 
and  making  absolute  a  rule  compelling  the  bank  to  settle  or  produce 
its  stock  for  sale  to  satisfy  the  demand  for  taxes. 

On  Dec.  18.  1895,  the  Democratic  .state  convention  met  at  Shreve- 
port, nominated  Gov.  Foster  for  reelection,  and  completed  the  ticket 
as  follows :  for  lieutenant-governor.  Robert  H.  Snyder ;  secretary  of 
state,  John  T.  Michel ;  auditor,  "W.  W.  Heard ;  treasurer,  A.  V.  Four- 
net:  attorney-general,  Milton  J.  Cunningham;  superintendent  of 
education,  Joseph  V.  Calhoun.  A  large  free-silver  convention  had 
been  held  in  New  Orleans  on  June  10.  and  on  July  20  the  Ballot  Re- 
form League  also  held  a  convention  in  New  Orleans.  The  latter  or- 
ganization met  again  at  Shreveport  the  day  before  the  Democratic 
convention,  with  the  object  of  influencing  that  party  to  declare  in 
favor  of  the  proposed  amendment  to  the  state  constitution  which 
provided  that  only  those  who  could  read  the  constitution  in  the  mother 
tongue  or  owned  property  to  the  amount  of  .1^200  should  be  permitted 
to  vote.  The  league  was  also  interested  in  securing  a  resolution  com- 
mitting the  Democratic  party  to  the  Australian  ballot,  but  the  con- 


LOUISIANA  431 

vention  of  the  18th  made  no  declaration  on  the  currency  question  and 
merely  approved  the  action  of  the  last  legislature  on  the  question  of 
suffrage.  The  national  Republicans,  composed  of  the  sugar  planters 
and  their  associates  who  went  over  to  the  Republican  party  in  1894, 
held  a  sfate  convention  on  Jan.  4,  1896,  and  nominated  a  ticket.  The 
Populists  met  at  Alexandria  on  the  8th  and  also  placed  a  ticket  in 
the  field,  but  later  in  the  month  a  fusion  was  affected  with  the 
Republicans.  The  fu.sion  ticket  was  made  up  as  follows:  for  gov- 
ernor, J.  N.  Pharr ;  lieutenant-governor,  J.  B.  Kleinpeter ;  secretary 
of  state,  J.  W.  McParland ;  auditor,  H.  P.  Kernochan ;  treasurer,  H. 
B.  Nelson;  attorney-general,  Lucien- D.  Suthon;  superintendent  of 
education,  G.  A.  M.  Cook. 

The  election  occurred  on  April  21,  but  the  result  was  not  settled 
until  the  assembling  of  the  legislature  on  May  14,  when  the  tellers 
made  two  reports.  The  majority  report  declared  the  Democratic  ticket 
elected,  Poster  receiving  116,216  votes,  and  Pharr,  90,188,  the  major- 
ity on  the  other  candidates  being  about  the  same.  The  minority  report 
said :  ' '  The  undersigned  beg  leave  to  report  that  they  have  not  been 
able  to  examine  and  correct  the  vote  as  provided  by  Article  LIX  of 
the  constitution,  because  what  purport  to  be  the  returns  of  the  elec- 
tion are  mere  tabulated  statements  from  the  board  of  supervisors  of 
the  several  parishes,  and  no  legal  returns  were  presented  to  yoiir  com- 
mittee. The  undersigned  beg  further  to  report  that  they  are  informed 
that  the  legal  returns  are  now  in  the  office  of  the  secretary  of  state, 
whose  office  is  in  this  building,  and  we  therefore  pray  that  the  secre- 
tary of  state  be  ordered  to  produce  instanter  and  lay  before  the  gen- 
eral assembly  said  legal  returns,  consisting  of  the  original  tally  sheets, 
compiled  statements  of  voters  and  lists  of  voters,  in  order  that  this 
honorable  body  may  examine  and  count  the  vote  for  governor  and 
lieutenant-governor  of  this  state  as  provided  by  Article  LIX  of  the 
constitution. 

The  Republicans  claimed  the  election  of  the  Fusion  candidates, 
basing  their  claim  chiefly  on  the  fact  that  disturbances  had  occurred 
in  various  parts  of  the  state  that  resulted  in  the  suppression  of  the 
negro  vote.  This  was  especially  true  of  St.  Landry  parish,  where  it 
was  said  that  some  200  "white  regulators"  armed  themselves  with 
Winchester  rifles  and  served  notice  that  no  negro  should  I'egister  or 
vote  there,  at  the  same  time  promulgating  the  following  as  their 
platform:  "The  white  men  of  St.  Landry  claim  that,  as  the  negro  is 
a  purchasable  political  commodity,  who  will  sell  out  without  regard  to 
principle,  they  are  determined  that  the  only  way  to  prevent  them- 
selves from  being  included  in  the  sale  is  to  take  the  manly  plan  and 
prevent  the  consuimnation  of  an  infamy  that  no  brave  people  can 
stand.  They  do  not  believe  in  ballot-box  stuffing,  and  are  therefore 
compelled  to  take  course  to  free  themselves,  and  are  prepared  to  take 
the  consequences."  The  legislature  refused  to  adopt  the  minority  re- 
port by  a  vote  of  86  to  48,  and  on  May  18  Gov.  Foster  and  Lieut. -Gov. 
Snyder  were  inaugurated. 

As  the  constitutional  amendments  proposed  by  the  commission  had 
been  defeated  at  the  April  election.  Gov.  Foster,  on  June  24,  sent  a 


432  LOUISIANA 

special  message  to  the  general  assembly,  iirgiug  the  passage  of  a  reso- 
lution in  favor  of  calling  a  constitutional  convention.  He  recom- 
mended that  a  special  election  be  called  for  the  purpose  of  permitting 
the  people  to  pass  on  the  question  of  holding  a  convention,  and  at 
the  same  election  choose  delegates,  who  were  to  serve  in  case  a  major- 
ity of  the  popular  vote  favored  the  proposition.  The  legislature 
accordingly  passed  a  resolution  providing  for  a  special  election  on 
Jan.  11,  1898,  the  convention  to  meet  on  Feb.  8,  following.  A  new 
election  law  was  passed,  by  which  the  Australian  ballot  was  given 
to  New  Orleans,  and  the  same  system,  in  a  modified  form,  was  made 
applicable  to  the  remainder  of  the  state.  A  law  providing  for  a  new 
registration  of  voters  throughout  the  state  was  passed,  to  take  effect 
on  Jan.  1,  1897.  The  bureau  of  agriculture  was  authorized  to  make 
an  exliibit  at  the  Omaha  exposition;  private  exhibits  were  i-ecom- 
mended  for  the  Nashville  exposition :  and  Congress  was  memorialized 
to  grant  belligerent  rights  to  the  people  of  Cuba. 

Three  electoral  tickets  were  presented  to  the  voters  of  Louisiana  in 
the  presidential  campaign  of  1896.  The  Democratic  state  convention 
was  held  on  June  15,  when  delegates  to  the  national  convention  were 
selected  and  instructed  to  vote  as  a  luiit  on  all  important  questions, 
especially  for  the  free  coinage  of  silver.  The  Popiilists  met  at  Alexan- 
dria on  Aug.  4  and  nominated  an  electoral  ticket,  b\it  the  following 
month  an  agreement  was  reached  by  which  a  coalition  was  formed 
with  the  Democrats,  the  electoral  ticket  consisting  of  4  electore  from 
each  party.  The  regular  Republicans  and  the  national  or  "Lily 
White"  Republicans  each  nominated  an  electoral  ticket.  The  latter 
consisted  of  the  sugar  planters  who  had  left  the  Democratic  party 
two  yeai"s  before,  and  gained  the  name  of  "Lily  Whites"  because 
they  would  not  admit  negro  delegates  to  their  convention.  At  the 
election  in  November  Brvan  received  77,175  votes,  McKinley,  22,037, 
and  Palmer,  1,834. 

About  Nov.  1  a  drought  set  in  in  the  northern  part  of  the  stat«. 
Thirteen  parishes,  with  a  population  numbering  from  75,000  to  100,- 
000,  were  affected  and  many  of  the  people  were  reducetl  to  a  state 
of  destitution.  Gov.  Foster  recommeded  state  aid  and  called  for 
voluntary  contributions.  By  Feb.  1,  1S97.  the  state  had  granted 
$97,000  for  the  relief  of  the  .sulferers.  while  the  voluntary  donations 
amounted  to  over  $216,000.  The  waters  of  the  Mississippi  began  to 
rise  in  ilarch.  1897.  anil  on  April  3  the  governor  i-ssued  the  following 
call  to  the  people  of  the  Delta :  "The  vast  flood  now  coming  do^ra  the 
Mississippi  has  overtopped  all  the  records.  The  volume  of  water  which 
has  to  pass  out  to  the  sea  through  the  channel  of  the  main  stream  and 
the  Atehafalaya  is  undoubtedly  greater  than  the  levees  have  been 
heretofore  called  iipon  to  witlistand.  After  years  of  patient  industry, 
enormous  sacrifice,  and  buwlensome  taxaition  by  the  alluvial  districts 
of  our  commonwealth,  aided  by  the  state  at  large  and  the  national 
government,  protection  against  overfow,  if  not  bi-ought  to  a  state  of 
perfection,  has  at  least  reached  a  stage  justifying  the  hope  of  an 
early  coaisummatiou  of  a  levee  system  secure  against  any  contingency. 
These  bulwarks  should  be  held  at  all  hazards.    Their  downfall  means 


LOUISIANA  433 

your  impoverishment,  and  perhaps  your  ruin.  Bear  in  mind  in  this 
contest  you  have  the  advantage  of  fighting  as  an  organized  army  with 
able  commanders.  The  engineers  of  the  United  States,  the  whole  corps 
of  state  engineers,  the  chiefs  of  the  various  districts,  with  all  their 
staffs  and  disciplined  forces,  are  now  in  action  along  the  front." 

This  call  was  not  in  vain,  as  the  people  turned  out  as  one  man  to 
defend  their  plantations  against  imindation.  The  first  break  in  the 
levee  occurred  in  Madison  parish  on  April  16,  but  it  was  quickly  re- 
paired, and  the  levees  were  patrolled  day  and  night  until  the  danger 
was  past.  By  May  14  the  flood  reached  its  highest  stage  at  New  Or- 
leans— IS  inches  higher  than  any  previous  record — but  the  State  of 
Louisiana  suffered  less  damage  than  ever  before. 

Two  banks  failed  in  New  Orleans  in  1896,  and  in  May,  1897,  the 
officers  were  brought  to  trial  for  embezzlement.  W.  P.  Nicholls,  presi- 
dent of  the  Bank  of  Commerce,  was  sentenced  to  3  years'  imprison- 
ment, but  the  cashier  of  the  bank  was  acquitted.  In  the  case  of  the 
officers  of  the  American  National,  Henry  Gardes  and  Walter  W. 
Girault  were  convicted  and  Thomas  H.  Underwood  was  acquitted. 

On  Sept.  6  the  first  case  of  yellow  fever  for  1897  made  its  ap- 
pearance in  New  Orleans,  though  a  fever  of  a  mild  type,  resembling 
the  yellow  fever,  had  been  prevalent  for  about  a  month  previous  to 
that  time.  A  few  days  later  the  Baton  Rouge  Advocate  announced 
that  the  conditions  were  favorable  for  an  epidemic,  as  the  fund  for 
disposing  of  garbage  in  New  Orlea-ns  was  tied  up  by  litigation  and 
the  city  was  in  an  unsanitary  state.  On  Sept.  24  a  mob  gathered 
about  a  school  building  used  as  a  hospital  for  the  fever  patients,  and  in 
a  short  time  was  beyond  the  control  of  the  police.  While  the  offi- 
cers were  engaged  in  holding  back  the  crowd  in  front  of  the  building, 
two  men  passed  to  the  rear,  saturated  the  woodwork  with  petroleum 
and  applied  a  match.  In  a  short  time  the  building  was  in  flames.  The 
fire  department  hurried  to  the  scene,  but  the  hose  was  no  sooner  laid 
than  it  was  cut  by  the  infuriated  populace.  More  police  were  sum- 
moned, the  mob  overpowered,  and  the  main  portion  of  the  school- 
house  was  saved  from  destruction. 

Three  Italians  had  been  lynched  by  a  mob  at  Hahnville  on  Aug. 
8,  1896.  and  in  May,  1897,  "the  president  of  the  United  States  sent 
a  message  to  Congress  recommending  the  payment  of  $6,000  to  the 
families  of  the  victims,  the  approj^riation  for  the  purpose  to  be  made 
without  admitting  the  liability  of  the  United  States.  Concerning  the 
incident  the  New  Orleans  Picayune  said:  "Nothing  is  more  common 
than  for  Italians  here  to  announce  an  intention  of  becoming  citizens, 
although  they  never  consummate  citizenship.  The  mere  declaration 
gives  them  the  rights  of  citizenship  in  Louisiana  and  permits  them  to 
hold  licenses  as  masters  of  vessels  navigating  American  waters,  which 
they  could  not  do  otherwise.  But,  although  they  may  vote  and  hold 
offices  in  Louisiana,  they  are  foreigners  still  under  United  States 
statutes,  and  are  still  under  the  care  of  their  own  government.  Prob- 
ably nine-tenths  of  the  Italians  who  hold  political  rights  in  Louisiana, 
voting  and  holding  office,  are  not  actual  citizens,  but  only  prospec- 
1—28 


434  LOUISIANA 

tivelv  so."  (This  conditiou  of  affairs  was  remedied  by  the  constitu- 
tion "of  1898,  q.  V.) 

At  the  special  election  on  Jan.  11.  1898,  the  proposition  for  a 
constitutional  convention  was  carried  b.y  a  sweeping  majority,  re- 
ceiving 36.178  votes  in  favor  of  it,  as  against  7.578  against  it.  (See 
Constitutional  Conventions.)  The  commissioner  of  agriculture  made  a 
report  in  1898,  showing  that  since  1896  10.000  immigrants  had  come 
to  the  state,  and  over  250.000  acres  of  land  had  been  sold,  the  state  re- 
ceiving therefor  over  $1,000,000.  The  legislature  of  1898  met  im- 
mediately after  the  adjournment  of  the  constitutional  convention,  and 
proceeded  to  enact  laws  to  carry  out  the  provisions  of  the  new  organic 
law.  The  senate  was  composed  of  28  Democrats,  7  Republicans  and  1 
Populist.  In  the  house  were  60  Democrats,  24  Republicans  and  14 
Populists.  On  May  23  Gov.  Foster  delivered  his  message,  in  which  he 
said:  "The  white  supremacy  for  which  we  have  so  long  struggled  at 
the  cost  of  so  much  precious  blood  and  treasure,  is  now  crj-stallized 
into  the  constitution  as  a  fundamental  part  and  parcel  of  that  organic 
instrument,  and  that,  too,  bj'  no  subterfuge  or  evasions.  With  this 
great  principle  thus  firmly  imbedded  in  the  constitution,  and  hon- 
estly enforced,  there  need  be  no  longer  any  fear  as  to  the  honesty  and 
purity  of  our  future  elections." 

A  board  of  pension  commissioners  was  appointed  by  the  legisla- 
ture, and  on  Nov.  8  the  first  railroad  commissioners  in  Louisiana 
were  elected  by  the  people.  The  first  board  of  commissioners  was 
composed  of  C.  L.  De  Fuentes,  R.  N.  Sims,  Jr.,  and  "W.  L.  Poster. 

In  Oct.,  1899,  the  state,  through  the  governor  and  counsel,  filed 
a  petition  in  the  supreme  court  of  the  United  States,  asking  an  in- 
junction to  restrain  the  State  of  Texas  from  keeping  up  the  quaran- 
tine against  Louisiana  for  yellow  fever.  The  petition  set  forth  that 
"The  health  officer  of  Texas,  who  seems  to  be  vested  with  absolute 
and  dictatorial  powers  in  the  matter  of  declaring  and  establishing 
quarantine,  has  for  several  successive  j'ears  entirely  cut  off  and 
prohibitetl  all  transportation  of  the  United  States  mails,  of  passen- 
gers, and  of  merchandise  between  the  two  states  of  Louisiana  and 
Texas."  Early  in  November  the  quarantine  was  raised,  and  as  the 
case  had  not  yet  been  decided  by  the  court,  it  was  not  prosecuted. 

The  political  campaign  for  the  election  of  state  officers  and  mem- 
bers of  the  legislature  began  on  July  4,  1899,  with  a  meeting  and 
barbecue  at  Raj^alle.  The  meeting  was  held  under  the  auspices  of 
the  "Jackson  Democratic  Association  of  Louisiana,"  the  object  be- 
ing to  bring  together  the  opponents  of  Gov.  Foster's  administration. 
Speeches  were  made  by  Senator-  Caffery,  Congressman  Boatuer  and 
others.  A  few  days  later  the  association  promulgated  a  declara- 
tion of  principles  denouncing  trusts,  demanding  honestly  conducted 
primaries,  fair  elections,  fair  counts,  rigid  enforcement  of  the  fran- 
chise clauses  of  the  new  constitution,  and  the  election  of  U.  S.  senators 
without  the  influence  of  executive  patronage.  The  Democratic  state 
convention  met  at  Baton  Rouge  on  Dee.  19  and  nominated  William  W, 
Heard  for  governor;  Albert  Estopinal  for  lieutenant-governor;  John 
T.  Michel  for  secretary  of  state;  Will  S,  Frazee,  auditor;  Ledoux  E. 


LOUISIANA  435 

Smith,  treasurer;  "Walter  Guion,  attorney-general;  and  Joseph  V. 
Calhoun,  superintendent  of  education.  On  Feb.  5,  1900,  the  regular 
or  "Wimberly"  Republicans  (so-called  from  the  name  of  the  national 
committteeman  for  Louisiana)  met  at  New  Orleans  and  nominated 
the  following  ticket:  For  governor,  Eugene  S.  Reems;  lieutenant- 
governor,  F.  B.  Tarhart ;  secretary  of  state,  no  nomination ;  auditor, 
James  Forsythe;  treasurer,  Benjamin  Bloomfield;  attorney-general, 
Robert  P.  Hunter;  superintendent  of  education,  D.  M.  Lines.  The 
"Lily  Whites"  held  a  convention  at  Alexandria  on  Feb.  6,  and  the 
Populists  met  at  the  same  place  the  following  day,  each  placing  a 
ticket  in  the  field.  On  the  20th  committees  of  these  two  organizations, 
with  a  few  independent  Democrats,  got  together  and  arranged  the 
following  Fusion  ticket :  For  governor,  Donelson  Caffery,  Jr. ;  lieuten- 
ant-governor, D.  M.  Sholars ;  secretary  of  state,  C.  Taylor  Cade ;  au- 
ditor, O.  H.  Deshotels ;  treasurer,  George  A.  Hassinger ;  attorney-gen- 
eral, W.  G.  Wyly;  superintendent  of  education,  0.  B.  Staples.  Caf- 
fery was  an  independent  Democrat,  Sholars,  Deshotels  and  Staples 
were  Populists,  and  the  remainder  of  the  ticket  was  composed  of  Re- 
publicans. 

The  election  was  held  on  April  17,  and  the  entire  Democratic 
ticket  was  elected.  Heard  received  60,206  votes ;  Caffery,  14,215 ;  and 
Reems,  2.449.  The  legislature  chosen  at  this  election  assembled  on 
May  14,  Gov.  Heard  and  Lieut. -Gov.  Estopinal  were  inaugurated  on 
the  21st,  and  the  next  day  ex-Gov.  Foster  was  elected  to  the  U.  S. 
senate. 

Poucault,  eommissaire  ordonnateur  and  intendant  of  Louisiana 
during  the  latter  days  of  the  first  French  domination,  was  appointed 
to  that  office  in  Jan.,  1762,  to  succeed  M.  de  Rochemore.  When  the 
news  came  that  the  province  had  been  ceded  to  Spain,  Foucault  was 
one  of  the  most  active  inhabitants  of  the  colony  in  formulating  and 
sending  to  France  the  petition  to  reconsider  the  action  and  allow 
Louisiana  to  remain  a  French  colony.  By  the  rules  of  the  superior 
council  the  intendant  was  virtually  president,  though  the  governor 
occupied  the  seat  of  honor.  When  the  movement  was  commenced  to 
force  the  abdication  of  Gov.  Ulloa,  Poucault  became  one  of  the  leaders 
of  the  revolt.  Gov.  Aubry  being  powerless  to  cheek  the  action  of 
the  council  with  Foucaulr  at  its  head.  After  the  expulsion  of  Ulloa, 
he  sent  to  the  French  government  an  account  of  the  revolution — "a 
paper  characterized  by  a  shameless  double-dealing" — and  in  all  his 
official  correspondence  he  left  a  loop-hole  that  would  enable  him,  in 
case  of  necessity,  to  align  himself  on  either  side.  In  one  of  his  com- 
munications he  set  up  the  claim  that  when  he  joined  with  the  council 
in  issuing  the  order  to  expel  Ulloa  he  "had  been  compelled  to  yield 
only  by  force."  In  March,  1769,  he  secretly  deserted  the  revolution- 
ists, with  whom  he  had  been  in  high  favor,  and  even  went  so  far  as 
to  write  a  letter  to  the  French  cabinet  denouncing  them  and  their 
methods.  About  the  1st  of  Sept.,  1769,  he  was  arrested  by  order  of 
Gov.  O'Reilly,  but  demanded  a  passage  to  France  as  an  officer  of  the 
crown.  As  his  request  could  not  be  consistenly  refused,  he  w^as  sent 
to  Paris,  where  he  was  confined  for  a  while  in  the  Bastile,  but  was 


436  LOUISIANA 

saibsequently  released  and  appointed  to  an  office  in  the  East  Indies. 
Gayarre  says:  "It  must  be  admitted  that  in  the  drama  in  which  he 
Avas  engaged  he  acted  his  part  with  a  consistency  of  infamy,  and  a 
cool  systematic  regiilarity  of  treachery,  which  must  obtain  for  him 
much  credit  with  congenial  minds." 

Fouche,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  northeastern  part  of  Ouachita  par- 
ish, is  situated  on  Patrick  bayou,  about  2  miles  south  of  Swartz,  the 
nearest  railroad  station,  and  8  miles  northeast  of  Monroe,  the  parish 
seat.   It  is  situated  in  a  rich  farming  district. 

Foules  (R.  E.  name  Copeland),  a  village  in  the  northeastern  part 
of  Catahoula  parish,  is  on  the  New  Orleans  &  Northwestern  R.  R., 
about  12  miles  northeast  of  Harrisonburg,  the  parish  seat. 

Fourteenth  Amendment. — On  June  16,  1866,  Congress,  after  a 
lengthy  debate,  submitted  to  the  legislature  of  the  several  states  an 
amendment  to  the  Federal  constitution  giving  ne-groes  the  right  of 
citizenship ;  prohibiting  states  from  enacting  laws  abridging  the  priv- 
ileges or  immunities  of  citizens :  providing  for  a  reduction  in  the  Con- 
gressional representation  of  any  state  denying  to  any  male  inhabitant 
over  the  age  of  21  years  the  right  to  vote ;  rendering  ineligible  to  the 
office  of  congressman  or  presidential  elector  persons  who  shall  have 
been  engaged  in  insurrection  or  rebellion  against  the  United  States; 
and  declaring  the  war  debt  of  the  Confederate  States  null  and  void. 
The  admis.sion  of  the  Southern  states  into  the  Union  was  made  con- 
tingent upon  the  ratification  of  this  amendment.  It  caused  a  heated 
discussion  all  over  the  country,  and  was  violently  opposed  by  the 
Southern  people  as  an  encroachment  upon  their  constitutional  rights. 
When  the  Louisiana  legislature  met  on  Dec.  28.  1866,  Gov.  Wells 
recommended  in  his  message  the  ra.tifieation  of  the  amendment,  ex- 
pressing his  belief  that  it  was  just  and  proper,  and  that  he  considered 
it  "to  be  within  the  province  and  to  be  the  duty  of  Congress  to  re- 
quire of  those  states  as  additional  guarantees  that  they  shall,  by  con- 
stitutional enactments,  recognize  and  establish  equal  political  rights, 
in  the  privilege  of  the  ballot,  to  all  men."  But  the  general  a.ssembly 
refused  ,to  concur  in  the  governor's  view,  and  by  a  unanimous  vote 
rejected  the  amendment. 

On  March  2.  1867.  an  act  was  passed  by  Congress  for  the  organi- 
zation of  the  late  Confederate  States  into  five  military  districts.  (See 
Reconstruction.)  Texas  and  Louisiana  constituted  the  5th  military 
district,  and  on  the  19th  Gen.  P.  H.  Sheridan  assumed  command. 
Between  that  time  and  July  31  a  registration  of  voters  was  taken, 
which  embraced  44.732  whites  and  88,907  negroes.  The  electorate  as 
thus  composed  authorized  a  constitutional  convention,  which  met  on 
Nov.  23,  1867.  Article  98  of  the  constitution  adopted  by  this  conven- 
tion was  as  follows:  "Every  male  person,  of  the  age  of  twenty-one 
years  or  upwards,  born  or  naturalized  in  the  United  States,  and  sub- 
ject to  the  jurisdiction  thereof,  and  a  resident  of  this  state  one  year 
next  preceding  an  election,  and  the  last  ten  days  within  the  parish 
in  which  he  offers  to  vote,  shall  be  deemed  an  elector,  except  those  dis- 
franchised by  this  constitution,  and  persons  under  interdiction." 

This  article  gave  to  the  negro  practically  the  same  riglrts  as  the 


LOUISIANA  437 

proposed  amendment  to  the  national  constitution,  and  Article  99 
covered  nearly  the  same  ground  with  regard  to  persons  who  had 
been  engaged  in  insurrection  or  rebellion  against  the  United  States. 
But  their  provisions  were  deemed  inadequate,  so  far  as  compliance 
with  the  requirements  of  Congi-ess  were  concerned,  and  on  July  9, 
1868,  the  general  assembly — the  first  elected  under  the  constitution 
of  1868 — ratified  the  amendment.  On  the  21st,  Congi-ess  adopted  and 
transmitted  to  the  state  department  a  resolution  declaring  "That  said 
fourteenth  article  of  amendment  is  hereby  declared  to  be  a  part  of 
the  constitution  of  the  United  States,  and  it  shall  be  duly  promul- 
gated as  such  by  the  secretai-y  of  state."  Aocoi-dingly  the  seeretai-y  of 
state  issued  a  proclamation  on  the  28th,  announcing  that  the  amend- 
ment had  been  duly  ratified  by  the  legislatures  of  thirty  of  the  thirty- 
six  states,  and  that  it  was  thenceforth  to  be  a  part  of  the  organic  law 
of  the  nation.  This  amendment  was  never  ratified  by  Kentucky,  Dela- 
ware nor  Maryland,  and  some  of  the  states  did  not  ratify  it  until  in 
1870. 

Franklin,  the  parish  seat  of  St.  Mary  parish,  is  one  of  the  old 
towns  of  southern  Louisiana.  It  was  laid  out  in  the  year  1800  by 
Guinea  Lewis,  a  Quaker  from  Pennsylvania,  a  great  admirer  of  Ben- 
jamin Franklin,  in  whose  honor  the  town  was  named.  When  the 
parish  was  organized  in  1811,  Franklin  was  made  the  seat  of  gov- 
ernment, and  it  was  incorporated  by  act  of  the  legislature  in  1830. 
The  first  house  there  was  built  by  a  man  named  Trobridge  before 
the  town  was  laid  out  by  Lewis.  Franklin  is  situated  in  the  northern 
part  of  the  parish,  on  the  Bayou  Teche,  which  is  navigable  for  boats 
of  moderate  size,  in  the  midst  of  a  rich  sugar-producing  country, 
close  to  large  deposits  of  salt,  and  near  enough  to  the  gulf  for  the 
sea  breezes  to  modify  the  temperature.  It  is  on  the  main  line  of  the 
Southern  Pacific  R.  R.,  100  miles  (by  rail)  west  of  New  Orleans;  is  the 
southern  terminus  of  a  short  line  of  railroad  called  the  East  &  West 
Franklin  that  runs  north  to  Irish  Bend,  and  is  the  eastern  terminus 
of  the  Franklin  &  Abbeville  R.  R.  It  is  also  connected  by  the  Frank- 
lin drainage  canal  with  Cote  Blanche  bay,  an  arm  of  the  gulf  10  miles 
distant,  and  this  canal  is  navigable  for  ordinary  craft,  hence  the  town 
is  well  supplied  with  channels  of  transportation  in  all  directions. 

Formerly  Franklin  was  a  port  of  entry  for  the  Teche  district  and 
had  a  large  trade  with  the  country  to  the  north  until  the  completion 
of  the  railroad  diverted  a  large  portion  of  this  traffic  to  New  Orleans 
and  Galveston.  The  Franklin  of  the  present  day  is  one  of  the  active 
and  prosperous  cities  of  Louisiana.  It  has  extensive  lumber  and  brick 
industries,  an  ice  plant,  wagon  and  buggy  factories,  2  banks,  2  large 
sugar  refineries,  2  newspapers,  good  hotels,  a  fine  waterworks  system, 
an  electric  lighting  plant — installed  in  1900  and  owned  by  the  city — 
well  kept  streets,  a  sanitarium  and  a  public  market.  Educational 
facilities  are  afi'orded  by  a  good  system  of  public  schools  and  St. 
Anthony's  school  for  boys.   The  population  is  3,857. 

Franklin  College. — This  old  state  institution  of  learning  was 
chartered  by  the  legislature  March  5,  1831.  It  was  located  in  St. 
Landry  parish,  and  the  following  men  were  appointed  the  first  board 


438  LOUISIANA 

of  trustees:  The  governor  (A.  B.  Roman),  the  supreme  judges 
(George  Mathews.  Francois  Xavier  Martin.  Alexander  Foster.  Jr.), 
Joshua  Baker.  Jehu  "Wilkinson.  Charles  Oliver  Devezin.  Levi  Foster, 
St.  Mary  parish;  Gerard  Chretien,  Louis  Garry.  Edward  Simon, 
John  Brownson.  Cesaire  Deblanc,  St.  Martin  parish;  Alexander 
Mouton,  Basile  Crow,  Berauld.  Andre  Martin,  Lafayette  parish; 
Jacques  Dupre.  Seth  Lewis.  Louis  Louallier,  George  King,  Benoit 
Vanhille.  "William  IMoore.  Jean  Marie  de  Boillon.  Moses  Littell.  Hen- 
derson Taylor,  St.  Landry  parish ;  Francis  A.  Bynum.  John  Harris 
Johnston.  Isaac  Thomas,  Sosthene  Baillio,  John  Compton.  "William 
Cheney,  Rapides  parish;  "William  "\^oorhies.  Dominique  Coco.  Avo- 
yelles parish ;  Placide  Bossier.  Benjamin  Metoyer,  John  R.  Dunn, 
Charles  A.  Bullard.  Natchitoches  parish ;  J.  M.  B.  Thompson,  Cata- 
houla parish ;  H.  P.  Morency,  Ouachita  parish.  The  trustees  were 
given  full  power  to  establish  the  plan  of  education,  prescribe  the 
discipline,  appoint  the  president  of  the  college,  and  such  other  mem- 
bers of  the  instriictional  force  as  they  deemed  necessary,  and  the  in- 
stitution was  granted  generous  provisions  for  awarding  degrees  and 
diplomas.  On  March  22,  1831.  the  legislature  appropriated  the  sum 
of  $5,000  annually  to  the  college.  On  Jan.  20,  1832.  an  act  prescribed 
that  thereafter  any  9  of  the  trustees  would  constitute  a  quorum  for 
any  kind  of  business,  and  meetings  might  be  called  by  3  members  of 
the  board.  At  the  same  session  the  legislature  accepted  a  piece  of 
groimd  as  a  site  for  the  college  tendered  by  the  widow  "Wikoif  at 
Opelousas.  On  March  31,  183.5.  an  appropriation  of  ,$15,000  annually 
for  2  years  was  made  to  the  college,  the  same  to  be  payable  as  soon 
as  the  trustees  certified  that  the  work  of  the  college  had  been  com- 
menced. Meanwhile  the  affairs  of  the  institution  were  to  be  examined 
each  year  by  a  committee  of  the  legislature.  In  1842  the  sum  of  $5,000 
annually  for  2  years  was  granted.  The  college  was  very  slow  in  get- 
ting started  and  was  not  ready  to  receive  pupils  until  April.  1837.  A 
report  on  the  institution  for  1836  showed  that  5  buildings  had  been 
erected  at  a  cost  to  the  state  of  $35,000.  In  Dec,  1837.  the  buildings 
were  nearly  completed,  and  accommodations  were  provided  for  a  com- 
petent number  of  professors  and  tutors.  In  1840.  though  only  61 
pupils  were  in  attendance,  and  the  so-called  college  was  still  only 
doing  preparatory  work,  $8,000  was  asked  for  a  new  building  to  meet 
an  anticipated  increase  of  attendance.  In  1841  65  pupils  were  in  at- 
tendance, with  room  for  some  10  or  15  more.  The  revenue  of  the 
college  for  this  year  was  $16,962,  of  which  nearly  $10,000  came  from 
the  state.  In  1845  Franklin  college — in  common  with  the  College  of 
Jefferson  and  the  College  of  Louisiana,  the  other  state-supported  in- 
stitutions of  learning — was  abandoned  by  the  state.  Says  Fay:  "It 
has  sin<!e  had  a  checkered  destiny,  being  at  one  time  converted  into  a 
normal  school,  but  has  been  in  the  main  unoeeiipied  and  improfitable 
to  the  state."  In  1890  the  buildings  were  vacant  and  fast  going  to 
ruin,  while  the  100  acres  of  college  lands  were  being  occupied  and 
tilled  by  squatters.  An  act  of  March  21,  1865.  stated:  "The  Franklin 
college,  at  Opeloiisas,  La.,  with  all  its  grounds  and  appurtenances,  is 
hereby  under  the  control  of  the  state  board  of  education,  for  the  pur- 


LOUISIANA  439 

pose  of  establishing  a  normal  or  high  school."  At  the  same  time  a 
liberal  appropriation  was  made  to  repair  the  buildings.  By  act  of 
July  8,  1902,  the  lands  of  the  college  were  given  to  the  board  of  school 
directors  of  St.  Landry  parish,  thus  perfecting  the  intended  donation 
made  by  the  legislature  of  1894. 

Franklin  Parish  was  establsihed  in  1843  out  of  parts  of  Cata- 
houla, Ouachita  and  Madison  parishes.  It  has  an  area  of  616  square 
miles,  is  located  in  the  northeastern  part  of  the  state,  and  is  bounded 
as  follows :  On  the  north  by  Richland  parish ;  on  the  east  by  Madison 
and  Tensas  parishes:  the  Boeuf  river  forms  the  south  and  part  of  its 
western  boundary,  separating  Franklin  from  Catahoula  and  Caldwell 
parishes,  and  Richland  parish  completes  the  western  boundarv.  One 
of  the  pioneers  on  Burnt  Prairie  was  Neil  Buie,  who  settled  there  as 
early  as  1816,  while  Boeuf  prairie  was  settled  up  by  such  families  as 
the  Lewises,  Ballous,  Graysons,  Bowdens  and  Criswells.  Lake  Prairie 
was  settled  by  a  family  named  Doyle.  After  the  organization  of  the 
parish,  the  first  court  was  held  at  Boeuf  prairie  at  an  old  camp.  M. 
S.  Osborn  was  the  first  parish  .iudge ;  E.  K.  Williams,  district  .judge; 
S.  W.  McClure,  clerk,  and  J.  W.  Willis,  sheriff.  Winnsboro  was  made 
the  seat  of  justice  and  the  first  court  house  was  built  there  in  1847, 
which  was  used  until  a  more  modern  structure  was  erected  in  1855. 
The  lands  of  Franklin  parish  are  higher  than  those  of  the  valley  on 
the  east ;  the  formation  is  alluvial  land  along  the  river  courses,  wooded 
swamp  and  rolling  prairie  on  the  uplands,  breaking  into  very  rough 
bluff  land.  The  soil  is  of  various  kinds ;  partly  prairie,  good  for  cotton 
and  corn,  fertile  alluvial  loam  bottoms,  and  hill  lands  where  the  soil  is 
not  so  good.  Cotton  is  the  chief  export  crop  ;  the  second  crop  is  sugar- 
cane. Every  farmer  who  has  a  patch  of  cane  can  make  his  own  syrup. 
Corn  is  grown  to  some  extent  and  the  upland  country  has  a  soil  and 
climate  favorable  to  the  growth  of  tobacco,  some  of  the  finest  grades 
of  cigar  leaf  and  smoking  tobacco  being  raised  there.  In  both  the 
valleys  and  the  uplands  there  are  a  great  number  of  truck  crops  which 
produce  heavily  in  the  favorable  climate  and  long  growing  season. 
The  garden  varieties  are  almost  unlimited,  as  conditions  make  it 
possible  to  grow  in  the  open  here  the  most  tender  plants.  Truck 
farming  has  been  encouraged  within  the  last  few  years  by  the  grow- 
ing demand  for  the  products  from  Memphis,  New  Orleans,  Little 
Rock  and  other  nearby  cities,  while  many  early  vegetables  are  shipped 
to  Chicago,  Denver,  St.  Louis  and  Kansas  City.  The  shipments 
amount  to  several  car  loads  a  day  from  some  of  the  leading  truck 
districts.  There  are  several  canning  factories  in  the  smaller  towns  that 
take  care  of  the  surplus.  The  rolling  prairies  and  fertile  bottoms 
give  excellent  pasturage,  a  long  pasture  season,  an  abundant  water 
supply  and  good  markets,  which  make  stock  raising  and  dairying 
profitable  to  the  farmers  of  the  parish.  Since  crop  rotation  has  been 
introduced,  hog  raising  has  become  a  profitable  side  line  to  all  the 
producers.  The  hills  of  the  parish  are  well  timbered  by  such  varieties 
as  oak,  beech,  pine,  gum,  elm,  holly,  hickory,  magnolia,  Cottonwood, 
willow,  mulberry,  maple,  ash  and  walniit.  Franklin  parish  is  watered 
by  the  Boeuf  river  and  its  tributaiiy  streams  on  the  west,  Bayou 


440  LOUISIANA 

Macon  on  the  east,  and  by  Turkey.  Big  and  Deer  creeks  and  Turkey 
and  Saline  lakes.  Like  many  of  the  Louisiana  parishes,  Franklin  is 
not  thickly  populated.  There  are  no  cities,  and  "Winnsboro.  the  par- 
ish seat,  situated  on  the  New  Orleans  &  Northwestern  R.  R..  is  the 
largest  and  most  important  town.  Other  towns  and  villages  are: 
Baskinton,  Como,  Crow\'ille,  Fort  Necessity,  Gilbert.  Lamar.  Liddie- 
ville.  Hollygrove.  Extension  and  Wisner.  Transportation  is  fui-ni.shed 
by  the  St.  Louis.  Iron  Mountain  &  Southern  R.  R..  which  enters  the 
northern  boundary  near  Bayou  Macon  and  runs  almost  directly  south 
to  Gilbert,  where  it  forms  a  junction  with  the  New  Orleans  &  North- 
western, which  traverses  the  western  part  of  the  parish. 

The  following  statistics  are  taken  from  the  U.  S.  census  for  1910: 
number  of  fanns.  1.881;  acreage.  124.221;  acres  improved.  .51.558 
value  of  land  and  improvements  exclusive  of  buildings,  $2,024,964; 
value  of  farm  buildings,  $519.952 ;  value  of  live  stock,  $649,718 ;  value 
of  all  crops,  $610,330.   The  popiilation  is  11,989. 

Franklinton,  the  seat  of  justice  of  Washington  parish,  is  located 
in  the  western  part  of  the  parish.  10  miles  soiith  of  the  Mississippi 
state  line  and  8  miles  east  of  the  Tchefuncte  river,  which  forms  the 
western  boundary.  In  1819.  the  large  parish  of  St.  Tammany  was 
divided,  the  northern  part  becoming  "Washington  parish,  and  in  the 
same  ^ear,  to  facilitate  the  organization  of  the  new  parish,  John 
Biekham  gave  30  acres  of  land  where  the  town  of  Franklinton  now 
stands  for  the  purpose  of  establishing  a  parish  seat  and  court  house. 
Two  years  later  the  parish  .jury  had  the  gro^ind  platted  and  ordered 
the  sale  of  all  lots  and  squares  except  the  center  square,  which  was 
reser^-ed  for  the  courthouse.  Coui-t  was  held  in  a  barn  imtil  the  first 
courthouse  was  built,  in  the  exact  center  of  the  square,  which  was 
reserved  in  the  center  of  the  platted  town.  The  first  structiire  was  of 
wood,  replaced  in  1858  by  a  substantial  brick  building,  which  in  turn 
was  torn  down  in  1906  to  make  place  for  the  fine  modern  eourtlionso 
completed  in  1907.  No  finer  location  for  a  town  could  be  found  than 
that  of  Franklinton.  which  is  near  the  Bogue  Chitto  river  on  the 
gently  rolling  pine  hills,  with  perfect  drainage.  For  many  years  the 
growth  of  the  town  was  slow,  as  it  was  shut  in  by  the  great  pine 
forest  which  stretched  in  every  direction.  It  was  incorporated  on 
March  7.  1861,  by  a  special  act  of  the  state  legislature,  and  during 
the  Ci-^nl  war  developed  but  little.  Prior  to  1906  there  was  no  railroad 
in  "Washington  parish  except  the  Kentwood  &  Eastern,  a  narrow  gauge 
road  which  crossed  the  extreme  northwest  corner  of  the  pai-ish,  and 
all  shipments  in  and  out  of  Franklinton  had  to  be  made  to  this  rail- 
road, 10  miles  away.  Early  in  1906  the  New  Orleans  Great  Northern 
R.  R.  was  built  through  the  eastern  part  of  the  parish,  with  a  branch 
up  the  Bogue  Chitto  through  Franklinton  to  Tylertown,  Miss.,  open- 
ing up  the  markets  of  the  south  to  the  town.  Since  then  Franklinton 
has  increased  rapidly  in  population  and  is  the  shipping  point  and 
supply  to\^Ti  for  a  large  district  of  pine,  farm  and  daiiy  country  of 
which  it  is  the  center.  It  has  a  bank,  a  large  wholesale  and  retail 
mercantile  house,  a  newspaper,  with  job  printing  office  in  connection, 
the  Franklinton  central  institute,  one  of  the  leading  educational  in- 


LOUISIANA  441 

stitutioiis  of  the  parish,  a  good  hotel,  several  large  saw  mills,  a  tele- 
graph office,  local  and  long  distance  telephone  facilities,  an  express 
office  and  money  order  postoffice.  Franklinton  is  the  home  of  the 
Standard  Land  company,  which  has  done  mnch  for  the  development 
of  the  town  and  parish.   Population  814. 

Fred,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  northern  part  of  East  Baton  Rouge 
parish,  is  a  station  on  the  Zachary  &  Northwestern  R.  R.,  about  5 
miles  east  of  Zachary  and  15  miles  northeast  of  Baton  Rouge. 

Freedmen's  Bureau. — This  institiition  was  the  outgrowth  of  the 
conditions  prevailing  among  the  negroes  of  the  South  after  the 
emancipation  proclamation  went  into  effect.  Many  of  the  able-bodied 
blacks  enlisted  in  the  Federal  armies,  but  the  women  and  children, 
the  old  and  decrepit,  were  left  to  subsist  as  they  might.  These  helpless 
persons  were  gathered  into  camps,  where  they  could  be  furnished  with 
rations,  and  appeals  were  made  to  the  people  of  the  North  for  dona- 
tions of  clothing,  medicines,  etc.,  to  supply  their  needs.  In  order  to 
furnish  employment  for  such  as  were  able  and  willing  to  work,  Adjt.- 
Gen.  Thomas  of  Grant's  army  in  April,  1863,  devised  a  plan,  the 
chief  features  of  which  were  as  follows:  Many  of  the  plantations 
along  the  Mississippi  river  had  been  abandoned  by  their  owners.  Com- 
missioners were  appointed  to  lease  these  abandoned  plantations  "to 
persons  of  proper  character  and  qualifications,"  who  would  enter 
into  bonds  to  employ  until  Feb.  1,  1864,  such  negroes  as  might  be 
turned  over  to  them  by  the  commissionei-s,  and  "to  feed,  clothe  and 
treat  humanely  all  the  negroes  thus  turned  over,  the  clothing  to  be 
deducted  from  their  wages,  and  to  be  furnished  at  cost."  The  wages 
for  able-bodied  men  and  boys  over  15  years  of  age  were  fixed  at  $7 
per  month;  for  able-bodied  women  over  15  years  of  age,  $5  per 
month.  Children  from  12  to  15  were  to  receive  half  this  amount,  and 
the  lessee  was  to  pay  to  the  government  of  the  United  States  a  tax 
upon  all  the  products  raised  by  such  labor.  Plantations  belonging 
to  persons  in  sympathy  with  the  Confederacy  were  confiscated  and 
leased.  Gen.  Thomas  stating  as  his  reason  therefor  "the  occupation  of 
the  river  border  by  a  friendly  population,  to  assist  in  preventing  the 
irregular  warfare  on  the  river  traffic."  In  a  few  instances,  where 
the  lessees  were  the  right  kind  of  men,  the  plan  worked  successfully, 
but  in  a  large  majority  of  cases  it  was  a  failure,  the  lessees  being 
camp  followers  and  adventurers,  whose  principal  object  was  to  get 
all  they  could  out  of  the  scheme  with  the  least  possible  outlay.  Cloth- 
ing was  sold  to  the  negroes  at  exorbitant  prices,  notwithstanding  the 
provision  that  it  should  be  furnished  at  cost;  the  food  supplied  was 
often  of  inferior  quality;  in  many  instances  deductions  were  made 
from  the  wages  of  the  freedmen  for  medical  attendance,  though  no 
physician  ever  visited  the  plantations,  and  numerous  other  abuses 
were  practiced. 

In  Louisiana  the.  operation  of  the  emancipation  proclamation 
did  not  extend  to  certain  parishes,  but  as  a  law  of  Congress  pro- 
hibited the  use  of  the  militaiy  to  return  any  slave  to  his  master 
by  force,  thousands  of  the  blacks  sought  the  camps  of  the  Federal 
armies,  where  they  became  hangers  on  and  a  menace  to  the  general 


442  LOUISIANA 

health.  Many  of  the  planters  in  this  state  remained  at  their  homes, 
and  Gen.  Banks,  commanding  the  Department  of  the  Gulf,  en- 
deavored to  pring  about  amicable  relations  between  the  planters 
and  the  negroes,  so  that  the  latter  would  return  to  work.  A  sys- 
tem of  wages,  tines  and  punishments  was  adopted,  and  at  the  close 
of  the  year  the  plan  was  reported  to  be  a  "decided  success."  On 
Feb.  3,  1864.  Gen.  Banks  promulgated  his  "General  Orders  No.  23," 
setting  forth  the  rules  and  regulations  for  the  employment  of  freed- 
meu  for  the  year.  Laborers  were  divided  into  four  classes,  to  re- 
ceive respectively  $8,  $6,  $5  and  $3  per  month,  in  addition  to 
"'healthy  rations,  comfortable  clothing,  quarters,  fuel,  medical  at- 
tendance and  instruction  for  children."  At  least  one-half  of  the 
wages  stipulated  should  be  withheld  until  the  end  of  the  year,  and 
provision  was  made  for  the  cultivation  of  land  on  private  account. 
A  board  of  education  was  also  established  by  Gen.  Banks,  the  duty 
of  which  was  to  provide  one  or  more  common  schools  in  each  of 
the  school  districts  as  designated  by  the  parish  provost-marshals, 
who'  were  authorized  to  erect  school  houses,  emplo.y  teachers,  and 
exercise  all  the  powers  of  school  officers  in  the  Northern  states.  To 
provide  the  necessary  funds  for  this  work  the  board  was  empow- 
ered to  levy  a  tax  on  all  property,  sufficient  in  amount  to  defray  the 
expenses  incident  to  the  establishment  and  maintenance  of  siach 
schools. 

The  plan  of  leasing  plantations  by  the  government  was  generally 
a  failure  in  Louisiana,  as  elsewhere,  owing  chiefly  to  inadequate 
supervision  and  the  lack  of  military  protection.  Early  in  i\Iay, 
1864.  Gen.  Banks  was  relieved  by  Gen.  Canb.y,  who  introduced  a 
system  of  military  occupation  for  the  protection  of  the  planters. 
This  was  more  of  a  success,  as  during  the  year  about  50,000  freed- 
men  were  employed  on  some  1,500  plantations  under  the  super- 
vision of  the  free  labor  bureau,  M'hieh  was  the  predecessor  of  the 
national  freedmen's  bureau. 

Soon  after  the  capitulation  of  Vicksburg  there  were  about  50,000 
negroes  in  the  camps  along  the  IMississippi  river.  The  crowding 
together  in  this  manner  of  large  numbers  of  the  blacks  resulted  in 
a  frightful  mortality,  the  deaths  during  Jul.v  and  August,  1863, 
often  numbering  in  some  of  the  camps  50  to  75  daily.  Freedmen's 
aid  societies,  commissions  and  associations  sprang  up  all  over  the 
North,  and  during  the  three  j'ears  ending  on  Jan,  1,  1865,  these 
organizations  expended  for  the  relief  of  the  negroes  nearly  $1,000, 
000.  It  was  through  their  influence  that  the  bill  providing  for  the 
establishment  of  a  "Bureau  of  Refugees,  Freedmen  and  Abandoned 
Lands"  was  passed  by  Congress  and  approved  by  President  Lincoln 
on  March  2,  1865.  According  to  the  pro^-isions  of  the  bill,  the 
bureau  was  to  be  under  the  management  and  control  of  a  commis- 
sioner, and  "an  assistant  commissioner  for  each  of  the  states  de- 
clared to  be  in  insurrection,  not  exceeding  ten  in  number."  The 
bill  further  provided  "That  the  commissioner,  under  the  direction 
of  the  president,  shall  have  authority  to  set  apart  for  the  use  of 
loyal  refugees  and  freedmen  such  tracts  of  land  within  the  insur- 


LOUISIANA  443 

reetionary  states  as  shall  have  been  abandoned,  or  to  which  the 
United  States  shall  have  acquired  title  by  confiscation,  or  sale,  or 
otherwise.  And  to  every  male  citizen,  whether  refugee  or  freed- 
man,  as  aforesaid,  there  shall  be  assigned  not  more  than  40  acres 
of  such  land,  and  the  person  to  whom  it  is  so  assigned  shall  be  pro- 
tected in  the  use  of  and  enjo.ymeut  of  the  land  for  the  term  of  three 
years,  at  an  annual  rent  not  exceeding  six  per  cent,  upon  the  value 
of  said  land  as  it  was  appraised  by  the  state  autlwrities  in  1860 
for  the  purpose  of  taxation.  *  *  '  *  At  the  end  of  said  term  or 
any  time  during  said  term,  the  occupants  of  any  parcels  so  assigned 
may  purchase  the  land  and  receive  such  title  thereto  as  the  United 
States  can  convey  iipon  paying  therefor  the  value  of  the  land,  as 
ascertained  and  fixed  for  the  purpose  of  determining  the  annual 
rent  as  aforesaid." 

No  appropriation  was  made  for  carrying  out  the  purposes  of  the 
act,  but  this  diiSculty  was  obviated  to  some  extent  by  the  secretary 
of  war,  who  authorized  the  assignment  of  army  officers,  so  far  as 
might  be  practicable,  to  the  special  duties  required ;  provided  quar- 
ters in  buildings  already  in  possession  of  the  government  for  mili- 
tary purposes ;  and  furnished  offices  by  making  requisitions  upon 
the  quartermaster's  department.  Early  in  May,  1865,  President 
Johnson  appointed  Gen.  0.  0.  Howard  chief  commissioner.  The 
commissioner  for  Louisiana  was  Rev.  T.  W.  Conway,  who  had  held 
a  commission  as  major  in  the  volunteer  service  and  had  served  as 
general  superintendent  of  freedmen's  affairs  in  the  Department 
of  the  Gulf.  He  was  relieved  by  Gen.  Absalom  Baird  after  a  short 
time.  Gen.  Howard  organized  the  bureau  into  four  departments — 
lands,  records,  financial  and  medical — and  issued  a  number  of  cir- 
culars instructing  assistant  commissioners  and  others  regarding 
their  duties.  His  Circular  No.  15,  issued  on  Sept.  12,  1865,  showed 
62,528  acres  of  cultivated  land  in  Louisiana  to  be  in  the  hands  of 
the  bureau,  and  contained  the  following  provision  relative  to  the 
restoration   of  these   lands   by   their   owners : 

"Abandoned  lands  held  by  this  bureaia  may  be  restored  to  owners 
pardoned  by  the  president,  by  the  assistant  commissioners,  to 
whom  applications  for  such  restoration  should  be  forwarded,  so 
far  as  practicable,  through  the  superintendents  of  the  districts  in 
which  the  lands  are  situated.  Each  application  must  be  accom- 
panied by — 1st,  evidence  of  special  pardon  by  the  president,  or  a 
copy  of  the  oath  of  amnesty  prescribed  in  the  president's  procla- 
mation of  May  29,  1865,  when  the  applicant  is  not  included  in  any 
of  the  classes  therein  excepted  from  the  benefits  of  said  oath ;  2nd, 
proof  of  title.  *  *  *  No  lands  under  cultivation  by  loyal  refu- 
gees or  freedmen  will  be  restored  under  this  circular  until  the  crops 
now  growing  shall  be  secured  for  the  benefit  of  the  cultivators, 
unless  full  and  just  compensation  be  made  for  their  labor  and  its 
products  and  for  their  expenditures." 

Immediately  after  the  close  of  the  war,  and  before  the  freedmen's 
bureau  was  fully  organized.  Gen.  Herron,  then  in  command  in 
northern  Louisiana,  issued   orders  requiring  the  freedmen  to  re- 


444  LOUISIANA 

main  on  the  plantations  where  they  Avere  then  employed  until  the 
crops  were  harvested,  otherwise  they  would  be  arrested  as  vagrants. 
The  strict  enforcement  of  this  order  had  a  salutary  effect,  and 
when  Gen.  Howard  in  October  and  November  made  a  tour  of  in- 
spection through  the  states  where  the  bureau  was  in  operation,  he 
reported  "less  opposition  to  it  in  Louisiana  than  in  most  of  the 
South." 

In  Feb.,  1866,  Congress  passed  an  amendatory  act,  enlarging  the 
powers  of  the  bureau,  particularly  in  the  reservation  of  3,000,000 
acres  of  public  land  in  the  South,  then  unsold,  for  the  purpose  of 
renting  it  to  the  freedmen,  but  it  was  vetoed  by  President  Johnson 
and  failed  to  become  a  law.  In  July  following  another  amendatory 
act,  much  milder  in  its  provisions,  was  passed  over  the  president's 
veto.  It  was  intended  to  perfect  the  distribution  of  abandoned 
and  confiscated  lands,  and  regulated  the  manner  of  enforcement  of 
the  law  by  military  tribunals.  During  the  first  year  of  the  bu- 
reau's existence  it  was  generally  accepted  by  the  people  of  the 
North  as  a  necessary  adjunct  of  emancipation,  but  in  the  summer 
of  1866  the  report  became  prevalent  that  the  government  was  main- 
taining many  negroes  in  idleness  at  the  expense  of  the  public  treas- 
ury and  caused  widespread  opposition  to  the  further  continuance 
of  the  bureau.  This  led  Gen.  Howard  to  issue  on  Aug.  17,  1866, 
his  recommendation  "that,  on  and  after  the  first  day  of  September 
next,  the  issue  of  rations  be  stopped,  except  to  the  sick  in  regularly 
organized  hospitals,  and  to  the  orphan  asylums  for  refugees  and 
freedmen  already  existing,  and  that  the  state  officials,  who  may  be 
responsible  for  the  poor,  be  carefully  notified  of  this  order,  so  that 
they  may  assiime  the  charge  of  such  indigent  refugees  and  freed- 
men as  may  not  be  embraced  in  the  above  exceptions."  Five  daj's 
later  this  was  approved  by  the  secretary  of  war,  with  the  exception 
that  it  was  to  take  effect  on  Oct.  1  instead  of  Sept.  1.  The  opposi- 
tion continued,  however,  and  in  July,  1868,  Congress  ordered  that 
the  bureau  should  be  withdrawn  from  the  several  states,  and  its 
operations,  with  the  exception  of  the  educational  featiires  and 
county  divisions,  were  discontinued  on  Jan.  1,  1869. 

While  it  was  in  force  the  bureau  agents  were  the  guardians  of 
the  freedmen,  with  power  to  make  their  contracts,  settle  their  dis- 
putes with  their  employers,  and  care  for  them  generally.  Bureau 
courts  were  instituted,  ostensibly  to  protect  the  colored  men  from 
discrimination  in  consequence  of  their  exclusion  as  witnesses  from 
the  civil  courts,  and  the  bureavi  employed  lawyers  to  appear  in 
courts  for  colored  litigants.  Garner,  in  his  work  on  reconstruction, 
says:  "The  chief  objection  of  the  Southern  white  man  to  the 
bureau  was  that  it  established  a  sort  of  espionage  over  his  con- 
duct." Edward  Mayes,  in  his  Life  of  Lamar,  says :  "Its  tendency 
was  to  create  in  the  minds  of  the  blacks  both  a  .suspicion  of  the 
laws  of  the  state  and  a  belief  that  they  were  outside  of  and  superior 
to  those  laws.  Filled,  as  its  offices  principally  were,  with  men  who 
■were  adventurers,  bargainers,  blackmailers,  seekers  after  oflSce, 
the  negroes  were  banded  into  clubs  and  leagues  needless  for  any 


LOUISIANA  445 

legitimate  purpose,  taught  to  parade  the  streets  in  military  array 
with  arms  and  drums,  were  massed  to  be  voted,  and  so  were  taught 
to  regard  Southern  whites  as  their  political  enemies  by  nature; 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  the  whites  themselves  were  inspired  with 
disgust  for  the  bureau  and  contempt  for  its  work,  and  also  with 
despair  of  ever  reaching  the  reason  of  the  negroes  in  political  mat- 
ters by  any  argument  or  appeal." 

Freedmen,  Higher  Education  of. — There  are  four  important  in- 
stitutions in  the  state  devoted  to  the  higher  education  of  colored 
youth  of  both  sexes.  All  of  these  are  located  in  the  city  of  New 
Orleans  and  were  established  since  the  war.  In  addition  to  these 
schools,  several  praiseworthy  efforts  to  secure  an  industrial  train- 
ing for  the  colored  people  at  various  points  in  the  country  districts 
are  being  made.  Of  the  four  institutions  in  New  Orleans,  the 
Southern  university  and  A.  and  M.  college,  a  state  institution,  has 
been  separately  treated,  Leland  university  is  a  Baptist  school. 
Straight  university  is  a  Congregational  school.  New  Orleans  uni- 
versity is  a  Methodist  school,  and  all  four  are  coeducational.  The 
founder  of  Leland  university  was  Holbrook  Chamberlain,  of  Brook- 
lyn, N.  Y.,  who  purchased  4  squares  of  ground  on  St.  Charles  ave- 
nue, and  secured  a  charter  for  the  institution,  dated  March  26,  1870. 
The  school  received  its  name  in  honor  of  the  wife  of  the  founder. 
Mr.  Chamberlain  gave  the  school  some  $65,000  during  his  life,  and 
at  his  death  in  1883  endowed  it  with  about  $100,000.  Other  agencies 
which  materially  aided  the  school  in  obtaining  a  start  were  the 
U.  S.  government,  acting  through  the  Freedman's  bureau,  which 
appropriated  $17,500  toward  the  first  building,  and  the  Ameri- 
can Baptist  Home  Mission  society,  which  donated  $12,500  toward 
the  purchase  of  the  site,  and  also  made  generous  annual  appropria- 
tions for  general  purposes  during  the  succeeding  years.  A  large 
three-story  brick  building,  100x80  feet,  was  completed  in  1873,  and 
the  school  began  its  work.  Though  provided  with  a  university 
charter,  the  deficiencies  of  the  colored  population  compelled  it  for 
a  long  time  to  devote  its  energies  to  the  more  elementary  forms  of 
instruction — primary  grammar,  high  school  and  normal.  In  1884 
a  large  dormitory  for  girls  was  completed  at  a  cost  of  $25,000.  The 
legislature  granted  the  school  a  new  charter  in  1891,  enlarging  its 
scope,  and  full  normal  and  college  work  is  now  being  performed, 
while  the  standard  has  been  raised  so  as  to  eliminate  the  lower 
grades  of  instruction.  A  system  of  affiliated  schools,  over  which 
the  university  exercises  a  very  direct  control,  serve  as  feeders  for 
the  higher  institution.  The  university  has  a  well  selected  library 
of  over  3,000  volumes. 

Straight  university  was  chartered  by  the  legislature  in  1869,  with 
the  power  to  grant  degrees,  establisli  technical  departments,  etc. 
It  was  named  in  honor  of  Seymour  Straight,  then  a  produce  mer- 
chant of  New  Orleans,  who,  with  Edward  and  Charles  Heath,  was 
very  active  in  the  promotion  of  the  institution.  Through  the  ef- 
forts of  these  men,  and  the  generosity  of  the  U.  S.  government,  a 
building  was  erected  in  1870  on  ground  belonging  to  the  American 


446  LOUISIANA 

Missionary  association,  at  the  corner  of  Esplanade  and  Burgundy 
streets,  and  the  school  was  placed  imder  the  control  of  this  asso- 
ciation. Its  work  -was  of  a  very  elementary  character  for  several 
years,  but  after  some  time  discipline  and  organization  prevailed, 
the  grade  was  raised,  and  the  scope  of  the  work  broadened.  The 
first  building  was  burned  in  1877,  together  with  its  contents,  in- 
cluding a  valuable  library  donated  by  n6rthern  friends.  Only  a 
year  later  a  portion  of  its  present  site  on  Canal  and  Saulte  Touti 
streets  was  secured  and  a  university  building  erected  thereon.  In 
1881  Mrs.  Valina  G.  Stone,  of  Maiden,  Mass.,  donated  $25,000  to 
the  school,  enabling  it  to  purchase  an  additional  half  square  of 
ground  on  which  Stone  Hall,  a  girls'  dormitory  and  teachers'  home, 
were  erected.  Two  years  later,  Whitin  Hall,  a  boys'  dormitory, 
was  built  through  the  generosity  of  "William  C.  "Whitin  and  Mr. 
Straight.  In  1886  the  building  used  as  Vermont  headquarters  at 
the  New  Orleans  exposition  in  1885  was  obtained,  and  it  became 
the  headquarters  of  the  library,  where  are  now  housed  over  3,000 
bound  volumes.  At  the  same  time  a  much  needed  industrial  de- 
partment was  established  by  aid  obtained  from  the  Slater  fund. 
A  shop  was  erected,  and  various  mechanical  branches  are  now  in 
successful  operation.  The  industrial  department  has  since  grown 
to  large  proportions  and  is  doing  a  good  work.  The  school  also 
maintains  law,   theological,   classical,   and  normal   departments. 

The  New  Orleans  universit}'  was  chartered  on  ]\Iarch  22,  1873, 
when  the  scope  of  the  Union  normal  school,  organized  and  in  oper- 
ation since  July  9,  1869,  was  broadened  to  form  this  institution. 
Its  first  board  of  trustees  were  J.  C.  Hartzell,  I.  S.  Lea^itt,  Cyrus 
Biissey,  Emperor  Williams,  H.  C.  Dibble,  John  Baldwin,  George 
Dardis,  "W.  j\I.  Daily,  :\I.  C.  Cole,  James  H.  Ingraham,  C.  W.  Booth- 
by,  J.  M.  "V^anee,  Pierre  Landry,  "W.  G.  Brown,  and  J.  Barth.  The 
first  president  of  the  school  was  Rev.  I.  S.  Leavitt.  A.  'SI.,  and  the 
present  incumbent  is  Rev.  H.  F.  Knight,  Ph.D.  The  school  con- 
tinued to  occupy  the  site  of  the  Union  normal  school,  at  the  corner 
of  Race  and  Camp  streets,  until  1884,  when  that  property  was  sold 
and  a  block  was  purchased  at  the  corner  of  St.  Charles  and  Val- 
mont,  where  the  institution  has  since  been  located.  A  large  five- 
story  building  was  here  erected,  156  feet  front  by  120  feet  deep, 
which  contained  accommodations  for  ISO  students,  as  well  as  class 
rooms,  chapels,  offices,  dining  room,  etc.  The  school  maintains 
besides  the  usual  academic  department,  a  model  school,  musical, 
mechanical  and  sewing  departments;  the  Flint  medical  college,  es- 
tablished in  1889,  was  added  to  the  institution,  and  in  1900  a  college 
of  pharmacy  was  established  at  1566  Canal  street. 

Freeland,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  eastern  part  of  "West  Feliciana 
parish,  is  2  miles  southwest  of  Jackson,  the  nearest  railroad  sta- 
tion. 

Free  Masons.— Masonry  in  Louisiana    dates    back  to   Nov.   21, 

1793.  when  Parfaite  Union  Lodge  at  New  Orleans  was  granted  a 
charter  by  the  grand  lodge  of  South  Carolina,  and  on  March  30, 

1794,  the  following  officers  were  installed :   Laurent  Sigur,  "W.  M. ; 


LOUISIANA  447 

Laurent  Cliouriac,  S.  "W. ;  Andres  Wackernie,  J.  W.  Before  the 
close  of  the  year  1794  another  lodge — Btoile  Polaire,  or  Polar  Star 
Lodge — was  organized  in  New  Orleans,  and  in  1796  it  received  a 
provisional  charter  from  the  provincial  lodge  "la  Parfaite  Sincer- 
ite"  of  Marseilles,  France,  the  first  ofiScers  being  Duprelong  Pet- 
avin,  W.  M. ;  Chev.  Desilets,  S.  W. ;  P.  Marc,  J.  "W.,  wlio  were  in- 
stalled according  to  the  French  Rite.  On  March  1,  1802,  Charite 
Lodge  received  a  charter  from  the  grand  lodge  of  Pennsylvania 
and  the  same  authority  granted  charters  to  Concorde  and  Perse 
verance  Lodges  on  Oct.  27,  1810.  These  five  lodges  united  in  form 
ing  the  Louisiana  grand  lodge,  which  was  organized  on  June  12 
1812,  and  on  Aug.  15,  1812,  all  surrendered  their  charters  and  ac 
cepted  a  new  charter  from  the  grand  lodge  of  Louisiana,  Parfaite 
Union  becoming  No.  1  under  the  new  arrangement ;  Charite,  No.  2 
Concorde,  No.  3 ;  Perseverance,  No.  4,  and  Etoile  Polaire,  No.  5 
Under  these  respective  names  and  numbers  these  five  lodges  are 
still  in  existence.  The  first  officers  of  the  grand  lodge  were :  P.  P 
Dubourg,  Grand  Master;  L.  C.  Moreau  Lislet,  Deputy  Grand  Mas 
ter ;  J.  Blanque,  Grand  Senior  Warden ;  Francis  Pernot,  Grand  Jun 
ior  Warden ;  Jean  B.  Pinta,  Grand  Treasurer ;  J.  B.  Gregoire  Veron 
Grand  Secretary. 

In  1848  a  second  grand  lodge  was  organized  and  for  two  years 
there  were  two  rival  branches  of  the  fraternity  in  the  state.  In 
that  year  Felix  Garcia  was  master  of  the  old  grand  lodge  and  M. 
R.  Dudley  of  the  new.  The  following  year  Luc.  Hermann  was 
elected  master  of  the  old  lodge  and  John  Gedge  of  the  new,  and 
the  following  year  the  two  grand  lodges  were  consolidated  under 
the  original  charter  of  1812. 

For  more  than  a  decade  after  the  panic  of  1873,  the  Masonic 
fraternity  all  over  the  country  felt  the  effects  of  the  depression, 
and  Louisiana  was  no  exception  to  the  rule.  In  1886  the  order 
numbered  but  slightly  over  4,000,  the  increase  during  the  year  hav- 
ing been  but  59.  By  1890  the  membership  had  increased  to  4,246, 
and  in  September  of  that  year  the  fraternity  received  a  fresh  im- 
petus through  the  following  preamble  and  resolution  which  were 
reported  to  the  grand  lodge  by  a  committee  consisting  of  G.  W. 
Bolton,  W.  C.  Warren,  George  Soule  and  John  C.  Wickliffe : 

"Whereas,  the  provisions  of  the  resolution  of  the  grand  lodge 
of  Feb.  11,  1890,  have  been  carried  into  effect  as  regards  the  sale 
of  the  temple  property,  the  preparation  of  plans  and  specification 
and  the  reception  of  bids  for  the  demolition  of  the  grand  lodge 
hall  at  the  corner  of  St.  Charles  and  Perdido  streets,  and  the  erec- 
tion thereon  of  a  Masonic  temple ;  and  whereas  the  amount  speci- 
fied in  said  resolution  is  inadequate  for  said  purposes;  therefore, 
be  it 

"Resolved,  that  the  sum  of  $100,000,  or  so  much  thereof  as  may 
be  necessary,  is  hereby  appropriated  for  the  erection  of  the  said 
Masonic  temple,  and  that  the  grand  master,  by  and  with  the  ad- 
vice of  the  board  of  directors  of  the  grand  lodge  hall,  be  and  is 
hereby  authorized  to  contract  for  the  erection  of  the  said  Masonic 


448  LOUISIANA 

templo  on  the  site  of  the  present  grand  lodge  hall,  at  the  corner  of 
St.  Charles  and  Perdido  streets,  for  a  sum  not  exceeding  $100,000, 
and  to  sign  and  execute  all  contracts  and  other  instruments  of  writ- 
ing requisite  in  the  premises." 

Work  on  the  new  temple  was  commenced  on  Oct.  20,  1890,  and 
in  Jan.,  1892,  the  building  was  completed.  "With  the  erection  of  a 
new  Masonic  home  the  interest  in  the  affairs  of  the  organization 
increased,  both  among  the  members  and  the  uninitiated,  and  the 
resiilt  was  a  rapid  and  substantial  growth  of  the  fraternity  in  the 
state.  The  report  of  the  grand  secretary'  for  1909  shows  202  lodges, 
■ivith  a  membership  of  12,414. 

The  Louisiana  grand  chapter.  Royal  Arch  IMasons,  was  organ- 
ized in  March.  1813,  and  in  May,  1848,  was  reorganized  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  national  grand  chapter.  In  1908  there  were  27 
chapters  in  the  state,  located  in  the  following  towns  and  cities  in 
numerical  order  :*  two  in  New  Orleans,  Farmerville,  Shreveport, 
St.  Francisville,  Franklin,  Bastrop,  Monroe,  Opelousas,  New  Iberia, 
Zachary,  Coushatta,  Ruston,  Evergreen,  Amite,  Alexandria,  Natch- 
itoches, Arcadia,  Lake  Charles,  Hammond,  Donaldsonville,  Welsh, 
Leesville,  Rodessa,  Crowley,  De  Ridder  and  Baton  Rouge.  The 
membership  in  these  chapters  was  about  2,500.  At  the  same  time 
there  were  nine  councils  of  Royal  and  Select  Masters,  located  at 
New  Orleans,  Monroe,  Opelousas,  New  Iberia,  Coushatta,  Alex- 
andria, Natchitoches,  Lake  Charles  and  De  Ridder. 

The  Louisiana  grand  commandery,  Knights  Templars,  received 
its  charter  on  Feb.  12,  1864.  In  1908  there  were  10  commanderies, 
located  as  follows :  two  in  New  Orleans,  Shreveport,  Monroe,  Alex- 
andria, Hammond,  Welsh,  Zachary  and  Lake  Charles,  the  total 
membership  being  in  round  numbers  700. 

In  addition  to  these  regularly  organized  Masonic  bodies  of  the 
York  Rite  there  is  the  Louisiana  Consistory  of  the  Ancient  and 
Accepted  Scottish  Rite,  with  headquarters  in  New  Orleans;  Jerusa- 
lem Temple,  Ancient  Arabic  Order,  Nobles  of  the  Mystic  Shrine; 
the  Masonic  Veterans'  Association,  and  about  40  chapters  of  the 
Order  of  the  Eastern  Star — the  "Ladies'  Degree." 

French  Domination. — Though  the  actual  period  of  French  rule 
in  Louisiana  only  extended  from  1699  to  1766,  when  the  Spanish 
Antonio  de  Ulloa  arrived  to  take  possession  in  the  name  of  Spain, 
that  comparatively  brief  period  of  rule  has  left  a  profound  impress 
on  the  manners,  institutions  and  life  of  the  people  of  the  region. 
This  influence,  even  today,  manifests  itself  in  many  different  ways, 
and  the  later  Anglo-Saxon  infusion  has  never  been  powerful  enough 
to  displace  but  only  to  modify  the  basic  Latin  strain.  Religious  be- 
lief and  observances,  social  customs  and  habits,  educational  and 
political  development,  language,  names  and  nomenclature,  and  the 
physical  characteristics  of  many  of  the  people,  alike  attest  the  in- 
fluence of  the  French  on  the  development  of  Louisiana. 

As  the  17th  century  approached  its  last  quarter  the  French,  long 
before  domiciled  in  Canada,  were  becoming  more  and  more  the 
adventuring  and  exploring  race  for  the  great  central  portion  of 


LOUISIANA  449 

the  American  continent.  If  the  Spaniards,  through  De  Soto  and 
other  early  explorers,  had  gained  some  knowledge  and  title  to  the 
Mississippi  valley,  they  had  long  ago  abandoned  it.  About  this 
period  the  French  in  Canada  began  to  hear  many  stories  concern- 
ing a  mighty  river  which  lay  to  their  west.  These  tales  were 
brought  in  by  Indian,  trader  and  missionary  and  aroused  much  in- 
terest, particularly  as  it  might  lead  to  the  discovery  of  a  shorter 
trade  route  to  the  South  sea  and  the  orient.  Definite  information 
concerning  the  Mississippi  was  first  acquired  in  167.3  through  the 
daring  voyage  of  Marquette  and  Joliet  (q.  v.),  who  descended  the 
river  to  a  point  below  the  33d  degree  of  latitude,  and  learned  that 
it  emptied  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  instead  of  flowing  west.  Strange 
as  it  now  seems,  the  French  government  was  very  dilatory  in  act- 
ing on  the  valuable  knowledge  thus  gained,  though  it  finally  reaped 
the  fruits  of  this  earlier  voyage  through  the  indomitable  courage 
and  perseverance  of  the  brave  Robert  Cavalier  de  La  Salle,  who 
reached  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  on  April  9,  1682,  and  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  then  custom,  took  possession  in  the  name  of 
France,  by  right  of  discovery,  of  the  whole  of  the  vast  valley 
through  which  the  river  flowed,  and  named  it  in  honor  of  his  king, 
Louisiana.  Failing  in  his  subsequent  attempt  at  colonization  in 
1784,  and  meeting  a  wretched  and  undeserved  death  in  a  lone  Texas 
wilderness,  it  was  not  until  14  years  later,  in  1698,  that  Iberville 
set  out  from  France  to  make  the  second  attempt  at  colonizing  the 
country.  France  then  proceeded  to  play  her  part  in  the  great  game 
of  strategy  with  Spain  and  England  for  the  control  of  the  Missis- 
sippi basin.  Forts  and  settlements  on  the  lower  Mississippi  and 
gulf  would  provide  Canada  with  a  double  outlet  to  the  sea,  and 
secure  to  France  the  free  navigation  of  these  waters,  while  the 
English  colonies  on  the  Atlantic  would  be  hemmed  in  by  the  great 
French  possessions  of  Canada  and  Louisiana.  Spain,  after  two 
centuries  of  opportunity,  had  failed  to  seize  the  control  of  the 
lower  Mississippi  and  had  fastened  her  grasp  on  the  islands  and 
mainland  farther  to  the  south.  Iberville's  little  squadron  with  its 
burden  of  200  colonists  and  a  company  of  marines  came  to  anchor 
on  Tuesday,  Feb.  10,  1699,  in  the  harbor  north  of  Ship  Island. 
Iberville  was  not  long  in  learning  from  the  coast  Indians  of  the 
near  proximity  of  a  large  river  to  the  west,  called  by  the  natives 
"Malabouchia,"  and,  as  it  was  his  intention  to  found  his  settlement 
on  the  Mississippi,  he  and  his  brother  Bienville  searched  out  the 
mouth  and  ascended  the  river  a  distance  of  100  leagues,  but  failed 
to  find  a  suitable  location  on  the  Mississippi  at  this  time,  hence  he 
established  the  first  French  colony  on  the  northeast  shore  of  the 
bay  of  Biloxi. 

The  growth  of  the  colony  was  very  slow,  notwithstanding  fresh 
colonists  and  considerable  quantities  of  supplies  were  sent  over 
periodically.  The  establishment  of  plantations  and  the  pursuit  of 
agriculture  were  neglected  by  the  settlers,  who  wasted  their  efforts 
in  a  vain  search  for  precious  metals.  Most  of  the  young  French 
soldiers  and  settlers  sent  over  as  colonists  were  ill  fitted  to  cope 
1—29 


450  LOUISIANA 

with  the  privations  and  trials  incident  to  tlieir  strange  environ- 
ment, and  many  of  them  died  from  exposure.  By  far  the  best  ele- 
ment in  this  early  population  was  the  Canadian.  In  1702  after 
England  had  declared  war  against  France  and  Spain,  the  French 
government  ordered  the  removal  of  the  headquarters  of  the  colony 
from  Biloxi  to  the  Mobile  river,  where  it  remained  until  1719,  when 
headquarters  were  again  established  on  the  Bay  of  Biloxi.  Priva- 
tion and  sickness,  political  intrigue  and  dissension  marked  the 
earlier  years  of  the  colony.  The  colonists  were  repeatedly  on  the 
verge  of  starvation,  and  were  either  succored  by  the  neighboring 
Indians  or  by  the  timely  arrival  of  supplies  from  France.  The  tire- 
less Bienville  prevailed  over  his  enemies  by  sheer  force  of  charac- 
ter, and  during  the  major  portion  of  the  period  until  1841  ruled  the 
destinies  of  the  colony.  Contrary  to  the  expectations  of  the  Cro-\vn, 
the  colony  had  not  proved  self-sustaining,  but  continued  year  after 
year  to  be  a  heavy  charge  on  the  exchequer.  This  was  the  chief 
reason  that  the  rich  merchant  Crozat,  in  1712,  was  given  a  practical 
monopoly  over  the  commerce,  navigation  and  settlement  of  the 
whole  province  of  Louisiana  for  15  years,  the  government  retaining 
little  more  than  the  prerogative  of  sovereignty.  (See  Crozat  Grant.) 
The  extraordinarj'  powers  granted  to  the  Western  Company, 
which  succeeded  Crozat,  were  to  run  for  a  term  of  25  years,  and  its 
general  plan  and  organization  were  not  unlike  that  of  the  British 
East  Lidia  Company.  The  company  owed  its  inspiration  to  the 
celebrated  financier  John  Law,  who  had  established  his  bank  in 
1716.  and  now  prevailed  on  the  regency  of  France  to  adopt  his 
credit  plan  to  free  France  from  her  enormoiis  burden  of  debt.  The 
vast  potential  resources  of  the  Mississippi  valley  were  to  be  ex- 
ploited, and  were  to  be  an  important  prop  to  Law's  credit  and  mon- 
etary system.  Law's  system  collapsed  in  1720,  but  the  j\Iississippi 
valley  had  received  a  tremendous  advertisement,  and  Louisiana  had 
profited  greatly  in  many  ways  through  the  activities  of  the  com- 
pany. Between  Oct.,  1717,  and  ilaj',  1721,  over  7,000  persons  had 
been  sent  to  the  colony  in  43  vessels.  When  the  company  assumed 
control  of  the  province  in  1717,  there  were  only  700  persons  all  told 
in  the  colony.  Large  grants  of  land  were  made  to  wealthy  men 
in  France,  and  plantations  were  opened  by  them  at  widely  separated 
points,  even  as  far  north  as  the  Arkansas  river.  As  it  was  obligated 
to  do  by  its  charter,  the  company  had  annually  sent  to  the  colony 
from  300  to  500  blacks,  who  were  distributed  among  the  various 
plantations,  and  soon  formed  an  important  element  in  the  popula- 
tion. They  liad  become  numerous  enough  in  1724  to  call  for  special 
laws,  and  Gov.  Bienville  promulgated  his  famous  "Black  Code" 
in  that  year,  which,  with  few  alterations,  remained  in  force  for 
nearly  80  years.  The  company  had  wisely  reinstated  Bienville  as 
governor  and  commandant  in  1717,  and  his  influence  was  sufficient 
to  bring  about  the  establishment  of  the  capital  of  the  province  on 
the  banks  of  the  ^Mississippi  at  New  Orleans  in  1722.  Bienville 
ever  urged  the  cultivation  of  the  soil  as  the  only  true  basis  of  pros- 
perity for  the  colony,  and  the  fertile  banks  of"  the  Mississippi  had 


LOUISIANA  451 

long  been  favored  by  him  and  his  adherents  as  the  proper  place  for 
the  chief  establishment.  Though  Law's  failure  had  checked  col- 
onization and  greatly  retarded  improvements  on  the  concessions, 
still  the  company  persisted  in  its  plans,  and  colonists  continued  to 
arrive,  the  bulk  of  whom  settled  on  the  Mississippi  after  the  found- 
ing of  New  Orleans. 

The  Royal  Indian  Company,  which  succeeded  to  the  rights  of 
the  "Western  Company  in  Louisiana  in  1723,  sent  over  most  of  these 
new  colonists  at  its  own  expense.  They  were  largely  drawn  from 
the  very  poor  and  even  the  criminal  elements  of  Paris  and  other 
cities  of  France.  Ignorant  as  most  of  them  were  of  all  that  per- 
tained to  farming,  nevertheless  they  were  brought  to  labor  on  the 
new  concessions.  Some  succumbed  to  the  climate,  some  returned 
to  France  to  spread  evil  reports  of  conditions  on  the  Mississippi, 
but  enough  remained  to  bring  about  a  slow  growth  in  population. 
The  company  also  made  several  shipments  of  girls  designed  as 
wives  for  the  settlers,  and  many  of  these,  as  the  so-called  "casket 
girls,"  liad  been  carefully  reared  and  came  over  in  charge  of  nuns, 
who  gave  them  proper  care  until  such  time  as  husbands  were 
chosen  for  them.  Indigo  and  tobacco  were  important  staples  of 
the  region,  the  tobacco  monopoly  enjoyed  by  the  company  being 
alone  sufficient  to  indemnify  it  for  all  its  expenses,  had  it  properly 
attended  to  its  cTiltivation  and  curtailed  its  expenditures  for  sal- 
aries, troops,  fortifications,  and  fruitless  expenditures  in  search  of 
precious  metals.  Trade  and  commerce  never  attained  to  large  pro- 
portions under  the  French,  and  imports  were  always  largely  in 
excess  of  exports.  The  colony  never  became  self-sustaining  even, 
but  remained  dependent  for  at  least  part  of  its  supplies  on  the 
mother  country  and  the  surplus  agricultural  products  of  the  upper 
river  country.  The  fur  trade  down  the  Mississippi  early  attained 
to  considerable  proportions,  one  large  shipment  being  made  in 
1705,  when  the  French  voyageurs  in  the  Indian  country  around  the 
"Wabash  collected  from  the  several  hunting  posts  in  that  region 
some  10,000  deer  and  5,000  bear  skins,  and  sent  them  down  the 
Ohio  and  Mississippi,  mostly  in  open  boats.  "When  these  early 
merchants  arrived  at  the  mouth  of  the  Bayou  Manchac,  they  pro- 
ceeded by  the  inland  passage  to  Biloxi  and  Mobile.  At  the  latter 
point,  the  cargo  was  transshipped  to  France,  where  it  arrived  in 
safety  and  proved  to  be  profitable  to  all  concerned  in  the  venture. 
The  voyageurs  who  made  the  1,400  mile  trip  by  river  and  lake, 
never  returned  home,  but  settled  in  Louisiana.  A  decade  or  two 
later,  the  pioneer  settlers  of  the  Illinois  country  were  sending 
down  the  river  agricultural  and  other  supplies,  as  well  as  products 
of  the  chase.  In  1731,  when  Louisiana  again  became  a  crown  col- 
ony, the  total  exports  of  the  valley  only  amounted  to  .$62,000,  of 
which  65  per  cent  were  skins  shipped  from  the  upper  river  coun- 
try. There  was  little  improvement  under  the  French  crown,  as 
the  estimated  export  trade  of  the  colony  in  1763  was  as  follows: 
Indigo,  .$100,000 ;  deer  skins,  $80,000 ;  lumber,  $50,000 ;  naval  stores, 


452  LOUISIANA 

turpentine,  etc..  $12,000:  rice,  peas  and  beans.  $4,000:  smuggled 
trade,  $54,000 :  total.  $304,000. 

Wlien,  in  1719,  in  consequence  of  the  war  betM'een  France  and 
Spain  the  pro^-ince  also  became  involved  in  liostilities.  Gov.  Bien- 
ville acted  with  great  energy.  He  twice  captured  the  town  of  Pen- 
sacola,  and  also  sent  detachments  to  hold  back  the  Spaniards  from 
upper  Louisiana  and  along  the  Kio  Grande.  Despite  his  great 
services,  Bienville  was  charged  with  extravagance,  nepotism,  self- 
seeking,  etc.,  and  was  superseded  by  Gov.  Perier  in  1726.  Bienville 
retired  to  France  to  meet  his  detractors,  and  did  not  return  to 
Loiiisiana  again  until  1734. 

"When  John  Law"s  German  settlers  on  the  Arkansas  found  them- 
selves deserted  by  their  patron,  they  came  down  the  river  to  New 
Orleans,  hoping  to  obtain  a  passage  back  to  France.  The  govern- 
ment was  unable  to  provide  this  passage  and  prevailed  upon  most 
of  them  to  remain  in  the  colony.  They  were  granted  small  tracts 
of  land  on  both  sides  of  the  river,  about  30  miles  above  New  Or- 
leans, at  what  is  known  as  the  German  coast,  where  they  settled 
and  engaged  in  agricultural  pursuits,  and  became  the  market  gar- 
deners for  the  capital.  This  was  the  origin  of  the  German  popula- 
tion of  New  Orleans.  I\Iost  of  these  Germans  became  thoroughly 
Gallicized  in  course  of  time,  and  their  descendants  today  speak 
the  French  language,  while  some  of  their  Teutonic  names  have 
been  translated  into  French.  Prof.  Deiler  has  written  very  inter- 
estingly about  them. 

The  six  years  of  Perier 's  administration  of  the  colony  were 
marked  by  several  important  happenings.  There  were  a  number 
of  improvements  wrought  in  botli  the  architectural  and  social  fea- 
tures of  New  Orleans.  The  importation  of  vagabonds  and  crim- 
inals to  the  colony  had  already  ceased,  stringent  penalties  were 
placed  upon  all  forms  of  gambling,  and  steps  were  taken  for  the 
promotion  of  education  and  religion.  The  city  of  New  Orleans 
presented  a  most  disorderly  and  squalid  appearance  in  the  begin- 
ning. The  engineer  de  la  Tour,  who  had  been  commissioned  by 
Gov.  Bienville  to  lay  off  the  town,  had  performed  his  work  as  well 
as  could  be  expected.  Stakes  were  driven,  lines  drawn,  streets 
marked  off  and  named,  town  lots  granted,  ditched  and  palisaded, 
a  rude  levee  thrown  up  along  the  river  front,  and  the  scattered 
settlers  of  the  neighborhood  gathered  into  the  form  of  a  town. 
The  plan  of  the  capital  comprised  a  parallelogram  of  4.000  feet  on 
the  river  by  a  depth  of  1,800,  and  was  divided  into  regular  squares 
of  300  feet,  front  and  depth.  Most  of  the  houses,  however,  were 
merely  board  cabins  of  split  cypress,  thatched  with  cypress  bark, 
and  scattered  confusedly  over  the  swampy  ground.  (See  New 
Orleans.) 

The  well  known  map  of  New  Orleans,  made  in  Perier 's  day,  shows 
the  town  protected  by  a  levee  and  laid  off  in  rectangular  form, 
having  11  squares  front  on  the  river  by  a  depth  of  6  squares. 

Near  the  close  of  1729  the  French  sustained  their  greatest  dis- 
aster.   Their  prosperous  posts  at  the  Natchez  and  the  Yazoo  were 


LOUISIANA  453 

completely    destroyed    and    250    of    the    French    settlers    were 
massacred.     As   a   result,   the   colonial   authorities   inaugurated   a 
number  of  long  and  expensive  campaigns  against  the  hostile  Nat- 
chez,  and  their  allies  the  Chickasaws.     The   Natchez    tribe    was 
practically  exterminated  and  lost  their  tribal  identity,  their  sur- 
vivors taking  refuge  among  the  Chickasaws.     There  is  little  doubt 
that  the  Indians  at  this  time  hoped  to  exterminate  the  entire  French 
population   of  Louisiana,   but   that   disaster   was    averted   by  the 
energy  with  Avhicli  Perier  acted,  and  by  the  failure  of  the  great 
tribe  of  Choctaws  to  take  sides  against  the  French.     "When  Gov. 
Bienville  returned  to  the  colony  in  1734,  he  signalized  the  closing 
years   of  his  administration  by  two   futile   campaigns   against  the 
Chickasaws.     (See  Indian  Wars.)     As  a  further  result  of  the  Nat- 
chez outbreak  the  city  of  New  Orleans  was  provided  with  a  num- 
ber of  defensive  works,  including  a  ditch  around  the  entire  city, 
and  some  forts  were  also  erected  on  the  river  below  Natchez.    The 
French  having  incurred  the  lasting  enmity  of  the  warlike  tribe 
of  the  Chickasaws  suffered  much  in  their  commerce  on  the  Mis- 
sissippi by  reason  of  the  predatory  attacks   of  that  tribe.     The 
Indian  troubles  involved  large  expenditures  for  the  defense  of  the 
colony,  and  the  India  Company  in  1731  decided  to  surrender  its 
charter.     Its  petition  to  this   etfect  was   granted  by  the   Crovsm, 
though  the  charter  still  had  a  life  of  11  years,  and  Louisiana  once 
more  became  a  crown  colony.     The  change  was  marked  by  some 
important  administrative  changes.     The  superior  council  was  reor- 
ganized,  Louisiana   was   detached   from   the  jurisdiction   of   New 
France,  and  the  Illinois  country  though  settled  by  Canadians  was 
made  a  part  of  Louisiana.     Perier  remained  in  the  colony  as  gov- 
ernor for  a  year  under  the  new  regime,  and  was  then  superseded 
by  the  veteran  Bienville.    The  latter  again  came  under  the  censure 
of  his  government  in  1741,  and  on  May  10,  1743,  was  succeeded  by 
the  Marquis  de  Vaudreuil  as  governor.     The  new  governor  was  a 
gentleman   and   courtier   and   his    administration   was   filled   with 
grandeur   and   elegance,  fashion,   ceremony,   and  the   culture  and 
polish  of  continental  etiquette.    The  10  years  of  his  rule,  however, 
brought  little  real  advancement  to  the  colony.    The  population  re- 
mained practically  stationary,  while  the  current  expenses  continued 
to  increase.    The  budget  for  Louisiana  which  amounted  to  $59,686 
in  1742,  had  increased  to  $172,191  in  1752,  the  last  year  of  his  ad- 
ministration.    Commerce  received  a  considerable  stimulus  through 
the  exemption  from  duties  on  exports  and  imports  between  Lou- 
isiana and  the  mother  country  and  between  the  former  and  the 
French  West  Indies.     Agriculture,  too,   was  in   a  more  thriving 
state;  the  culture  of  the  sugar-cane  was  introduced  by  the  Jesuits 
in  1751,   and  considerable  quantities  of  such  staples   as  tobacco, 
indigo,  rice,  cotton,  corn  and  vegetables  were  produced.     Still  the 
colonists  in  1746  were  forced  to  appeal  to  France  for  relief  from 
threatened   starvation.     The   English  had   captured   some  French 
vessels  loaded  with  provisions,  and  a  hurricane  had  destroyed  the 
rice  crop,  on  which  the  colonists  were  mainly  dependent  for  bread. 


454  LOUISIANA 

Relief  came  only  with  the  arrival  of  several  convoys  of  provisions 
from  the  Illinois  country.  France  continued  her  vicious  policy  of 
forbidding  those  crops  to  be  raised  in  the  new  settlements  which 
were  raised  at  home.  The  chief  settlements  were  on  the  river 
above  New  Orleans,  and  after  the  great  massacre  the  Natchez  dis- 
trict remained  almost  depopulated,  ilany  Indian  uprisings  oc- 
curred during  these  years,  and  Vaiidreuil  even  had  trouble  with  the 
Choctaw  nation,  the  traditional  friends  of  the  French.  The  Chick- 
asaws  continued  their  marauding  operations  on  the  Mississippi,  and 
were  also  known  to  have  stirred  up  much  of  the  trouble  among  the 
friendly  Choctaws.  Vaudreuil  led  an  expedition  against  them  in 
1751,  but  did  not  succeed  in  bringing  the  tribe  into  subjection. 

Gov.  Vaudreuil  was  transferred  to  the  government  of  New 
France  and  was  succeeded  as  governor  of  Louisiana  by  the  veteran 
sea  captain,  Kerlerec,  who  arrived  at  New  Orleans  on  Feb.  3,  1753. 
The  English  were  now  in  the  Ohio  valley,  and  were  claiming  and 
exercising  the  right  to  come  to  the  left  bank  of  the  Mississippi. 
Their  agents  were  active  in  stirring  up  trouble  among  the  Indians, 
and  he  had  hardly  settled  down  to  his  work  of  administration 
when  active  hostilities  broke  out  between  the  French  and  English 
in  the  Ohio  valley  and  in  Canada.  His  administration  covers  the 
whole  period  of  the  Seven  Years'  war,  which  cost  France  the  whole 
of  her  possessions  in  America.  The  dissohite  and  incapable  Louis 
XV  neglected  the  colony  most  shamefully,  and  the  brave  Kerlerec 
with  the  feeble  resources  at  his  command  could  do  little  to  stem  the 
tide  of  disaster.  He  was  unable  always  to  obtain  from  home  even 
the  necessary  supplies  with  which  to  bribe  the  Indians  to  a  con- 
tinued allegiance.  Instead  of  increasing  the  military  establishment 
in  the  colony,  the  troops  were  actually  reduced  in  niimber,  and 
with  such  forces  as  he  had  he  was  expected  to  guard  the  line  of 
the  Mississippi,  and  to  maintain  the  province  in  a  state  of  defense. 
In  1758  when  the  British  captured  Fort  Duquesne,  the  French  gar- 
rison came  down  the  river  to  New  Orleans,  where  the  governor  pro- 
vided barracks  for  them  in  the  lower  part  of  the  to\vn.  "When 
Canada  finally  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  British  after  the  capture 
of  Quebec  and  ^Montreal,  many  Canadians  drifted  down  the  river 
to  Louisiana  rather  than  continue  under  the  rule  of  their  con- 
querors. The  records  of  Louisiana  show  that  about  the  same  time 
small  bands  of  homeless  and  heart-broken  Acadians.  ruthlessly 
expelled  from  their  northern  home  in  1755,  began  to  arrive.  All 
these  destitute  settlers  were  tenderly  cared  for  by  their  brethren 
in  Louisiana,  and  the  government  gave  them  lands  on  Avhich  they 
soon  founded  new  and  prosperous  homes.  "While  the  Seven  Years' 
war  was  fought  witliout  the  confines  of  Louisiana  and  no  hostile 
forces  ever  invaded  her  territory,  she  was  nevertheless  made  to 
suffer  keenly  from  the  effects  of  the  long  struggle.  The  few 
French  soldiers  at  Kerlerec 's  command  were  pooi-ly  fed  and  clothed, 
and  the  means  to  pay  them  were  almost  entirely  wanting.  'Many 
deserted  in  consequence   and  the  governor  placed  his  main  reli- 


LOUISIANA  455 

ance  on  his  Swiss  mercenaries,  who  were  held  to  their  duty  by  the 
sternest  of  discipline.  The  circulating  medium  of  the  colony  was 
never  in  a  more  wretched  state,  and  the  latter  years  of  Kerlerec's 
administration  were  much  disturbed  by  the  old  enmity  between 
governor  and  commissary  which  had  so  often  before  rent  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  colony  in  twain.  In  his  quarrel  the  commissary 
finally  prevailed  as  he  had  the  ear  of  the  court,  and  Kerlerec,  when 
he  finally  returned  to  Paris  in  1763,  was  cast  into  the  Bastile 
charged  with  extravagance  and  usurpation.  The  period  of  his 
administration  also  witnessed  the  famous  strife  between  the  Jesuits 
and  Capuchins  as  to  jurisdiction.  The  campaign  was  sharp  and 
brilliant,  being  characterized  by  "acrimonious  writings,  squibs, 
pasquinades  and  satirical  songs,"  which  were  posted  on  the  corners 
of  the  streets,  while  the  songs  enlivened  the  various  coffee-houses. 
Eventually  the  Capuchins  were  left  masters  of  the  field,  the  Jesuits 
being  expelled  from  all  French  and  Spanish  possessions,  both  in 
Europe  and  in  the  New  World.  Despite  the  great  services  of  the 
Jesuit  fathers  to  Louisiana,  all  their  property  including  their  splen- 
did plantation  above  New  Orleans,  then  regarded  as  one  of  the 
very  best  in  the  province,  was  seized  and  sold  at  auction.  The  plan- 
tation brought  the  sura  of  $180,000,  a  very  large  sum  for  those 
days. 

As  an  offset  to  England's  primacy  on  the  seas,  the  Due  de  Choi- 
seul  concluded  his  famous  Facte  de  Famille  in  1761,  which  fed- 
erated the  various  branches  of  'the  Bourbon  family,  which  led 
directly  to  the  international  war  upon  the  Jesuits  and  the  secret 
transfer  of  Louisiana  to  Spain  by  the  secret  treaty  of  Fontaine- 
bleau,  concluded  on  Nov.  3,  1762. 

The  transaction  ceding  away  from  France  this  magnificent  do- 
main remained  a  profound  secret  to  the  people  of  Louisiana  until 
Oct.,  1764,  when  M.  d'Abbadie  received  special  notice  of  it,  and 
was  instructed  to  hand  the  colony  over  to  Spain  whenever  the 
proper  representative  of  that  nation  should  arrive.  By  the  open 
treaty  of  Paris,  Feb.  10,  1763,  France  ceded  to  Great  Britain  all 
her  possessions  east  of  the  Mississippi,  except  the  town  of  New 
Orleans  and  the  island  on  which  it  stands.  France  had  now  lost 
the  last  vestige  of  her  vast  domain  in  America.  England  proceeded 
forthwith  to  erect  the  province  of  West  Florida  out  of  the  eastern 
part  of  that  domain,  and  gradually  took  possession  of  the  various 
French  posts.  At  New  Orleans,  and  west  of  the  river  the  French 
rule  continued  for  some  years  longer,  only  awaiting  the  arrival  of 
the  Spanish  envoy.  The  head  of  the  colonial  government  was  no 
longer  styled  governor,  but  had  the  title  of  director-general,  and 
King  Louis  stated  that  he  only  intended  to  maintain  a  counting- 
house  with  a  few  companies  of  soldiers  as  a  guard  in  Louisiana. 
D'Abbadie  governed  the  province  until  his  death  on  Feb.  4,  1765, 
when  he  was  succeeded  by  Capt.  Aubrey,  the  senior  captain  of  the 
troops  in  Louisiana,  who  continued  in  command  during  the  short 
interval  which  now  elapsed  before  the  formal  transfer  to  Spain. 


456  LOUISIANA 

Naturally  the  grief  and  indignation  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  colony 
knew  no  bounds,  when  they  found  themselves  suddenly  transferred 
to  Spanish  domination.  But  the  French  government  remained  deaf 
to  all  their  prayers  and  entreaties.  The  grave  and  haughty  UUoa 
came  in  March,  1766,  but  he  Avas  accompanied  by  only  a  feeble 
military  force,  so  that  his  position  soon  became  untenable  in  the 
face  of  the  hostile  popular  sentiment.  A  majority  of  the  superior 
council  acting  in  their  oflBcial  capacity  ordered  him  from  the  col- 
onj'  and  he  was  forced  to  depart,  smarting  under  the  indignity. 
The  rebellious  colonists,  however,  had  only  a  short  breathing  spell. 
Spain  was  at  last  thoroughly  aroused,  and  in  1769  Alexander 
O'Reilly,  in  command  of  a  large  Spanish  force,  arrived  and  reduced 
the  province  to  actual  subjection.  Some  dozen  or  more  of  the 
leading  French  citizens  who  had  taken  a  leading  part  in  the  expul- 
sion of  Ulloa,  and  whom  O'Reilly  was  pleased  to  style  rebels  and 
conspirators,  were  imprisoned,  tried  and  convicted.  The  death 
penalty  was  meted  out  to  five  of  them,  while  the  others  were  im- 
prisoned for  various  terms.  The  seditious  documents  of  the  supe- 
rior council  Avere  burned  on  the  Place  d'Armes.  (See  Superior 
Council.) 

French  Governors. — The  following  is  a  list  of  the  French  gov- 
ernors of  Loviisiana  during  the  French  domination,  together  with 
the  dates  of  their  administrations :  De  Sauvolle  de  la  Villantray, 
May,  1699-Aug.  21,  1701 ;  Bienville,  Jean  Baptiste  Lemoyne,  Aug. 
21,  1701-March  17,  1713  (during  the  period  of  the  Crozat  regime, 
and  for  several  months  after  the  formation  of  the  "Western  Com- 
pany Bienville  acted  either  as  lieutenant-governor,  or  as  acting 
governor,  and  again  became  governor  in  l71S)  ;  De  Muys  was 
appointed  governor  by  Crozat  to  succeed  Bienville  in  1712,  but 
never  reached  his  destination,  dying  while  en  route;  Cadillac,  An- 
toine  de  la  Motte,  March  17,  1713-March  9,  1717;  L'Epinay,  March 
9,  1717-February,  1718;  Bienville,  March,  1718-172"5;  Boisbriant, 
Sieur  de,  acting  governor,  1725-Oct.,  1726;  Perier,  M.  de,  Oct., 
1726-1733;  Bienville,  1733-May  10,  1743;  Vaudreuil,  Marquis  de. 
May  10,  1743-Feb.  9,  1753 ;  Kerlerec,  Louis  Billouart,  Feb.  9,  1753- 
June  29,  1763;  D'Abbadie  (under  the  title  of  director  and  com- 
mandant), June  29,  1763-Feb.  4,  1765;  Aubry,  Feb.  4,  1765,  to  Aug., 
1769,  acting  \inder  Ulloa  from  1766  to  1768,  and  until  the  arrival 
of  O'Reilly  in  1769. 

French  Settlement,  a  money  order  post-village,  in  the  southern 
part  of  Livingston  parish,  is  situated  on  the  Amite  river,  about  10 
miles  northeast  of  Brittany,  the  nearest  railroad  station.  It  is  an 
old  town,  liaving  been  settled  during  the  early  part  of  the  18th 
century.  Today  it  is  a  trading  center  for  a  large  district,  and  has 
a  population  of  200. 

Frenier,  a  village  situated  in  the  eastern  part  of  St.  John  the 
Baptist  parish,  is  on  the  west  shore  of  Lake  Pontchartrain  and  the 
Illinois  Central  R.  R.,  about  25  miles  northwest  of  New  Orleans. 


LOUISIANA  457 

It  has  a  mouey  order  postoffice,  express  ofSce,  telegraph  and  tele- 
phone facilities. 

Pricke,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  southwestern  part  of  Washington 
parish,  is  about  5  miles  southwest  of  Franklinton,  the  parish  seat 
and  nearest  railroad  town. 

Friendship,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  southeastern  part  of  Bienville 
parish,  is  situated  on  Brush  creek  about  4  miles  west  of  Danville, 
the  nearest  railroad  station. 

Frierson,  a  village  in  the  northeastern  part  of  DeSoto  parish, 
is  a  station  on  the  Kansas  City  Southern  R.  R.,  about  4  miles  south 
of  Wallace  lake  and  15  miles  north  of  Mansfield,  the  parish  seat. 
It  has  a  money  order  postofSce,  express  ofBce  and  telegraph  sta- 
tion, and  a  population  of  200. 

Frogmore,  a  village  in  the  northern  part  of  Concordia  parish, 
is  on  Bayou  Cocodrie  and  the  Natchez  &  Western  R.  R.,  about  15 
miles  west  of  VidaUa,  the  parish  seat. 

Fromentin,  Eligius,  U.  S.  s^nato^  from  Louisiana,  was  born  in 
France.  He  received  a  classical  education;  studied  law;  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  and  practiced  at  New  Orleans.  In  1813  he  was 
elected  U.  S.  senator  from  Louisiana  and  served  from  May  24, 
1813,  to  March  3,  1819.  He  was  appointed  .iudge  of  the  criminal 
court  of  New  Orleans  in  1821,  and  U.  S.  district  judge  for  the 
district  of  Florida  in  Jan.,  1822,  but  soon  resigned  to  resume  the 
practice  of  law  at  New  Orleans.  He  and  his  wife  contracted 
yellow  fever,  of  which  both  died  within  24  hours  at  New  Orleans, 
Oct.  6,  1822.  During  his  life  he  published.  Observations  on  a  Bill 
respecting  Land  Titles  in  Orleans. 

Frozard,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  southern  part  of  St.  Landry  parish, 
is  about  4  miles  east  of  Sunset,  the  nearest  railroad  station,  and  10 
miles  southeast  of  Opelousas,  the  parish  seat. 

Pulford,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  eastern  part  of  Jackson  parish,  5 
miles  southeast  of  Nash,  the  most  convenient  railroad  station,  and 
12  miles  southeast  of  Vernon,  the  parish  seat. 

Fullerton,  a  town  of  Vernon  parish,  is  located  aboiit  15  miles 
east  of  Leesville,  the  parish  seat,  in  a  lumber  district,  and  is  the 
terminus  of  a  short  line  of  railway  called  the  Gulf  &  Sabine  River 
R.  R.,  which  connects  with  the  Gulf,  Colorado  &  Santa  Fe  at  Ni- 
tram.    Population  1,238. 

Fulton,  Robert,  civil  engineer  and  inventor,  was  born  at  Little 
Britain,  Pa.,  in  1765.  At  the  age  of  17  years  he  went  to  Philadel- 
phia and  began  his  career  as  a  portrait  and  landscape  painter,  in 
which  he  succeeded  well  enough  to  buy  a  small  farm  in  Washing- 
ton county,  Pa.,  upon  which  he  settled  his  mother  and  then  went 
to  England  to  study  painting  under  Benjamin  West.  After  being 
in  England  a  short  time  he  gave  up  art  for  civil  engineering, 
formed  the  acquaintance  of  James  Watt,  the  inventor  of  the  steam 
engine,  and  vainly  tried  to  interest  certain  Englishmen  in  steam 
navigation.  He  then  went  to  Paris,  where  in  1801  he  met  Robert 
R.  Livingston,  the  United  States  ambassador  to  France,  to  whom 


458  LOUISIANA 

he  explained  his  plans  for  the  construction  of  a  vessel  to  be  pro- 
pelled by  steam.  i\lr.  Livingston  agreed  to  furnish  the  funds,  and 
in  1802  the  first  experiments  were  conducted  at  Plombieres  on  the 
Seine.  The  following  year  Livingston  secured  from  the  New  York 
legislature  the  exclusive  privilege  of  navigating  the  waters  of  that 
state  by  steam,  and  on  Aug.  11-12,  1807,  the  ''Clermont,"  the  first 
steamboat  on  the  Hudson  river,  made  the  passage  from  New  York 
to  Albany  in  32  hours.  In  1811  Livingston  and  Fulton  obtained 
from  the  legislature  of  Louisiana  an  exclusive  right  to  operate 
steamboats  on  the  navigable  waters  of  that  state.  (See  the  articles 
on  Livingston.  Robert  R.,  and  Steamboats.)  Mr.  Fulton  died  in 
New  York  city  on  Feb.  24,  1815. 

Funston,  a  post-village  in  the  western  part  of  DeSoto  parish,  is 
a  station  on  the  Houston  &  Shreveport  R.  R.,  about  8  miles  north- 
east of  Logansport,  and  12  miles  west  of  Mansfield,  the  parish  seat. 


Gaars  Mills,  a  post-village  and  station  in  the  northern  part  of 
Winn  parish,  is  on  the  Tremont  &  Gulf  R.  R.,  12  miles  northeast  of 
Winnfield,  the  parish  seat.  It  is  located  in  a  pine  district,  has 
lumber  industries  and  in  1900  had  a  population  of  60. 

Gahagan,  a  village  in  the  western  part  of  Red  River  parish,  is 
situated  on  the  Red  river  and  the  Texas  &  Pacific  R.  R.,  about  5 
miles  west  of  Coushatta,  the  parish  seat.  It  has  a  money  order 
postoffice,  express  office,  telegraph  station  and  telephone  facilities, 
and  is  the  su-pply  and  shipping  point  for  a  large  area  of  the  Red 
river  farming  lands. 

Gaines,  Myra  Clark,  who  became  famous  throughout  the  country 
b.v  her  legal  contests,  was  born  in  New  Orleans  in  1805,  a  daughter 
of  Daniel  Clark  and  a  young  Frenchwoman  to  whom  he  was  se- 
cretly married  in  1803.  the  ceremony  having  been  solemnized  by  a 
Catholic  priest  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.  Her  father  made  a  will  in 
1813.  in  which  he  acknowledged  the  legitimacy  of  his  daughter 
and  left  her  all  his  property.  In  1832  Myra  was' married  to  AV.  "\V. 
Whitney  of  New  York,  and  after  his  death  to  Gen.  Edmund  P. 
Gaines,  the  second  marriage  taking  place  in  1839.  Later  she  filed 
a  bill  in  equity  to  recover  certain  real  estate  then  in  possession  of 
the  city  of  New  Orleans,  the  value  of  which  was  estimated  at  over 
$30,000,000.  A  decision  was  rendered  in  her  favor  in  1867  and 
during  the  next  decade  she  obtained  .$6,000,000  through  the  courts. 
Her  father's  will  had  disappeared  and  could  not  be  found,  but  upon 
hearsay  evidence  it  was  admitted  to  probate  and  subsequently 
Mrs.  Gaines  obtained  several  judgments,  each  of  which  was  ap- 
pealed to  higher  courts  for  adjudication.  The  will  was  ultimately 
sustained  by  the  courts,  but  the  final  decision  was  not  rendered 
until  some  years  after  the  death  of  Mrs.  Gaines,  which  occurred  in 
New  Orleans  on  Jan.  9,  1885. 


LOUISIANA  459 

Galbraith  is  a  postoffice  of  Natchitoches  parish. 

Gallion  is  a  village  in  the  central  part  of  Morehouse  parish,  is 
a  station  on  the  St.  Louis,  Iron  Mountain  &  Southern  R.  R.,  about 
6  miles  north  of  Mer  Rouge.  It  has  a  money  order  postoffice,  ex- 
press office  and  telegraph  station. 

Galloway  is  a  post-hamlet  in  the  northern  part  of  St.  Tammany 
parish,  is  about  8  miles  northwest  of  Thomasville,  the  nearest  rail- 
road station,  and  12  miles  north  of  Covington,  the  parish  seat. 

Galvez. —  (See  Galveztown.) 

Galvez,  Bernardo  de,  fourth  Spanish  governor  of  Louisiana,  was 
born  at  Malaga,  Spain,  in  1748.  His  father,  Don  Mathias  de  Galvez, 
was  appointed  captain-general  of  Guatamala  in  1781  and  about  two 
years  later  became  viceroy  of  Mexico.  An  uncle,  Don  Josef  de 
Galvez,  was  a  great  favorite  of  Charles  III,  who  appointed  him 
secretary  of  state  and  president  of  the  council  of  the  Indies,  a  posi- 
tion which  conferred  on  him  a  power  only  a  little  less  than  that  of 
the  king's.  At  the  age  of  16  years,  Bernardo  was  made  a  cadet  in 
the  "Walloon  guards,  and  during  the  next  three  years  served  in 
Prance  as  a  subaltern  in  the  regiment  of  Cantabria.  In  1775  he 
was  with  Gen.  O'Reilly  in  the  unsuccessful  expedition  against 
Algiers,  where  he  won  the  rank  of  brigadier.  The  following  year 
he  came  to  Louisiana,  was  made  colonel  of  the  regiment  of  Lou- 
isiana and  appointed  second  in  command  of  the  provincial  forces. 
Through  the  influence  of  his  uncle,  he  was  appointed  provisional 
governor  of  Louisiana  to  succeed  Gov.  Unzaga,  beginning  his 
duties  on  Feb.  1,  1777,  when  29  years  of  age.  On  April  17  he  issued 
a  proclamation  permitting  the  inhabitants  of  the  colony  to  trade 
with  the  United  States,  and  three  days  later  another  proclamation 
gave  the  liberty  to  export  their  products  to  any  port  of  France. 
He  reduced  the  duty  about  one-half  and  during  his  administration 
the  trade  of  the  province,  which  had  been  previously  controlled  by 
the  English,  was  largely  diverted  into  French  and  American  chan- 
nels. The  greatest  achievement  of  Gov.  Galvez  was  the  conquest 
of  West  Florida.  (See  Spanish  Conquest.)  After  the  Revolu- 
tionary war  he  recommended  free  trade  for  Louisiana  with  all  the 
ports  of  Europe  and  America,  but  the  proposition  was  too  liberal 
for  the  Spanish  ministry  to  accept.  Early  in  1785  he  was  appointed 
captain-general  of  Cuba,  Louisiana  and  the  Floridas,  and  iipon  the 
death  of  his  father  was  made  viceroy  of  Mexico.  He  died  at  Tacu- 
baya  on  Nov.  30,  1786,  aged  38.  Gayarre  describes  Galvez  as  hav- 
ing "that  nobleness  of  mien,  that  gracefulness  of  manner,  that  dig- 
nified and  at  the  same  time  easy  affability  for  high  and  low,  which, 
in  persons  of  his  rank,  never  fail  to  win  the  heart,"  and  M.  de 
Pontalba  wrote:  "He  was  distinguished  for  the  affability  of  his 
manners,  the  sweetness  of  his  temper,  the  frankness  of  his  char- 
acter, the  kindness  of  his  heart  and  his  love  of  justice."  Gov. 
Galvez  married  a  Miss  Maxent,  a  native  of  Louisiana  and  sister 
to  the  wife  of  Gov.  Unzaga,  a  woman  of  great  beauty,  Avhose  char- 
ity and  intelligence  added  to  her  husband's  popularity. 


460  LOUISIANA 

Galveztown. — In  the  year  1778  the  king  of  Spain,  at  his  own 
expense,  sent  several  families  from  the  Canary  islands  to  Louisiana. 
Some  of  them,  under  the  leadership  of  St.  Maxent,  located  on  the 
high  ground  near  the  junction  of  the  Amite  and  Manchac  rivers, 
about  24  miles  from  Baton  Eouge,  where  thej'  formed  a  settlement, 
upon  which  they  conferred  the  name  of  Galveztown,  in  honor  of 
Bernardo  de  Galvez,  at  that  time  governor  of  Louisiana,  as  it  was 
under  his  administration  they  had  found  a  refuge  in  the  New 
World.  Ten  years  later,  according  to  De  Bow's  Review,  the  town 
'had  a  population  of  256.  The  site  of  the  ancient  village  is  now 
occupied  by  tlie  little  hamlet  of  Galvez,  in  Ascension  parish. 

Game  Laws. — The  legislature  of  1906  passed  stringent  laws  for 
the  protection  of  fish,  deer,  fur-bearing  animals  and  birds.  By  the 
provisions  of  these  acts  fish  and  deer  were  declared  to  be  the  prop- 
erty of  the  state ;  no  black  bass  or  green  trout  could  be  caught  be- 
tween Feb.  1  and  May  15  of  each  year;  striped  bass  or  bar  fish 
were  to  be  protected  from  Dec.  1  to  March  1 ;  and  buffalo  fish  and 
catfish  (except  the  spoonbill  variety)  from  jMarch  1  to  May  1. 
No  bass  were  to  be  taken  at  any  time  except  with  the  rod  and  line, 
and  all  fish  of  this  species  mider  4  inches  in  length  were  to  be  re- 
turned to  the  water.  Dynamite  and  other  explosives,  drugs  and 
sawdust  were  strictly  prohibited,  as  well  as  the  method  known  as 
"striking"  at  night,  and  no  seining  was  to  be  done  except  upon 
written  permission  of  the  board  of  commissioners  for  the  protection 
of  birds,  game  and  fish.  Officials  were  authorized  to  confiscate  any 
seines,  nets,  etc.,  used  without  such  permission.  Deer  could  not 
be  trapped  or  snared,  hunted  at  night,  nor  killed  on  high  grounds 
where  they  might  congregate  in  time  of  flood,  and  does  and  fawns 
were  not  to  be  killed  in  any  manner  at  any  time.  The  open  or 
hunting  season  was  fixed  at  seven  months  in  each  year,  the  parish 
police  juries  to  fix  the  closed  season,  provided  that  north  of  the 
line  of  31°  no  deer  were  to  be  killed  during  the  months  of  May, 
June,  July  and  August.  No  one  was  to  be  permitted  to  kill  more 
than  2  deer  in  any  one  day,  and  not  more  than  6  during  any  one 
season.  Fur-bearing  animals  were  not  to  be  cai;ght  nor  killed 
from  March  1  to  Nov.  15  each  year.  All  wild  birds,  other  than 
game  birds,  were  declared  to  be  the  property  of  the  state.  Game 
birds  were  defined  as  follows:  Geese,  brant,  wild  and  wood  ducks, 
rails,  coots,  gallinules,  snipe,  woodcock,  sandpipers,  quail,  curlew, 
sand-hill  cranes,  tattlers,  plover,  wild  turkey,  imported  and  grouse 
pheasants,  prairie  chickens,  doves,  and  ortolans  or  cedar  birds. 
All  other  species  of  wild,  resident  and  migratory  birds  were  to  be 
considered  as  non-game  birds,  entitled  to  the  protection  of  the 
state  at  all  times,  with  the  exception  of  certain  varieties  of  the 
hawk,  the  great  horned  owl,  the  English  sparrow,  kingfishers,  nest- 
ing in  levees,  and  birds,  such  as  the  crow  and  blackbird,  destructive 
to  crops,  but  none  of  these  non-game  birds  thus  vanprotected  could 
be  offered  for  sale.  The  nests  and  eggs  of  birds  were  also  to  be 
protected,  and  islands  for  breeding  purposes  were  to  be  posted  for 


LOUISIANA  461 

protection.  It  was  made  unlawful  to  sell  or  offer  for  sale  the 
plumage  of  protected  birds,  and  common  carriers  were  prohibited 
from  transporting  birds  or  game  in  violation  of  the  provisions  of 
the  act.  Agents  of  such  common  carriers  to  be  fined  $10  to  $25  for 
each  deer,  and  from  $1  to  $5  for  each  fish  or  bird.  Birds  were  not 
to  be  trapped  at  any  time  under  a  penalty  of  from  $5  to  $10  fine, 
to  which  might  be  added  imprisonment  from  5  to  10  days.  Any 
one  convicted  of  killing  birds  or  taking  eggs  for  other  than  scien- 
tific purposes  was  subject  to  a  fine  of  from  $50  to  $100,  or  impris- 
onment from  10  to  30  days.  Ornithologists  could  procure  certifi- 
cates upon  payment  of  a  fee  of  $1  that  would  entitle  them  to  pursue 
their  investigations.  Non-resident  hunters  were  required  to  pay  a 
license  fee  of  $10  in  each  parish  where  they  proposed  to  hunt,  and 
professional  hunters — that  is  those  who  hunt  for  profit— were 
strictlj'  forbidden  to  follow  such  occupation  in  Louisiana  under  a 
penalty  of  from  $50  to  $100  fine  for  each  conviction. 

To  encourage  in  the  young  people  of  the  state  a  proper  respect 
for  law,  and  to  teach  tliem  to  foster  the  protection  of  birds,  an  act 
was  passed  on  July  12,  1906,  designating  May  5,  the  anniversary 
of  the  birth  of  John  J.  Audubon,  as  "Bird  Day."  The  state  and 
parish  boards  of  public  education  were  directed  to  provide  for  the 
celebration  of  the  day  in  all  the  public  schools  of  the  state  by  suit- 
able ceremonies. 

Gansville,  a  money  order  post-village  in  the  northern  part  of 
Winn  parish,  is  about  2  miles  southwest  of  Wyatt,  the  nearest  rail- 
road station,  and  15  miles  north  of  Winnfield,  the  parish  seat.  It 
has  sawmills  and  other  lumber  industries. 

Garay,  Francisco  de,  Spanish  governor  of  Jamaica  in  1519,  was 
a  man  of  wealtli,  ambition,  and  prestige  at  the  court  of  Spain.  Ac- 
tuated by  the  reports  of  Cordova  and  Grijalva,  who  brought  back 
from  Mexico  on  their  voyages  to  that  country  gold  to  the  amount 
of  .$35,000  or  $40,000,  he  fitted  out  an  expedition  in  1519  and  sent 
it  under  command  of  Alfonso  Alvarez  de  Pineda  to  explore  the 
coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  from  Florida  westward.  In  the  let- 
ters patent  issued  to  Garay  is  the  following  account  of  the  voyage: 
"Francisco  de  Garay  appeared  and  said  that  with  the  authoriza- 
tion of  His  Majesty,  and  at  his  own  cost,  he  sent  four  ships  to  dis- 
cover new  countries  for  the  service  of  the  Crown;  which  were 
found  and  discovered  by  the  grace  of  God  our  Lord,  who  showed 
the  way.  Nor  was  a  landing  effected  in  any  land  or  part  already 
found  or  disclosed  by  any  one  else  at  the  time.  This  was  from  Rio 
del  Espiritu  Banto  over  a  great  extent  of  country,  further  below 
in  the  direction  of  the  north  (sic)  towards  the  river  called  San 
Pedro  e  San  Pablo,  where  the  ships  arrived."  There  is  little  doubt 
that  the  Spaniards  constituting  Garay 's  expedition  were  the  first 
white  men  to  explore  the  coast  of  what  is  now  the  State  of  Louisi- 
ana, as  well  as  the  coast  to  the  southwest  nearly  to  Vera  Cruz. 
Navarette,  who  published  about  1840  a  "Collection  of  the  Voj'- 
ages  and  Discoveries  made  by  the  Spaniards  since  the  close  of  the 
Fifteenth  Century,"  says  of  Piueda's  voyage:    "They  sailed  eight 


462  LOUISIANA 

or  niue  mouths  *  •  *  and  followed  the  coast  towards  the  west, 
examiniug  carefully  the  country,  harbours,  rivers,  inhabitants,  and 
all  that  which  deserved  to  be  noted  on  the  said  coast,  *  *  * 
until  they  met  with  Hernando  Cortez  and  the  Spaniards  who  were 
in  the  same  locality  *  *  *  They  then  turned  back  with  the 
said  ships,  and  entered  a  river  which  was  found  to  be  very  large 
and  deep,  at  the  mouth  of  which  they  said  they  found  an  extensi'v'e 
to-\vn,  where  they  remained  forty  days  and  careened  their  vessels. 
The  natives  treated  our  men  in  a  friendly  manner,  trading  with 
them,  and  giving  what  they  possessed.  The  Spaniards  ascended  a 
distance  of  six  leagues  up  the  river,  and  saw  on  its  banks  right  and 
left,  forty  villages." 

From  the  reports  made  by  Pineda  and  his  associates,  Garay  pre- 
pared a  map,  Avhich  was  published  about  1521,  and  which  shows  a 
fairly  accurate  outline  of  the  Gulf  coast.  The  only  river  named 
-on  the  map  is  the  Rio  del  Espiritu  Santo — a  name  afterward  given 
by  the  Spaniards  to  the  Mississippi — and  this  fact,  coupled  with 
the  statement  of  Navarette  that  they  "entered  a  river  which  was 
found  to  be  very  large  and  deep,"  has  led  some  writers  to  advance 
the  theory  that  Pineda  was  the  discoverer  of  the  Mississippi.  The 
map,  however,  shows  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  del  Espiritu  Santo  by 
a  slight  indentation  only,  just  as  the  mouths  of  other  rivers  are 
shown,  and  the  statement  of  Navarette  does  not  positively  iden- 
tify it  as  the  river  entered  by  the  expedition.  W.  B.  Scaife,  in  his 
"America,  its  Geographical  History,"  and  P.  J.  Hamilton,  in  his 
"Colonial  IMobile,"  appear  to  have  established  the  fact  that  the 
Rio  del  Espii-itu  Santo  of  Pineda  is  the  Mobile  river. 

Garden  City,  a  post-village  in  the  central  part  of  St.  Mary  parish, 
is  situated  on  the  Bayou  Teche  and  the  Soutliern  Pacific  R.  R., 
about  3  miles  southeast  of  Franklin,  the  parish  seat,  in  the  rich 
sizgar  belt  and  has  sugar  industries,  an  express  ofSce  and  telegraph 
station.     Population  250. 

Gardner,  Franklin,  soldier,  Avas  born  in  1823.  His  family  moved 
west  when  he  was  quite  young,  and  at  the  age  of  16  years  he  was 
appointed  to  the  U.  S.  military  academy  from  Iowa.  After  gradu- 
ating in  1843  he  was  promoted  to  brevet  second-lieutenant  of  the 
7th  infantry  and  served  in  garrisons  at  Peusacola  harbor  and  on 
the  frontier,  in  the  military  occupation  of  Texas,  and  in  the  war 
with  Mexico.  He  took  part  in  the  defense  of  Fort  Brown,  the 
battle  of  ]\Ionterey,  where  lie  was  promoted  to  first-lieuteuant  for 
gallantry  in  action,  the  siege  of  Vera  Cruz,  the  battle  of  Cerro 
Gordo,  where  he  was  l)revetted  captain,  Contreras,  Churul)usco, 
Molino  del  Rey  and  the  capture  of  the  city  of  Mexico.  After  peace 
was  declared,  he  served  at  various  frontier  posts  in  the  south  and 
west._  At  the  time  of  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  war  he  was  cap- 
tain in  the  10th  infantry,  which  was  stationed  in  Utah.  He  had 
spent  a  great  part  of  his  army  life  among  the  Southern  people, 
with  whom  lie  was  in  sympathy,  and  with  many  other  army  officers 
he  resigned  his  commission  in  the  U.  S.  army  on  March  16,  1861, 
and  entered  that  of  the  Confederacy,  with  the  rank  of  lieutenant- 


LOUISIANA  i63 

colonel  of  infantry.  His  sei'vices  during  that  year  were  confined  to 
Tennessee  and  J\Iississippi.  He  was  commissioned  brigadier-gen- 
eral a  few  days  before  the  battle  of  Shiloh,  where  he  commanded 
a  brigade  of  cavalry.  A  short  time  after  the  battle  Gen.  Beaure- 
gard expressed  his  appreciation  of  Gen.  Gardner  in  the  following 
language:  "The  general  commanding  avails  himself  of  this  occa- 
sion to  return  thanks  to  Gen.  Gardner  for  his  service  in  the  reor- 
ganization of  the  cavalry  of  this  army."  Gen.  Gardner  was  soon 
appointed  to  the  command  of  a  brigade  in  Polk's  corps  and  shared 
in  the  battles  of  the  Kenti;cky  campaign.  On  Dec.  13,  1862,  he 
received  the  commission  of  major-general  in  the  army  of  the  Con- 
federate States.  Early  the  following  year  he  was  placed  in  com- 
mand of  Port  Hudson  and  conducted  its  defense,  until  its  sur- 
render. He  was  soon  exchanged  and  assigned  to  duty  in  Missis- 
sippi, and  after  the  close  of  thfi  war  lived  near  Vermilionville,  La., 
on  a  plantation,  where  he  died  on  April  29,  1873. 

Garland,  a  village  in  the  central  part  of  St.  Landry  parish,  is 
situated  on  the  Southern  Pacific  R.  R.  about  12  miles  north  of  Ope- 
lousas,  the  parish  seat.  It  has  a  money  order  postoffiee,  and  is  a 
trading  and  shipping  point  of  some  importance. 

Gaxland,  Rice,  jurist,  was  a  native  of  Virginia.  He  received  an 
academic  education,  studied  law  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar.  He 
began  practice  at  Opelousas,  La. ;  was  elected  a  representative  from 
Louisiana  to  the  23d  Congress  as  a  Whig,  in  place  of  Henry  A.  Bul- 
lard,  resigned;  was  reelected  to  the  24th,  25th  and  26th  Congresses, 
serving  from  April  28,  1834,  to  July  21,  1840,  when  he  resigned  to 
accept  the  appointment  of  judge  of  the  supreme  court  of  Louisiana. 

Garnishment. — In  cases  of  attachment,  if  the  creditor  knows  or 
suspects  that  a  third  person  has  in  his  possession  property  belong- 
ing to  his  debtor,  or  that  he  is  indebted  to  his  debtor,  he  may  make 
such  person  a  party  to  the  suit,  by  having  him  cited  to  declare  on 
oath  what  property  belonging  to  the  defendant  he  has  in  his  posses- 
sion, or  in  what  sum  he  is  indebted  to  such  defendant,  even  when 
the  term  of  payment  has  not  yet  arrived.  Where  the  plaintiff  has 
already  recovered  judgment,  and  applies  for  a  writ  of  fieri  facias 
against  the  defendant,  if  he  has  reason  to  believe  that  a  third  person 
has  property  or  effects  in  his  possession,  or  under  his  control,  belong- 
ing to  the  defendant,  or  is  indebted  to  him.  he  may  cause  such  third 
person  to  be  cited  to  answer,  under  oath,  such  interrogatories  as  may 
be  propounded  to  him  touching  the  said  property  and  effects  or  such 
indebtedness.  After  proceedings  the  garnishee  may  be  condemned  to 
deliver  up  such  property  as  may  be  found  in  his  hands  belonging  to 
the  defendant,  or  to  pay  such  amount  as  he  may  be  indebted  to  him, 
to  a  sufficient  sum  to  satisfy  plaintiff's  claims. 

Garyville,  a  village  in  the  central  part  of  St.  John  the  Baptist 
parish,  is  a  station  on  the  line  of  the  Louisiana  Railway  &  Naviga- 
tion company  and  the  Yazoo  &  Mississippi  Valley  R.  R.  It  has  an 
international  money  order  postoffiee,  express  office,  telegraph  station 
and  telephone  facilities,  and  being  located  in  one  of  the  richest  par- 


464  LOUISIANA 

ishes  in  the  state,  is  a  shipping  point  for  large  quantities  of  vegetables 
auA  fruit  to  the  New  Orleans  market.  Population  850. 

Gassier,  a  post-village  in  the  northern  part  of  Acadia  parish,  is 
situated  on  the  Southern  Pacific  R.  R.,  about  15  miles  northwest  of 
Crowlev,  the  parish  seat.  It  is  in  one  of  the  largest  rice  districts  of 
the  state,  has  a  rice  mill,  express  ofiSce,  telegraph  station  and  tele- 
phone facilities. 

Gates,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  southwestern  part  of  Livingston  par- 
ish, is  situated  near  Colyell  creek,  about  12  miles  northeast  of  "Wit- 
ten,  the  nearest  railroad  station,  and  the  same  distance  southwest  of 
Spring\ille,  the  parish  seat. 

Gay,  Edward  J.,  financier  and  member  of  Congress.  Avas  born 
at  Liberty.  Bedford  county,  Ya..  Feb.  3,  1816.  His  family  removed 
to  Illinois  in  1820.  and  4  years  later  to  St.  Louis.  !Mo.  For  several 
years  he  studied  under  a  private  teacher  in  Bellville.  111. ;  attended 
Augusta  college  in  Kentueln-  in  1833-34:  returned  to  St.  Louis,  and 
was  engaged  in  commercial  affairs  from  1838  to  1860.  From  St.  Louis 
he  removed  to  Louisiana,  where  he  became  interested  in  manufactur- 
ing aud  planting :  was  prominently  connected  with  the  erection  of  the 
merchants'  exchange  building  at  St.  Louis,  and  first  president  of  the 
Louisiana  sugar  exchange  of  New  Orleans.  In  1884  he  was  elected 
to  the  49th  Congress  as  a  Democrat,  and  re-elected  to  the  50th  and 
51st  Congresses.   He  died  on  May  30.  1890. 

Gayarre,  Charles  Etienne  Arthur,  lawyer,  legislator  and  historian, 
was  born  in  New  Orleans.  Jan.  9.  1805.  of  distinguished  Spanish  and 
French  ancestry.  Don  Estevau  Gayarre  came  to  Louisiana  with 
t^lloa  in  1766  as  royal  comptroller  and  commissary.  "When  Ulloa  was 
expelled  from  the  colony  Don  Estevau  and  his  young  son.  Juan  An- 
tonio, remained,  and  the  latter  distinguished  himself  in  the  cam- 
paigns of  1779-80  under  Gov.  Galvez.  after  which  he  was  appointed 
eoutador  real  at  Acapulco.  whei*e  he  died.  His  widow  and  her  three 
sons  returned  to  New  Orleans,  where  one  son.  Carlos,  married  the 
youngest  daughter  of  Etienne  de  Bore  (q.  v.).  and  this  couple  became 
the  parents  of  the  historian.  In  1825  Charles  Gayarre  graduated  at  the 
College  of  Orleans,  and  though  but  20  years  of  age  he  opposed  so 
vigorousl.v  some  of  the  provisions  of  the  criminal  code  prepared  for 
the  state  by  Edward  Livingston  that  the  code  was  not  adopted.  He 
then  went  to  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  whre  he  studied  law  with  William 
Rawle.  a  celebrated  jurist,  and  in  1828  was  admitted  to  the  Pennsyl- 
vania bar.  The  following  year  he  was  admitted  to  practice  in  Louisi- 
ana and  opened  an  office  in  New  Orleans.  In  1830  he  was  elected  to 
the  lower  house  of  the  state  legislature  and  was  one  of  the  committee 
appointed  by  that  bod.v  to  prepare  an  address  to  the  French  people 
on  the  revolution  of  July,  1830.  Upon  the  expiration  of  his  term  in 
the  legislature  he  was  appointed  attorne.v-geuei-al.  and  in  1833  was 
made  presiding  judge  of  the  city  court  of  New  Orleans.  On  Jan.  12, 
1835,  when  only  three  days  beyond  the  age  limit  required  by  the  con- 
stitution, he  was  elected  to  the  United  States  senate,  but  on  account 
of  ill  health  did  not  take  his  seat.  About  this  time  he  went  to  France 
for  medical  treatment  and  remained  in  Europe  until  1843.    In  1844 


LOUISIANA  465 

and  again  in  1846  he  was  elected  to  the  legislature,  and  in  the  latter 
year  was  also  appointed  secretary  of  state  by  Gov.  Isaac  Johnson, 
holding  that  ofHce  until  1850.  "While  abroad  he  had  access  to  archives, 
public  and  private,  and  secured  copies  of  important  documents  bear- 
ing on  the  history  of  Louisiana.  Through  the  influence  of  Gov.  Mou- 
ton,  supplemented  by  his  own  energetic  efforts,  the  legislature  appro- 
priated .$1,000  for  the  purchase  of  two  large  volumes  of  documents, 
"now  heirlooms  of  the  Louisiana  Historical  society,  which  he  was 
instrumental  in  reviving."  It  was  during  his  stay  in  France  that  he 
commenced  the  work  of  writing  his  "Histoire  de  la  Louisiane,"  giv- 
ing an  account  of  the  province  under  French  domination,  the  first 
volume  of  which  appeared  in  1846  and  the  second  in  1847.  It  was 
originally  written  in  French,  in  order  to  preserve  the  exact  text  of  the 
official  documents  above  mentioned.  In  1847  the  legislature  made 
an  appropriation  of  .$2,000  for  the  purchase  of  Spanish  documents, 
and  in  1854  Mr.  Gayarre's  volume  on  the  Spanish  Domination  was 
published.  The  volume  relating  to  the  American  Domination  was 
completed  during  the  Civil  war,  but  was  not  published  until  1866. 
In  1853  his  name  was  considered  for  the  appointment  of  minister  to 
Spain,  but  the  choice  of  President  Pierce  finally  fell  upon  Pierre 
Soule,  though  Mr.  Gayarre  for  several  years  afterward  contemplated 
making  a  visit  to  that  country  in  the  interest  of  his  historical  re- 
search. The  National  Cyclopedia  of  American  Biography  says:  "It 
was  unfortunate  for  his  own  interests,  and  for  those  of  literature,  that 
his  plan  of  going  to  Spain  for  some  years  was  frustrated  by  the  out- 
break of  1861.  He  might  have  preserved  his  handsome  fortune,  which 
was  lost  in  the  war,  and  he  would  have  added  much  to  the  sum  of 
available  human  knowledge."  After  the  war  Mr.  Gayarre  published 
"Doctor  Bluff,"  a  comedy;  "Philip  II.  of  Spain;"  "Fernando  de 
Lemos,  or  Truth  and  Fiction;"  and  its  sequel  "Aubert  Dubayet,  or 
The  Two  Sister  Republics;"  besides  numerous  contributions  to  re- 
views, magazines,  etc.  One  of  the  most  noted  of  these  articles  was 
that  upon  "The  Southern  Question,"  which  was  published  in  the 
North  American  Review  in  1877,  and  about  the  same  time  he  again 
took  an,  active  part  in  the  reorganization  of  the  Historical  society  of 
which  he  became  the  president. 

Mr.  Gayarre  has  been  called  "The  Historian  of  Louisiana."  It 
was  to  that  work  he  gave  the  better  part  of  his  life,  and  his  historical 
works  will  stand  as  a  more  enduring  monument  than  any  that  could 
be  erected  of  brick  or  stone.  The  greater  part  of  his  childhood  was 
passed  on  the  plantation  of  his  grandfather,  Etienne  de  Bore,  6  miles 
above  New  Orleans,  and  his  recollections  of  those  pleasant  days  have 
been  charmingly  preserved  in  his  "A  Louisiana  Plantation  under  the 
Old  Regime."  He  died  on  Feb.  11,  1895,  and  was  buried  from  the 
old  cathedral  in  which  he  had  been  christened  by  Father  Antonio 
Sedella  90  years  before. 

Gayle,  a  post-village  in  the  extreme  southeastern  part  of  Caddo 
parish  is  a  station  on  the  Texas  &  Pacific  R.  R.,  about  12  miles  south- 
east of  Shreveport,  the  parish  seat.    It  has  an  express  office,  telegraph 
station  and  telephone  facilities  and  some  retail  trade. 
1—30 


466  LOUISIANA 

Gayoso  de  Lemos.  Don  Manuel  (commonly  called  Gayoso),  sev- 
euth  Spanish  governor  of  Lonisiana.  was  born  in  Spain  about  1752. 
In  July,  1792,  being  then  lieutenant-colonel  of  the  regiment  of  Louisi- 
ana, he  was  appointed  governor  and  commandant  of  the  Natchez  dis- 
trict, which  position  he  held  for  about  five  years,  during  which  time  he 
made  treaties  with  several  Indian  tribes.  He  was  the  agent  of  Gov. 
Cai'ondelet  in  the  negotiations  with  Wilkinson,  Innis  and  others,  to 
secure  the  secession  of  the  western  country  from  the  United  States,  and 
was  one  of  the  commissioners  to  settle  the  matter  concerning  the 
delivery  of  the  posts  in  the  territory  ceded  to  the  United  States  by  the 
treaty  of  1795.  On  June  14,  1797,  he  issued  a  proclamation  to  the  peo- 
ple of  his  district,  iirging  them  to  quietly  and  peaceably  submit  to  the 
authority  of  His  Catholic  Majesty  until  the  question  of  delivery  was 
settled,  while  at  the  same  time  he  was  delaying  the  settlement  by 
every  possible  means  and  trying  to  reinforce  his  garrisons.  Soon  after 
this  he  was  forced  to  make  concessions,  which  were  ratified  by  Caron- 
delet.  whom  he  succeeded  on  Aug.  1,  as  governor-general  of  Louisiana 
and  West  Florida.  Immediately  upon  his  being  inducted  into  the 
ofBee  he  i.s.sued  his  Bando  debuen  Gobierno,  though  it  contained  noth- 
ing worthy  of  special  notice,  and  soon  afterward  he  sent  to  the  com- 
mandants of  the  various  posts  a  long  list  of  instructions  concerning 
land  grants.  Early  in  the  year  1799  a  misunderstanding  arose  be- 
tween Gayoso  and  Morales,  the  intendent,  and  on  the  last  day  of  Janu- 
ary the  latter  wrote  to  his  government,  complaining  of  the  governor's 
temper,  his  mode  of  thinking,  and  his  extravagance.  Again  on  March 
31  he  wrote,  charging  Gayoso  ^"ith  illegally  assuming  powei-s  that 
rightfully  belonged  to  the  intendant.  The  misunderstanding  grew 
Tintil  it  was  ended  by  the  death  of  Gayoso  on  July  18,  1799.  Morales 
reported  his  death  as  due  to  a  "malignant  fever,  of  the  nature  of  those 
which  prevail  in  this  country  during  the  summer,  and  the  dangerous 
character  of  which  was  known  only  a  few  lioui-s  before  it  tenninated 
fatally,"  and  added,  "The  general  had  no  time  to  lose  in  fulfilling  the 
last  duties  of  a  Christian,  and  making  his  testamentarj^  dispositions, 
and  joining  with  me  in  a  reciprocal  pardon  for  our  fallings-out." 

Andrew  Ellicott.  the  American  commissioner  to  receive  the  surren- 
der of  the  posts  in  the  ceded  territoiy,  says  in  his  journal:  "As  the 
governor  of  an  arbitrary  monarch,  he  (Gayoso)  was  certainly  entitled 
to  great  merit.  It  appeared,  in  an  eminent  degree,  to  be  his  pride  to 
render  the  situation  of  those  over  whom  he  was  appointed  to  preside 
as  easy  and  comfortable  as  possible;  and  in  a  particular  manner  he 
directed  his  attention  to  the  improvement  of  the  country  by  opening 
roads,  which  he  considered  tlie  arteries  of  commerce.  He  was  edu- 
cated in  Great  Britain,  and  retained  to  a  considerable  degi'ee,  until 
his  death,  the  manners  and  customs  of  that  nation,  especially  in  his 
style  of  living.  In  his  conversation  he  was  eas}'  and  affable,  and  his 
politeness  was  of  that  superior  cast  which  showed  it  to  be  the  effect 
of  early  habit,  rather  than  an  accomplishment  merely  intended  to 
render  him  agreeable.  His  pa.ssions  were  naturally  so  strong,  and  his 
temper  so  remarkably  qnick,  that  they  sometimes  hurried  him  into 
difficulties  from  which  he  was  not  easily  extricated.  It  was  frequently 


LOUISIANA  467 

remarked  of  him  that  he  was  neither  concerned  in  traffic,  nor  in  the 
habit  of  accepting  douceurs,  which  was  too  often  the  case  with  other 
-officers  of  His  Catholic  Majesty  in  Louisiana.  He  was  fond  of  show 
and  parade,  in  which  he  indulged  to  the  great  injury  of  his  fortune, 
and  not  a  little  to  his  reputation  as  a  good  paymaster." 

Gayoso,  following  the  example  of  Unzaga,  Galvez  and  Miro,  mar- 
ried a  native  of  Louisiana,  a  Miss  Watts,  of  New  Orleans.  While, 
governor  of  the  Natchez  district  he  founded  the  town  of  "Natchez  on 
the  hill,"  the  land  being  purchased  and  the  town  laid  off  under  his 
personal  direction.  About  2  miles  from  the  fort  he  built  a  mansion 
on  his  plantation,  known  as  "Concord,"  much  of  the  material  for  the 
house  l)eing  imported  from  Spain.  This  building  remained  standing 
until  1900,  when  it  was  destroyed  by  tire. 

Geismar,  a  village  in  the  western  part  of  Ascension  parish,  is  on 
the  east  bank  of  the  Mississippi  river,  and  is  a  station  on  the  main 
line  of  the  Yazoo  &  Mississippi  Valley  R.  R.  It  has  a  money  order 
postoffice,  express  office,  telegraph  station  and  telephone  facilities. 

Genesee,  a  post-village  in  the  southern  part  of  Tangipahoa  par- 
ish, is  situated  at  the  junction  of  the  Illinois  Central  and  the  New 
■  Orleans,  Natalbany  &  Natchez  railroads,  aibout  10  miles  south  of 
Amite,  the  parish  seat.     Poulation  500. 

Genet,  Edmond  Charles,  a  French  diplomatist,  better  known  in 
America  as  "Citizen"  Genet,  was  born  at  Versailles  about  1765.  His 
real  name  was  Genest,  and  he  was  a  brother  of  Madame  Campan, 
teacher  of  the  three  daughters  of  Louis  XV.  In  Dec,  1793,  he  was 
appointed  envoy  to  the  United  States  by  the  revolutionary  govern- 
ment of  France  and  arrived  in  Philadelphia  the  following  spring. 
In  the  treaty  of  alliance  with  the  king  of  France  in  Feb.,  1778,  the 
United  States  had  pledged  help  to  him  in  the  defense  of  his  West 
India  possessions.  Genet  was  received  with  enthusiasm  by  the  people 
and  soon  claimed  the  assistance  of  the  United  States  under  the  treaty. 
But  the  royal  government,  with  which  the  treaty  had  been  made,  had 
been  overthrown.  The  French  republic  was  waging  a  war  of  aggres- 
sion rather  than  one  of  defense.  Under  these  circumstances  Washing- 
ton and  his  advisers  decided  the  treaty  was  not  binding,  and  a  procla- 
mation of  neutrality  was  issued.  Larned  says:  "The  friendliness  of 
Jefferson's  party  to  France  was  so  warm  that  neutrality  became  hard 
to  preserve.  Genet,  misled  by  the  enthusiasm  of  the  welcome  they 
gave  him,  imagined  that  the  American  people  would  overrule  their 
government  and  allow  him  to  push  them  into  war."  About  150  citi- 
zens of  Louisiana  had  petitioned  the  French  republic  to  take  Louisi- 
ana imder  its  protection.  This,  with  the  fact  that  the  western  people 
were  dissatisfied  with  the  attitude  of  Spain  regarding  the  naviga- 
tion of  the  Mississippi  river,  led  Genet  to  entertain  the  old  dream  of 
Gov.  Miro  of  separating  Kentucky  and  Tennessee  from  the  rest  of  the 
United  States,  and  for  that  purpose  sent  agents  among  the  inhabitants 
of  that  section  to  point  out  the  advantages  that  would  accrue  to  them 
by  helping  him  to  invade  Louisiana,  overthrow  the  Spanish  authority 
there,  and  form  an  alliance  with  her  under  the  protectorate  of  France. 
Chief  among  these  agents  was  Auguste  La  Chaise,  a  native  of  Louisi- 


468  LOUISIANA 

ana.  whose  grandfather  had  come  to  the  colony  in  1723  as  royal  treas- 
urer. In  Greorgia  Gen.  Elijah  Clarke  gathered  together  a  considerable 
force,  including  a  large  number  of  Creek  Indians,  to  aid  Genet  in 
his  undertaking.  But  Kentucky-  had  already  been  admitted  into  the 
Union  as  a  state.  Tennessee  was  looking  forward  to  admission, 
and  Grenefs  agents  did  not  meet  with  the  hearty  response  he  had 
anticipated.  Gov.  Carondelet  was  prompt  in  strengthening  his  forti- 
fications and  mustering  and  organizing  his  forces;  the  governor  of 
Georgia  issued  his  proclamation  against  the  unlawful  enterprise  of 
Clarke;  the  determined  interference  of  President  "Washington  pre- 
vented any  demonstration  on  the  part  of  the  Kentuckians  and  Tennes- 
seeans;  and  all  these  forces  working  together  checked  the  intrigues 
of  Genet,  whose  conduct,  in  violation  of  the  proclamation  of  neutral- 
ity, became  so  intolerable  that  the  government  of  the  United  States 
was  forced  to  demand  his  recall. 

Geological  Survey. — The  published  reports  and  observations  relat- 
ing to  the  geology  of  Louisiana  may  be  divided  into  three  periods.  1 — 
From  the  beginning  of  the  18th  century  to  the  acquisition  of  the 
pro\'ince  by  the  United  States.  2 — From  the  time  of  that  acquisition 
to  the  year  1892.  3— From  1892  to  the  present  time.  As  early  as 
1722  Father  Charlevoix,  in  making  a  map  of  the  mouths  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi river,  noticed  that  "the  quantity-  of  shoals  and  little  islands 
that  have  been  seen  to  form  in  the  various  mouths  of  the  river  during 
the  past  20  years  leave  no  doubt  as  to  the  manner  and  comparatively 
recent  date  of  the  formation  of  the  lower  delta  region. ' '  Four  years 
later  Coxe  mentioned  certain  "springs,  pitts  and  lakes  which  afford 
a  most  excellent  common  salt. ' '  Du  Pratz  knew  of  ' '  rock  deposits  out 
of  which  cities  might  be  built."  In  1773  Bartram  started  on  a  jour- 
ney through  the  South,  and  in  1791  published  an  account  of  his  travels 
in  which  he  gave  some  opinions  as  to  the  geological  formation  of  vari- 
ous sections  through  which  he  passed.  Dunbar,  in  a  report  to  the  presi- 
dent of  the  American  Philosophical  society  in  1801.  tells  of  some 
fossil  bones  found  west  of  the  Mississippi,  and  in  1803  he  sent  to  the 
same  society  a  letter  from  Martin  Duralde  giving  a  description  of  the 
bones  of  an  "  elephant  found  in  the  country  of  the  Opelousas. ' '  None 
of  these  reports  pretended  to  give  any  connected  or  systematic  account 
of  the  geology  of  the  country,  but  they  serve  to  show  that  from  the 
earliest  settlement  some  attention  was  paid  to  the  subject,  particularly 
to  the  mineral  deposits  that  might  be  utilized  and  to  fossil  remains. 

Probably  the  first  American  to  publish  any  observations  on  the 
geology  of  Louisiana  was  Amos  Stoddard.  In  his  ' '  Sketches  of  Louisi- 
ana," published  in  1812,  he  mentions  the  "five  islands,"  the  saline 
springs  near  Natchitoches  and  the  lignite  beds,  and  expresses  his  be- 
lief that  during  the  80  years  from  1720  to  1800  "the  land  has  advanced 
15  miles  into  the  sea."  Darby,  who  wrote  in  1816.  describes  the  five 
islands  more  completely  than  Stoddard,  and  also  makes  some  extended 
observations  on  other  geological  features  of  the  state.  In  1821  Thomas 
Nuttall  mentioned  the  existence  of  "ferruginous  conglomerate  re- 
sembling that  of  New  Jersey,"  and  in  1824  Commissioner  Graham, 
in  the  reports  of  the  general  land  office,  goes  into  some  details  regard- 


LOUISIANA  469 

ing  the  geology  of  the  state.  In  1832  Richard  Harlan  read  a  paper 
before  tlie  American  Philosophical  society  on  "Notice  of  Fossil  Bones 
found  in  the  Tertiary  formation  of  the  State  of  Louisiana."  In 
this  paper  he  gave  the  name  of  the  animal,  of  which  these  bones 
formed  part  of  the  skeleton,  as  the  Basilosaurus  (lizard  like),  and 
mentions  Judge  Bry's  comments  on  the  geology  of  northern  Louisi- 
ana. The  following  year  Morton  took  the  view  of  Harlan  and  Bry 
that  the  fossil  bones  belonged  to  the  Cretaceous  era.  Creologists  and 
archaeologists  all  over  the  country  joined  in  the  discussion,  which  was 
for  a  time  a  live  topic.  About  1840  Talcott  published  a  treatise  on 
the  "Mud  Lumps  at  the  Mouth  of  the  Mississippi."  On  March  8, 
1841,  the  legislature  passed  a  resolution  appointing  as  a  committee, 
J.  L.  Riddell  of  the  New  Orleans  mint,  Prof.  Ingalls  of  Jefferson  col- 
lege, W.  M.  Carpenter  of  the  Louisiana  college,  C.  J.  Porsliey  of 
Vidalia,  Josiah  Hale  of  Alexandria,  and  V.  Trastour  of  New  Orleans, 
"to  make  researches  and  inquiries  respecting  the  mineral  wealth  which 
the  state  promises  to  yield,  and  the  probable  expense  and  proper  mode 
of  conducting  complete  geological,  topographical  and  scientific  sur- 
vey of  the  state."  This  .committee  was  to  report  to  the  legislature 
at  the  next  session,  and  on  March  7,  1842,  appropriations  were  made 
as  follows:  To  W.  M.  Carpenter,  $600;  C.  G.  Forshey,  $1,800;  V. 
Trastour  $2,000.  These  sums  were  to  be  paid  when  the  reports  were 
printed  and  filed  in  the  state  library,  together  with  maps,  manuscripts 
and  specimens,  but  the  records  do  not  show  that  the  reports  were  ever 
printed.  De  Bow's  Review  for  May,  1850,  speaks  of  a  survey  by 
Prof.  Forshey,  but  the  manuscript  of  the  report  was  lost  before  it 
reached  the  printer. 

Between  the  years  1840  and  1860  Dickison,  Brown,  Drake,  Lydell 
and  Ellett  all  added  to  the  published  account  of  the  formation  of  the 
data.  In  1860  Raymond  Thommassy  published  his  "Geologic  Pra- 
tique de  la  Louisiane,"  which  was  mainly  a  discussion  of  the  delta 
region.  All  these  investigations  were  made  by  students  and  scientists 
in  their  individual  capacity,  and  were  without  official  support  or 
sanction.  In  his  message  to  the  legislature  on  Jan.  23,  1860,  Gov.  T. 
0.  Moore  deplored  the  fact  that  "not  a  dollar  as  yet  had  been  ex- 
pended for  a  geological  survey."  This  would  indicate  that  the  appro- 
priations made  for  the  benefit  of  Cai-penter,  Forshey  and  Trastour  in 
1842  were  never  claimed  by  them.  On  March  28,  1867,  the  legisla- 
ture appropriated  $1,500  to  pay  Judge  J.  B.  Robertson  for  making  a 
geological  survey,  and  in  the  same  year  Prof.  E.  W.  Hilgard  pub- 
lished in  the  American  Journal  of  Science  a  "Summary  of  a  late 
Geological  Reconnaissance  of  Louisiana."  In  this  summary  he  re- 
views the  various  terranes  of  the  state,  commencing  with  the  young- 
est or  Port  Hudson  group ;  the  Grand  Gulf  and  Vicksburg  groups ; 
the  salines  of  north  Louisiana,  and  the  artesian  wells  of  Calcasieu  par- 
ish. The  reconnaissance  was  made  imder  the  auspices  of  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution,  and  but  30  days  were  spent  in  actual  field  work. 
In  1869  the  New  Orleans  Academy  of  Sciences  and  the  state  board 
of  immigration  projected  a  second  reconnaissance.  Funds  were 
raised  by  subscription  and  appropriated     by     the     commissioners 


470  LOUISIANA 

of  immigration,  the  reconnaissance  being  made  by  Prof.  E.  W.  Hil- 
gard,  state  geologist  of  Mississippi,  and  Dr.  J.  E.  Walker  and  F.  Scott 
Miller  of  the  academy.  The  actual  time  of  the  reconnaLssauce  was  28 
daj^s.  during  which  time  the  three  gentlemen  traveled  over  600  miles 
on  horseback.  In  1873  Prof.  Hilgard  published  the  account  of  this 
" Supplementarj-  Reconnaissance,"  which  dealt  chiefly  with  the  lig- 
nite beds  and  their  under  clays,  and  in  1881  he  published  some  notes 
on  the  "Later  Tertiary  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico." 

Dr.  F.  V.  Hopkins  published  in  1869  an  accoimt  of  the  three  trips 
into  north  Louisiana.  His  second  report,  in  1870,  contained  the  first 
colored  geological  map  of  the  state,  and  his  report  for  1871  was  de- 
voted to  a  general  discussion  of  the  newer  formations.  In  1885  L. 
C.  Johnson  was  directed  to  investigate  the  iron  ores  of  the  state,  and 
the  results  of  his  investigations  were  published  in  1880. 

The  third  period  of  geological  research  covers  the  work  done  under 
the  direction  of  the  agricultural  experiment  stations.  In  June,  1892, 
Dr.  "W.  C.  Stubhs,  director  of  the  stations,  made  a  preliminary  report 
on  the  geological  and  agricultural  survey  of  the  state  as  instituted 
by  the  stations.  In  this  report  he  says:  "Incidentally  the  geol- 
ogy of  the  state  is  being  carefully  studies,  so  as  to  locate 
each  section  of  the  state  in  its  proper  geological  horizon.  Espe- 
cial attention  is  also  being  paid  to  the  mineral  resources  of  the  state, 
particularly  those  which  may  be  of  agricultural  value,  such  as  phos- 
phates, marls,  gj^psum,  etc."  The  first  surveys  during  this  period 
were  made  by  Dr.  Otto  Lerch,  a  graduate  of  Rosloek  univereity  of 
Germany,  and  previou.sly  connected  with  the  geological  survey  of 
Texas,  linder  the  direction  of  Dr.  Stubbs.  In  189-4,  W.  W.  Clendenin 
continued  the  work  commenced  by  Dr.  Learch,  spending  six  months 
of  each  year  in  the  university  and  the  other  six  months  in  the  field. 
In  1895  T.  "Wayland  Yaughan,  by  permission  of  the  director  of  the 
U.  S.  geological  sui-A-ey,  published  the  "Stratigi-aphy  of  Northwest 
Louisiana,"  which  dealt  chiefly  with  the  beds  of  the  Cretaceous  era. 
Since  then  the  work  has  been  continued  under  the  direction  of  the 
experiment  stations,  and  each  succeeding  report  adds  some  new  infor- 
mation concerning  the  geological  formations  of  the  state. 

Geology. — ^Measured  by  geological  eras  Louisiana  is  of  recent 
foi-mation.  The  deepest  borings  have  failed  to  disclose  any  ex-idences 
older  than  the  Mesozoic  or  Reptilian  age,  hence  only  three  of  the 
principal  geologic  periods — the  Mesozoic,  the  Cenozoic  and  the  Quar- 
temar}'- — are  represented  in  the  state.  A  recent  writer  on  the  sub- 
ject says:  "Only  a  few  closing  chapters  of  the  world's  history  are 
here  recorded,  and  these  have  been  written  by  water,  wliich  is  now, 
as  ever,  the  great  factor  in  landmaking  in  this  state." 

The  coast  marshes  in  the  southern  part  consist  of  blue  claj',  of  com- 
paratively recent  date,  upon  which  the  alluvium  brought  do-svn  by 
modern  floods  has  been  deposited.  In  this  section  the  fonnative  proc- 
e.ss  is  still  going  on,  the  streams  from  the  interior  and  the  tides  from 
the  gulf  adding  slowly  but  surely  to  the  deposits,  and  in  many  places, 
especially  along  the  rivers  and  bayous,  the  land  is  already  sufficiently 
elevated  to  be  habitable.     Above  these  marshes  are  the  loams  and 


LOUISIANA  471 

calcareous  silts  brought  down  by  streams,  many  of  which  no  longer 
exist,  during  the  earlier  geologic  periods.  It  is  believed  that  this 
deposit  was  formerly  in  the  nature  of  a  sluggish,  shallow  sea,  run- 
ning well  up  toward  the  parallel  of  35°  north  latitude,  after  which 
a  gradual  elevation  took  place  and  this  sea  was  transformed  into  a 
mighty  river,  extending  from  Bayou  Macon  on  the  west  to  Vicksburg 
on  the  east,  draining  all  the  region  from  the  Rocky  to  the  Appalachian 
mountains.  The  loams  and  silts  were  now  more  rapidly  deposited  and 
in  this  way  the  bluff  islands  of  the  state  were  formed.  This  bluff  for- 
mation is  distinctly  noticeable  along  the  western  banks  of  Bayou 
Macon  (the  Bayou  Macon  Hills),  and  it  follows  this  stream  through 
the  parishes  of  West  Carroll,  Richland  and  Franklin,  with  traces  still 
farther  to  the  southwest.  Prom  Harrisonburg  in  Catahoula  parish 
the  bluffs  may  be  traced  by  occasional  outcrops  through  Rapides, 
Avoyelles,  St.  Landry,  Lafayette  and  St.  Mary  parishes.  The  hills 
in  the  vicinity  of  Grand  Coteau,  Opelousas,  Carencro,  and  some  other 
places,  are  the  remains  of  these  bluffs,  and  the  "five  islands"  stand- 
ing out  of  the  sea  marshes  ai-e  remnants  of  this  formation.  The  grad- 
ual disintegration  of  these  hills  has  formed  the  prairies  about  Jeffer- 
son, Mer  Rouge,  Holloway  and  Marksville,  and  the  larger  prairies  in 
the  southwestern  part  of  the  state. 

North  of  the  pine  flats  are  beds  of  sand  and  gravel  belonging  to 
the  stratified  drift,  which  participates  in  the  general  southward  dip 
of  the  formations  of  the  state.  This  formation  is  found  on  the  hill- 
tops of  the  state,  below  the  blue  clay  of  the  Mississippi  river,  under- 
lying the  bluff  strata,  and  overlying  the  salt  beds  of  Avery  island, 
which  is  its  most  southern  exposure.  It  is  more  or  le.ss  ahundant 
throiighout  all  the  uplands  in  northern  Louisiana. 

Borings  through  the  Quarternary,  the  most  modern  of  the  geologic 
periods,  show  the  soils  of  the  recent  beds  of  alluvium,  the  bluff  forma- 
tions of  the  second  bottom,  loam,  clay  and  sand  of  the  Port  Hudson 
series,  and  the  sand  and  gravel  (drift)  of  the  Lafayette  formation. 
Contimiing  the  investigations,  the  formations  of  the  Tertiary  era  are 
found  to  be  well  represented  in  Louisiana,  though  they  are  generally 
concealed  by  the  more  recent  Quarternary  deposits.  In  the  Miocene 
series  are  found  sand,  clay  and  limestone;  in  the  Oligoeene  beds  are 
the  Grand  Gulf  clay  and  sandstone  and  the  Vicksburg  clay  and  marl ; 
beneath  these  beds  are  found  the  selenitic  and  Ugnitic  clays  and  marls 
of  the  Jackson  stage,  which  occur  at  various  places  in  the  state ;  and 
the  Eocene  series,  the  oldest  of  the  Tertiary  era,  are  met  with  only 
in  the  deep  oil  wells  of  southwestern  Louisiana,  where  the  drill  proves 
their  presence  at  depths  ranging  from  1,500  to  2,000  feet. 

In  several  places  rocks  of  the  Cretaceous  era — the  youngest  of  the 
Mesozoic  age — crop  out  from  under  the  overlying  Tertiary  and  Quar- 
ternary clays  and  sands.  The  salt  licks  of  northern  Louisiana,  the 
marble  deposits  near  Winfield,  Winn  parish,  and  the  St.  Landry  lime- 
stone belong  to  the  Cretaceous  era.  Concerning  these  rocks  the  bureau 
of  agriculture  and  immigration  in  a  recent  report  says:  "So  far  as 
square  miles  are  concerned,  their  outcroppings  are  insignificant,  but 
their  good  quality  of  lime-making  and  building  material,  as  well  as 


472  LOUISIANA 

their  oil  and  salt-bearing  properties  in  the  extreme  southern  part  of 
the  state,  renders  them  of  the  highest  economic  value  to  the  state. ' ' 

About  the  close  of  the  Cretaceous  era  the  geological  formations 
of  the  lower  Mississippi  valley  were  disturbed  by  movements  of  con- 
siderable magnitude.  The  Cretaceous  deposits  in  Tennessee  and 
Mississippi  were  lifted  above  the  level,  while  in  eastern  Arkansas 
and  farther  north  they  were  depressed  to  some  distance  below  the 
Eocene  tides.  The  Louisiana  geological  report  for  1902  says:  "In 
Louisiana  we  have  reason  to  believe  that  the  raising  and  depres- 
sion of  the  Cretaceous  beds  were  of  a  much  more  violent  nature, 
that  folds  and  faults  were  numerous  and  on  a  large  scale,  and  that 
a  great  irregularity  of  surface  features  characterized  the  newly 
formed  rocks." 

In  a  commercial  sense,  the  most  important  mineral  or  geological 
deposits  in  Louisiana  are  the  marble  and  kainite  beds  in  "Winn  par- 
ish, the  lignite  veins  in  the  Dolet  Hills  of  De  Soto,  the  kaoln  beds 
of  Catahoula,  the  various  deposits  of  good  brick-making  clay,  the 
salt  mines  of  Avery  island,  the  sulphur  beds  of  Calcasieu  pari.*h, 
limestone,  and  the  oil  found  in  different  parts  of  the  state.  Poolo 
says:  "The  marble  underlies  1,000  acres,  and  is  said  by  those  who 
claim  to  know  to  be  the  largest  marble  formation  in  the  woi-ld.  All 
colors  are  found.  The  banded,  variegated  and  yellow-lime  onyx 
are  very  unique.  The  stone  has  been  assayed  both  here  and  at 
"Washington,  D.  C.  The  crystal  is  very  tine,  and  stone  compact. 
It  contains  no  iron,  silica  or  sulphur.  It  is  absolutely  free  from 
all  extraneous  matter.  The  kainite  beds  of  "Winn  parish  are  situ- 
ated 4  miles  south  of  "Winnfield.  They  are  said  to  contain  potash, 
soda,  lime,  salt  and  ahiminum  in  combination.  It  is  claimed  to  l)e 
a  good  fertilizer  when  combined  with  the  lime  burned  from  the 
marble." 

Georgetown,  a  village  in  the  northeastern  part  of  Grant  parish, 
is  situated  at  the  junction  of  the  Louisiana  &  Arkansas  and  the  St. 
Louis,  Iron  Mountain  &  Southern  railroads,  about  25  miles  north- 
east of  Colfax,  the  parish  seat.  It  has  a  money  order  post  office, 
express  office,  telegraph  .station,  is  located  in  the  lumber  region, 
and  is  the  shipping  and  supply  point  for  a  considerable  district. 

German  Coast.— (See  St.  Charles  Parish.) 

Gheens,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  central  part  of  Lafourche  parish,  is 
about  5  miles  northeast  of  Lockport,  the  nearest  railroad  station. 
Population  500. 

Ghent,  Treaty  of.— (See  Treaties.) 

Gibsland,  an  incorporated  town  and  station  in  the  northern  part 
of  Bienville  parish,  at  the  junction  of  the  Vicksburg,  Shreveport  & 
Pacific  and  the  Louisiana  &  Northwest  railroads.  It  was  named  in 
honor  of  its  founder,  one  of  the  first  residents  of  the  parish.  There 
are  several  manufacturing  concerns,  among  which  is  a  furniture 
factory,  and  its  location  on  2  lines  of  railroad  makes  it  the  shipping 
point  for  a  large  cotton  and  timber  area.  The  Methodist  church 
established  the  Gibsland  collegiate  institute  here  in  1888.  and  the 


LOUISIANA  473 

college  buildings  were  opened  a  year  later.  The  town  has  a  bank, 
a  money  order  postoiBce,  telegraph  and  express  otSce,  and  a  pop- 
ulation of  1,065. 

Gibson,  a  village  in  the  northwestern  part  of  Terrebonne  parish, 
is  a  station  on  the  Southern  Pacific  R.  R.  about  12  miles  west  of 
Sehriever.  It  has  a  money  order  postoffice,  express  office,  telegraph 
station  and  telephone,  and  a  population  of  200. 

Gibson,  Randall  Lee,  soldier  and  U.  S.  senator,  was  born  at 
Spring  Hill,  Ky.,  Sept.  10,  1832.  His  ancestors,  the  Gibsons  and 
McKinleys,  came  from  Scotland  early  in  the  18th  century  and  set- 
tled in  Virginia.  His  grandfather,  Randall  Gibson,  after  whom  he 
was  named,  was  a  soldier  in  the  Revolutionary  war,  and  after  the 
independence  of  the  United  States  was  established  moved  to  Mis- 
sissippi, where  he  became  one  of  the  founders  of  Jefferson  college. 
Senator  Gibson  passed  his  boyhood  at  Lexington,  Ky.,  and  on  his 
father's  plantation  in  the  parish  of  Terrebonne,  La.  In  1853  he 
graduated  at  Yale  college  as  the  valedictorian  of  his  class,  then 
read  law,  and  after  receiving  his  diploma  from  the  University  of 
Louisiana  traveled  for  some  time  in  Europe.  He  then  became  a 
planter  in  Louisiana  until  the  breaking  out  of  the  Civil  war  in  1861, 
when  he  was  appointed  aide-de-camp  on  the  staff  of  Gov.  Moore. 
In  March,  1861,  he  was  made  captain  of  the  1st  La.  artillery,  and 
on  Aug.  13  was  commissioned  colonel  of  the  13th  La.  infantry. 
Under  his  instruction  the  regiment  soon  became  one  of  the  best 
drilled  and  disciplined  in  the  Confederate  army.  After  Gen.  Adams 
was  wounded  at  Shiloh,  Col.  Gibson  commanded  the  Louisiana 
brigade  throughout  the  remainder  of  that  historic  battle.  He  dis- 
tinguished himself  at  the  battle  of  Perryville,  Ky.,  commanded  the 
brigade  at  Murfreesboro  and  Chickamauga,  and  on  Jan.  11,  1864, 
was  made  brigadier-general.  He  fought  through  the  Atlanta  and 
Nashville  campaigns  with  Gens.  Johnston  and  Hood,  and  finished 
his  military  career  by  a  gallant  defense  of  Spanish  Port.  After 
the  war  Gen.  Gibson  practiced  law  in  New  Orleans  until  elected  to 
Congress.  He  was  elected  in  1872  to  represent  the  2nd  district  in 
the  lower  house  of  Congress,  but  the  seat  was  successfully  con- 
tested by  Lionel  A.  Sheldon.  Two  years  later  he  was  elected  and 
remained  in  the  national  house  of  representatives  until  chosen  by 
the  Louisiana  legislature  to  succeed  William  Pitt  Kellogg  in  the 
U.  S.  senate,  his  term  beginning  on  March  4,  1883.  At  the  close  of 
his  first  term  he  was  reelected,  but  did  not  live  to  complete  his 
second  term,  his  death  occurring  at  Hot  Springs,  Ark.,  Dec.  15, 
1892.  Gen.  Gibson  did  much  to  promote  the  cause  of  education  in 
Louisiana.  He  served  as  administrator  of  the  Howard  memorial 
library;  trustee  of  the  Peabody  fund;  regent  of  the  Smithsonian 
institute,  and  as  president  of  the  board  of  administrators  of  the 
Tulane  university  of  Louisiana,  an  institution  which  his  influence 
helped  to  establish. 

Gilbert,  a  village  in  the  southern  part  of  Franklin  parish,  is  situ- 
ated at  the  junction  of  the  New  Orleans  &  Northwestern  and  the 


474  LOUISIANA 

St.  Louis,  Iron  Mountain  &  Southern  railroads,  about  7  miles  south 
of  Winnsboro,  the  parish  seat.  It  has  a  money  order  postoffice, 
express  office,  telegraph  station  and  telephone  facilities,  and  a 
population  of  300. 

Gilead,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  eastern  part  of  East  Feliciana  parish, 
is  near  the  Amite  river  and  8  miles  southeast  of  Clinton,  the  parish 
seat. 

Gilliam,  a  post-village  in  the  northern  part  of  Caddo  parish,  is 
situated  about  5  miles  west  of  the  Eed  river  on  the  Texas  &  Pa- 
cific R.  R.,  and  some  20  miles  north  of  Shreveport,  the  parish  seat. 
Population  150. 

Gillis,  a  post-village  of  Calcasieu  parish,  is  a  station  on  the  Lake 
Charles  &  Northern  R.  R.,  about  10  miles  north  of  Lake  Charles. 

Girard,  a  village  in  the  northern  part  of  Richland  parish,  is  a 
station  on  the  Vieksburg,  Shreveport  &  Pacific  R.  R.,  3  miles  ■west 
of  Rayville,  the  parish  seat.  It  has  a  money  order  postoffice,  ex- 
press office  and  telegraph  station,  and  a  population  of  107. 

Gladden,  Adley  H.,  soldier,  was  born  in  South  Carolina.  At  the 
oiitbreak  of  the  ^Mexican  war  he  entered  the  army,  was  major  of 
the  Palmetto  regiment  of  South  Carolina  at  the  battle  of  Churu- 
busco,  and  as  a  result  of  his  gallant  conduct  on  that  day  he  be- 
came colonel  of  the  regiment,  which  he  led  in  many  other  battles 
of  the  war.  After  the  close  of  the  Mexican  war  he  settled  in  Lou- 
isiana, and  when  the  state  seceded  from  the  Union  he  joined  the 
militia  of  his  adopted  state,  going  to  Pensacola  as  colonel  of  the 
1st  La.  regiment.  On  Sept.  30,  1861,  he  was  commissioned  brig- 
adier-general and  given  command  of  a  brigade,  which  he  com- 
manded during  the  bombardment  of  the  Confederate  forts  at  Pen- 
sacola harbor.  Gen.  Bragg  expressed  his  thanks  to  Gen.  Gladden 
for  his  able  support  at  the  time,  and  later  when  he  expressed  a 
desire  to  form  a  brigade  that  should  set  the- example  for  discipline 
and  official  excellence,  he  said:  "I  should  desire  Gen.  Gladden  to 
command  them."  In  Jan.,  1862,  Gladden  was  transferred  to  Mo- 
bile and  then  to  Corinth,  where  he  commanded  a  brigade.  At 
Shiloh  he  rendered  gallant  service  and  Gen.  Beauregard  describes 
his  death  as  follows:  "We  early  lost  the  services  of  the  gallant 
Gladden,  a  man  of  soldierly  aptitudes  and  experiences,  who  after 
a  marked  influence  on  his  quarter  of  the  field  fell,  mortally 
wounded."  Struck  by  a  cannon  ball,  he  was  carried  from  the  field 
and  soon  afterward  died. 

Glade,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  southeastern  part  of  Catahoula  par- 
ish, situated  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Black  river,  about  10  miles 
south  of  Jonesville,  the  nearest  railroad  station. 

Gladis,  a  money  order  post-village  in  the  northwest  corner  of 
Wasluugton  parish,  is  on  the  Bogue  Chitto,  aboiit  3  miles  north  of 
Jones,  the  nearest  railroad  station.  It  is  located  in  a  truck  farm- 
ing district,  which  supplies  the  northern  mai-kets  with  vegetables 
and  berries.     Population  500. 

Glencoe,  a  village  in  the  western  part  of  St.  ;Mai-y  parish,  is  a 


LOUISIANA  475 

station  ou  the  Southern  Pacific  R.  R.,  about  10  miles  west  of  Frank- 
lin, the  parish  seat.  It  has  a  money  order  postoffice,  some  sugar 
indvistries,  and  a  population  of  150. 

Glenella,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  western  part  of  Caldwell  parish, 
situated  ou  the  Bayou  Beaucoup,  about  3  miles  east  of  Hinton,  the 
nearest  railroad  station,  and  12  miles  southwest  of  Columbia,  the 
parish   seat. 

Glenmora,  a  village  in  the  southwestern  part  of  Rapides  parish, 
is  a  station  on  the  St.  Louis,  Watkins  &  Gulf  R.  R.,  25  miles  south- 
west of  Alexandria,  the  parish  seat.  It  has  a  money  order  post- 
office  and  telegraph  station  and  a  population  of  110. 

Glenwild,  is  a  post-hamlet  of  St.  Mary  parish. 

Gloster,  a  village  in  the  north-central  part  of  DeSoto  parish,  is 
a  station  on  the  Texas  &  Pacific  R.  R.  It  is  located  in  the  western 
pine  district,  has  important  lumber  industries  and  is  the  shipping 
and  supply  point  for  a  large  district.  It  has  a  money  order  post- 
office,  one  free  rural  delivery  route,  an  express  office,  telegraph 
station  and  telephone  facilities,  and  a  population  of  121. 

Glynn,  a  village  in  the  southeastern  part  of  Pointe  Coupee  parLsh, 
is  on  the  Texas  &  Pacific  R.  R.,  about  15  miles  northwest  of  Baton 
Rouge.  It  has  a  money  order  postoffice,  express  office  and  tele- 
graph station,  and  is  a  shipping  point  of  some  importance. 

Gold  Dust,  a  post-village  and  station  in  the  southwest  corner  of 
Avoyelles  parish,  is  on  the  Southern  Pacific  R.  R.,  about  6  miles 
soiithwest  of  Bunkie,  the  nearest  banking  town.  It  has  an  express 
office  and  telegraph  station,  and  does  some  shipping. 

Goldman,  a  post-village  and  station  in  the  southern  part  of  Ten- 
sas parish,  is  situated  on  the  Mississippi  river  and  tlie  St.  Louis, 
Iron  Mountain  &  Southern  R.  R.,  about  8  miles  southwest  of  St. 
Joseph,  the  parish  seat. 

Goldonna,  a  village  in  the  northeastern  pai-t  of  Natchitoches 
parish,  is  situated  on  Saline  bayou  and  the  Louisiana  &  Arkansas 
R.  R.,  about  20  miles  northeast  of  Natchitoches,  the  parish  seat. 
It  has  a  money  order  postoffice,  telegraph  station  and  express  of- 
fice, and  a  population  of  225. 

Gonzales,  a  village  in  the  central  part  of  Ascension  parish,  is  a 
station  on  the  line  of  the  Louisiana  Railway  &  Navigation  com- 
pany, about  12  miles  northeast  of  Donaldsonville,  the  parish  seat. 
It  is  located  in  one  of  the  richest  agricultural  districts  along  the 
Mississippi  river,  has  several  mercantile  establishments,  and  is  the 
shipping  and  supply  town  for  the  eastern  part  of  the  parish.  It 
has  a  money  order  postoffice,  and  a  population  of  300. 

Good  Pine,  a  post-village  and  station  in  the  western  part  of  La- 
Salle  parish,  is  a  station  on  the  Louisiana  &  Arkansas  R.  R.,  about 
3  miles  west  of  Jena. 

Gordon,  a  post-village  in  the  northern  part  of  Claiborne  parish, 
is  near  the  Arkansas  border,  6  miles  east  of  Haynesville,  the  near- 
est railroad  station,  and  about  12  miles  north  of  Homer,  the  parish 
seat.     It  is  the  terminus  of  the  Bernice  &  Northwestern  R.  R.,  and 


476  LOUISIANA 

is  the  shipping  and  supply  town  for  a  large  district  in  that  part 
of  the  parish. 

Gorum,  a  post-hamlet  in  tlie  southeastern  part  of  Natchitoches 
parish,  is  a  short  distance  north  of  the  Red  river  and  some  4  miles 
southeast  of  Chopin,  the  nearest  railroad  station. 

Gottschalk,  Louis  M.,  a  prominent  musician  of  the  ante-bellum 
days,  was  born  in  New  Orleans,  La.,  May  8,  1829,  of  German- 
Jewish  lineage.  At  the  age  of  12  years  he  was  sent  to  Paris,  where 
he  received  instruction  on  the  piano  and  in  harmony  from  famous 
masters.  When  he  had  concluded  his  musical  studies  in  1845,  so 
nearly  perfect  was  his  mastership  of  his  favorite  instrument  that 
he  was  given  the  opportunity  to  appear  at  several  concerts  in 
Paris,  and  later  he  toured  France.  Switzerland,  Spain  and  Italy. 
Upon  his  return  to  the  French  capital  he  published  several  compo- 
sitions, especially  adapted  to  the  pianoforte,  which  were  exceed- 
ingly well  received.  In  1853  he  returned  to  the  United  States, 
gave  concerts  at  Boston,  Philadelphia  and  New  York,  after  which 
he  made  extensive  tours  through  his  native  land  and  everywhere 
his  renditions  of  his  own  compositions  were  highly  praised.  At 
frequent  intervals  he  confined  his  eiforts  to  the  composition  of 
salon-pieces  among  which  were  "Le  Bamboula,"  "La  Savane," 
"La  Danse  de  Ombres"  and  the  "Cradle  Song,"  the  last  mentioned 
of  which  was  Tindoubtedly  the  most  notable  of  the  series.  Later  he 
made  visits  to  the  West  Indies,  Mexico,  Montevideo  and  Buenos 
Ayres,  and  finally  settled  in  Rio  Janeiro.  While  rendering  a  con- 
cert in  the  last  named  city  in  1869,  he  was  suddenly  stricken  with 
mortal  illness.  Most  of  the  master's  concerts  were  recitals  of  his 
own  compositions,  which  in  point  of  neatness,  expression  and 
originality,  possessed  a  charm  exclusively  their  own.  They  were 
largely  founded  on  Louisiana  plantation  ditties,  old  Creole  songs 
and  South  American  airs.  The  interpretation  of  the  old  masters 
received  very  little  of  his  attention  and  he  abhorred  the  idea  of 
playing  the  pieces  of  living  composers.  He  published  several  pop- 
iilar  songs  and  left  in  an  incomplete  state  several  operas  and  sym- 
phonies. 

Goudeau,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  southern  part  of  Avoyelles  par- 
ish, is  situated  on  a  confluent  of  Bayou  Rouge,  about  5  miles  north- 
east of  ]\Iorrow,  the  nearest  railroad  station. 

Governors. — As  Louisiana  has  been  ruled  successively  by  France, 
Spain  and  the  United  States,  the  names  of  the  governors  under 
the  different  dominations  will  be  found  under  the  titles  of  French, 
Spanish  and  American  governors. 

Grace,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  western  part  of  Winn  parish,  is  a  sta- 
tion on  the  Louisiana  &  Arkansas  R.  R.,  about  10  miles  west  of 
Winfield,  the  parish  seat.  It  has  an  express  office  and  telegraph 
station,  and  is  a  trading  center  for  the  neighborliood.  Popula- 
tion 200. 

Grahamville. — By  an  act  of  the  legislature,  approved  March  22, 
1822,  Thomas  Graham  was  authorized  to  lay  off  a  town,  to  be  called 


LOUISIANA  477 

Graliamville,  "at  the  confluence  of  the  two  branches  of  the  Red 
river,  called  the  River  Cane  and  the  Rigolet  de  Bon  Dieu."  This 
town,  which  does  not  appear  on  the  maps  of  the  present  day,  was 
located  not  far  from  the  present  city  of  Colfax,  the  seat  of  justice 
of  Grant  parish.  History  does  not  record  whether  the  town  was 
ever  built,  or  if  built  how  it  disappeared. 

Grambling,  a  post-village  and  station,  is  situated  in  the  southern 
part  of  Lincoln  parish,  about  5  miles  west  of  Ruston,  the  parish 
seat,  and  on  the  main  line  of  the  Vicksburg,  Shreveport  &  Pa- 
cific R.  R. 

Gramercy,  a  village  in  the  southeastern  part  of  St.  James  parish, 
is  near  the  southern  boundary  on  the  Yazoo  &  Mississippi  Valley 
R.  R.,  in  one  of  the  great  sugar  districts  of  the  state.  It  has  a 
money  order  postoffice,  express  office,  telegraph  station  and  tele- 
phone facilities,  and  a  population  of  175. 

Grand  Bayou,  a  village  in  the  western  part  of  Red  River  parish, 
is  a  station  on  the  Texas  &  Pacific  R.  R.,  about  8  miles  northwest 
of  Cousliatta,  the  parish  seat.  It  has  a  money  order  postoffice,  ex- 
press office,  telegraph  station  and  telephone  facilities,  and  is  the 
shipping  and  supply  town  for  a  large  area  of  the  rich  Red  river 
valley. 

Grand  Cane,  an  incorporated  town  in  the  central  part  of  De  Soto 
parish,  is  on  the  Texas  &  Pacific  R.  R.,  about  8  miles  northwest  of 
Mansfield,  the  parish  seat.  This  name  was  given  to  an  early  settle- 
ment in  here  many  years  ago,  as  the  site  of  the  town  was  a  dense 
canebrake,  through  which  the  first  explorers  had  to  cut  their  way. 
The  country  around  is  fertile  farming  land,  though  it  forms  the 
summit  of  a  plateau,  which  is  the  divide  between  the  Red  and  Sa- 
bine rivers.  "When  the  railroad  was  built  in  1881,  the  little  settle- 
ment became  a  flourishing  business  center.  There  are  a  number 
of  beautiful  homes  in  the  town,  a  high  school,  Methodist,  Presby- 
terian and  Baptist  churches.  The  principal  industries  are  a  grist 
mill,  saw  mill  and  cotton-gin  and  there  are  several  good  mercantile 
establishments.  Grand  Cane  has  a  bank,  a  money  order  postoffice, 
telegraph  and  express  facilities  and  a  population  of  485. 

Grand  Chenier,  a  money  order  post-village,  in  the  southern  part 
of  Cameron  parish,  on  the  Mermenton  river,  about  5  miles  from  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  25  miles  east  of  Cameron,  the  parish  seat.  It 
has  extensive  oyster  industries  and  a  population  of  150. 

Grand  Coteau,  an  incorporated  town  in  the  southern  part  of  St. 
Landry  parish,  is  about  10  miles  south  of  Opelousas,  the  parish 
seat,  and  3  miles  northeast  of  Sunset,  the  nearest  railroad  station. 
It  is  an  old  settlement,  and  was  a  thriving  village  before  the  rail- 
roads were  built.  It  is  the  seat  of  Saint  Charles  Catholic  college  and 
the  Sacred  Heart  academy,  has  several  good  mercantile  establish- 
ments and  pretty  homes,  and  is  one  of  the  largest  and  most  thriving 
towns  in  the  parish.   Population  392. 

Grand  Ecore,  a  village  of  Natchitoches  parish,  is  located  upon 
the  line  of  the  Louisiana  &  Northwestern  R.  R.,  2  miles  south  of  Hagen 
and  5  miles  north  of  the  city  of  Natchitoches.    It  was  incorporated 


i78  ,  LOUISIANA 

bj-  act  of  the  legislatnvp  on  March  20,  1839.  A  postoifiee  was  formerly- 
maintained  here,  but  upon  the  establishment  of  the  rural  free  delivery 
system  it  was  discontinued  and  the  inhabitants  now  receive  their  mail 
from  Natchitoches.  After  the  battle  of  Mansfield,  April  8,  1864,  the 
Federal  army  under  Gen.  Banks  fell  back  to  Grand  Ecore,  and  sev- 
eral slight  skirmishes  occurred  in  the  vicinity  during  the  remainder 
of  that  month  and  in  the  early  part  of  May. 

Grand  Isle,  a  money  order  post-village  of  Jeft'erson  parish,  situ- 
ated on  tlie  island  of  the  same  name  on  the  gulf  coast,  about  30  miles 
west  of  Buras,  the  nearest  railroad  station.  It  is  an  old  town  and  has 
a  population  of  150.  The  o.vster  industry  is  the  most  important, 
though  large  quantities  of  terrapin  and  fish  are  caught  and  shipped 
to  New  Orleans  and  northern  markets. 

Grand  Lake,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  northern  part  of  Cameron  par- 
ish, is  on  the  east  shore  of  Calcasieu  lake,  about  16  miles  south  of 
Lake  Charles.   In  1900  it  had  a  population  of  51. 

Grange  Movement. —  (See  Farmers'  Alliance.) 

Grangeville,  a  post-village  in  the  southwestern  part  of  St.  Helena 
parish,  is  situated  near  the  Amite  river,  about  6  miles  northwest  of 
Pinegrove,  the  nearest  raili-oad  station. 

Grant,  a  post-village  in  Allen  parish,  is  about  4  miles  Southeast 
of  Sugartowu.  the  nearest  railroad  station. 

Grant  Parish,  with  an  area  of  700  square  miles,  was  established 
ilarch  4.  1869,  during  the  reconstruction  period,  while  Henr.y  Clay 
Warmouth  was  governor,  and  was  named  in  honor  of  Ulysses  S.  Grant, 
then  president  of  the  United  States.  The  southern  part  of  Winn  and 
the  northern  part  of  Rapides  were  taken  to  form  the  parish  of  Grant, 
which  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Winn  parish ;  on  the  east  by  Little 
river,  which  separates  it  from  Catahoula  parish ;  on  the  south  by 
Rapides  parish,  and  the  Rigolet  de  Bon  Dieu  and  the  Red  river  form 
its  western  boundar.v  separating  it  from  Rapides  and  Natchitoohes 
parishes.  After  the  organization  of  the  parish  Colfax  was  made  the 
seat  of  parochial  government.  During  the  first  half  of  the  19th  ceji- 
tury  great  plantations  were  started  in  what  is  now  Grant  parish. 
Meredith  Calhoiui  owned  1,000  slaves  and  lands  with  a  river  front- 
age of  7  miles.  Other  planters  with  large  holdings  were  the  Baldwins, 
opposite  Cotile  Landing,  the  Gillards,  Layssards  and  Thomas  and 
Peter  Hickman.  The  war  changed  all  this,  leaving  no  slaves  to  cul- 
tivate the  land,  and  for  years  many  hundreds  of  acres  were  uncul- 
tivated. In  the  past  few  years,  the  forests  that  have  grown  up 
since  the  war,  have  been  cut  oflp  to  make  way  for  the  return  of  the 
great  cotton  field.  In  1873,  during  the  reconstruction  period,  bands 
of  predatory  negroes  rode  through  the  parish,  threatening  murder 
and  outrage  and  firing  into  houses.  (See  Kellogg 's  Administra- 
tion.) 

Red  river  and  its  tributary  streams  water  the  entire  western  part 
of  the  parish ;  Little  river  the  eastern  portion,  the  Big  latt  and  other 
.small  streams  the  central  and  southern  portions.  The  formation  of 
Grant  is  alluvial  Red  river  bottoms,  rolling  prairie  and  long  leaf 
pine  hills.  Originally  all  these  hills  were  covered  with  a  heavy  growth 


LOUISIANA  479 

of  pine,  oak,  gum,  cottonwood,  willow,  elm,  etc.,  and  thougrli  thousands 
of  feet  of  lumber  have  been  cut,  great  areas  of  pine  still  remain  to 
yield  their  wealth  to  the  lumberman.  Since  1900  many  families  from 
the  north  and  east,  and  a  colony  of  thrifty  Germans  and  Italians  have 
bought  land  in  the  parish  and  started  truck  farms,  the  products  of 
which  are  shipped  to  Alexandria.  Shreveport,  New  Orleans  and  north- 
ern cities.  Cotton  still  remains  the  principal  crop,  though  many  of  the 
great  plantations  have  been  cut  up  into  farms  where  corn,  hay,  oats 
and  peas  are  raised.  Fruits  adapted  to  this  region  do  remarkably  well, 
but  are  not  cultivated  to  any  extent  as  a  commercial  enterprise.  The 
central  prairie  and  rolling  uplands  furnish  excellent  pasturage,  and 
for  the  pa.st  25  years  stock  raising  has  been  an  important  industry. 
Small  deposits  of  gold  and  silver  have  been  found  in  the  parish.  There 
are  beds  of  green  sand,  marl,  quarries  of  marble  and  limestone,  de- 
posits of  kaolin,  iron  and  gypsum,  all  of  which  will  be  a  source  of 
wealth  when  opened.  Shipping  and  transportation  facilities  are  ex- 
cellent. furni.shed  by  boats  on  the  Red  river,  the  Louisiana  Railway  & 
Navigation  company,  whose  line  traverees  the  western  part  of  the  par- 
ish, the  Louisiana  &  Arkansas  R.  R.,  which  runs  north  and  south 
through  the  center  of  the  parish,  and  the  St.  Louis,  Iron  Mountain  & 
Southern  R.  R.,  in  the  eastern  and  northern  parts  of  the  parish.  A 
direct  outlet  is  thus  furnished  for  the  products  of  the  parish  to  St. 
Louis  and  New  Orleans.  The  following  statistics  are  taken  from  the 
U.  S.  census  for  1910 :  number  of  farms,  1,468 ;  acreage,  122,662 ;  acres 
improved,  44.271 ;  value  of  land  and  improvements  exclusive  of  farm 
buildings,  $1,533,961;  value  of  farm  buildings,  $435,860;  value  of 
live  stock,  $434,818 ;  total  value  of  all  crops,  $641,491.  The  population 
was  15,958. 

Grappes  Bluff,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  northwestern  part  of  Natchi- 
toches parish,  is  situated  on  the  Red  river  and  the  line  of  the  Lou- 
isiana Railway  &  Navigation  company,  about  12  miles  northwest  of 
Natchitoches,  the  parish  seat.  It  is  one  of  the  oldest  settlements  in 
the  parish,  having  been  settled  early  in  the  18th  century,  when  it 
was  one  of  the  important  river  towns.  Today  it  has  a  population  of 
150,  an  express  ofSce,  telegraph  station  and  telephone  facilities,  and 
is  the  shipping  and  supply  point  for  a  large  section  of  the  river  valley. 

Grasses. —  (See  Forage  Crops.) 

Gray,  a  post-hamlet  of  Terrebonne  parish,  is  situated  near  the 
northern  boundary  on  Bayou  du  Chien,  about  2  miles  east  of  Re- 
becca, the  nearest  railroad  station,  and  8  miles  northwest  of  Houma, 
the  parish  seat.   Population  150. 

Gray,  Henry,  soldier  entered  the  service  of  his  state  at  the  out- 
break of  the  Civil  war.  During  the  first  months  of  his  service  he  had 
no  opportunity  of  distinction,  the  sphere  of  his  action  being  confined 
to  his  own  state,  Louisiana.  In  May,  1862,  he  was  commissioned 
colonel  of  the  28th  La.  and  took  an  active  part  in  defending  the  state 
against  the  Federal  troops  in  1863.  He  took  part  in  the  battle  at 
Camp  Bisland,  and  Gen.  Richard  Taylor,  in  his  report  of  the  battle 
commented  as  follows:  "Col.  Gray  and  his  regiment,  officers  and 
men,  deserve  most  favorable  mention."   In  one  of  tiie  numerous  bat- 


480  -  LOUISIANA 

ties  ou  the  Teche,  Col.  Gray  received  a  bad  Tvound  but  recovered  in 
time  to  command  a  brigade  during  the  Bed  River  campaign,  and  so  gal- 
lant was  his  conduct  that  the  commission  of  brigadier-general  was  con- 
ferred on  him,  dated  from  the  battle  of  Mansfield,  April  8,  1864. 
After  the  close  of  the  war  he  resided  in  Louisiana  until  his  death, 
Dec.  13.  1892. 

Grayson,  a  village  and  station  in  the  central  part  of  CaldweU 
parish,  is  about  4  miles  south  of  Columbia,  the  parish  seat,  on  the 
St.  Louis,  Iron  Mountain  &  Southern  R.  R.  It  has  a  money  order 
postoffice,  express  office,  telegraph  station  and  is  the  shipping  point 
for  a  large  lumber  district.    Population  300. 

Green,  Thomas,  soldier,  was  born  in  Amelia  coimty,  Va.,  June 
8,  1814.  His  father,  Nathan  Green,  was  a  distinguished  jurist  in 
Tennessee  and  the  president  of  Lebanon  law  college.  When  21 
years  of  age  Thomas  left  his  home  in  Tennessee  and  went  west. 
He  joined  the  revolutionary  army  in  Texas  and  took  part  in  his 
first  fight  at  San  Jacinto  in  April,  1836.  "When  the  army  was  dis- 
banded a  year  later,  he  settled  in  LaGrange,  became  a  surveyor, 
and  from  1839  to  1840  was  in  various  skirmishes  against  the  In- 
dians. In  1842  he  took  part  in  the  invasion  of  Tilexico.  Four 
years  later,  when  the  Mexican  war  begun,  he  was  in  command  of 
a  company  that  assisted  in  the  relief  of  Gen.  Taylor  on  the  Rio 
Grande,  after  which  he  took  part  in  the  battle  of  Monterey  and 
served  under  Maj.  Hays  imtil  the  close  of  the  war.  "With  the  ex- 
ception of  brief  intervals  he  was  clerk  of  the  supreme  court  of 
Texas  from  1841  to  1861.  When  the  Civil  war  broke  oiit  he  en- 
tered the  service  of  the  Confederacy  as  colonel  of  three  regiments 
raised  in  Arizona  and  New  iMexieo.  He  won  distinction  in  the 
battles  of  "Val  "Verde,  Glorieta,  Los  Cruces  and  the  recapture  of 
Galveston  in  1863.  He  was  transferred  to  Louisiana,  where  he 
served  first  as  brigadier,  but  was  soon  raised  to  the  rank  of  major- 
general.  He  took  part  in  the  battles  of  Bisland.  Bayou  Bourbeau, 
Berwick.  Bayou  Boeuf,  Fort  Butler,  Bayou  Lafourche,  Fordoche, 
and  other  actions  along  the  Teche.  He  was  active  in  the  Red  River- 
campaign  and  was  wounded  in  the  action  of  Blair's  Landing  on 
April  12,  1864,  by  a  discharge  of  grape  shot  from  a  gunboat,  and 
died  two  days  later. 

Greene,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  southeastern  part  of  Jackson  parish, 
is  near  the  eastern  boimdary  about  8  miles  southeast  of  Womack, 
the  nearest  railroad  station. 

Greensburg,  the  seat  of  government  of  St.  Helena  parish,  is  lo- 
cated in  the  eastern  part  of  the  parish  on  a  short  line  of  railroad 
called  the  Greensburg  &  Southwestern,  which  road  connects  with 
the  Illinois  Central  at  Kentwood.  When  the  parish  of  St.  Helena 
was  organized  in  1813  a  committee  was  appointed  bv  the  police 
jury  to  locate  the  parish  seat.  The  site  of  Greensburg  was  selected, 
and  the  first  public  buildings  were  a  frame  courthouse  and  a  log 
jail.  A  new  courthouse  was  erected  in  1855.  In  1877  the  Nor- 
villa  collegiate  institute  was  opened,  and  it  wielded  a  good  influence 
toward  the  establishment  of  the  present    public    school     svstem. 


LOUISIANA  481 

Several  religious  denominations  are  represented  by  churches,  so 
that  the  moral  and  intellectual  tone  of  Greensburg  is  maintained 
on  a  high  plane.  Before  the  advent  of  the  railroad  the  town  had 
tri-weekly  mails  from  Clinton  and  daily  mails  from  Tangipahoa. 
The  town  now  has  a  money  order  postofSce,  a  bank,  two  large  saw 
mills,  a  newspaper,  several  good  general  stores,  etc.  Population, 
268. 

Greenwood,  an  incorporated  town  in  the  southwestern  part  of 
Caddo  parish,  is  about  4  miles  east  of  the  Texas  boundary,  at  the 
junction  of  the  Missouri,  Kansas  &  Texas  and  the  Texas  &  Pacific 
railroads,  and  12  miles  southwest  of  Shreveport,  the  parish  seat. 
It  is  located  in  the  western  timber  district,  has  saw  mills,  etc.,  is 
a  good  business  town,  with  a  money  order  postoffice,  express  offices, 
telegraph  station  and  telephone  facilities,  and  a  population  of  200. 

Gretna,  the  parish  seat  of  Jefferson  parish,  was  laid  out  by  the 
St.  Mary  Market  and  Ferry  company  in  1839,  and  was  made  the 
seat  of  justice  in  1884.  It  is  today  practically  a  suburb  of  New 
Orleans,  with  a  population  of  3,500.  It  has  important  manufac- 
tures in  cotton  seed  oil,  cooperage,  brick,  moss,  lumber,  etc.,  and 
a  number  of  first-class  mercantile  establishments.  Being  located 
in  the  extreme  northern  part  of  the  parish  on  the  Mississippi  river, 
the  Southern  Pacific,  the  Texas  and  Pacific,  and  the  New  Orleans, 
Port  Jackson  &  Grande  Isle  railroads,  it  is  an  important  shipping 
point.  The  Catholic  is  the  leading  church,  though  several  of  the 
Protestant  denominations  are  represented,  and  the  public  school 
system  will  compare  favorably  with  other  towns  of  its  size  in  the 
state. 

Griffin,  a  post-village  in  the  southeastern  part  of  Madison  parish, 
is  on  the  Mississippi  river,  about  10  miles  below  the  city  of  Vicks- 
burg.  Miss.,  and  some  15  miles  southeast  of  Tallulah,  the  parish 
seat.  It  is  an  important  trading  and  shipping  point  for  that  section 
of  the  parish.  South  Vicksburg,  just  across  the  river,  is  the  near- 
est railroad  station. 

Grigsby,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  eastern  part  of  Bienville  parish,  is 
situated  on  a  confluent  of  the  Dugdemona  river,  about  6  miles  west 
of  Ansley,  the  nearest  railroad  station,  and  12  miles  southeast  of 
Arcadia,  the  parish  seat. 

Grijalva,  Juan  de,  explorer  and  adventurer,  was  a  native  of 
Cuellar,  Spain.  In  1518  he  made  a  voyage  of  discovery,  landing 
first  at  the  island  of  Cozumel  (to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  Santa 
Cruz),  in  the  Bay  of  Yucatan.  He  then  discovered  and  explored 
the  coast  of  Mexico,  giving  to  the  region  the  name  of  New  Spain, 
and  carried  back  with  him  evidences  of  the  mineral  wealth  of  that 
country.  Although  he  never  touched  the  coast  of  the  present  State 
of  Louisiana,  an  account  of  his  discoveries  reached  Jamaica  and  in- 
fluenced Gov.  de  Garay  to  send  out  the  expedition  under  Pineda. 
(See  Garay,  Francisco  de,). 

Grosse  Tete,  a  village  in  the  northeastern  part  of  Iberville  parish, 
is  situated  on  the  bayou  of  the  same  name  and  at  the  junction  of  the 
Southern  Pacific  and  the  Texas  &  Pacific  railways,  about  12  miles 
1—31 


482  LOUISIANA 

northwest  of  Plaqueniiue,  the  parish  seat.  It  was  first  settled  in  the 
early  30 's,  when  the  American  pioneers  began  to  extend  the  settle- 
ments back  from  the  Mississippi  river.  The  first  Masonic  lodge  dn 
Iberville  parish  was  established  here  in  1851.  It  has  a  money  order 
postoifice,  express  and  telegraph  offices,  and  is  connected  by  telephone 
with  the  surrounding  towns.  Population  300. 

Grove,  a  post-village  in  the  central  part  of  "Webster  parish,  is 
about  -1  miles  .southeast  of  Hortman,  the  nearest  railroad  station,  and 
10  miles  north  of  ]\Iindeu,  the  parish  seat. 

Gr5Tnes,  John  Randolph,  lawj^er  and  legislator,  was  born  in 
Orange  county,  Va.,  in  1786.  He  studied  law  in  his  native  state,  where 
he  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  and  in  1808  removed  to  the  Territory  of 
Orleans.  He  was  appointed  district  attorney  and  in  that  capacity  was 
connected  with  the  famous  batture  case.  Speaks  says  he  established 
the  city's  title  to  the  batture,  and  that  when  it  was  divided  into  lots 
and  sold  at  auction  the  money  was  paid  to  Grjines.  who  retained  $100,- 
000  as  his  fee.  This  caused  some  adveree  comment  upon  his  character, 
but  not  enough  to  blight  his  good  name  as  a  citizen  or  injure  his  stand- 
ing as  a  la'wyer.  "When  the  British  attempted  the  capture  of  New  Or- 
leans in  1814-15,  Mr.  Grymes  acted  as  aide  to  Gen.  Jackson,  writing 
many  of  his  orders  and  proclamations,  and  was  sent  by  Jackson  to 
Gen.  Morgan  with  the  order  to  place  men  behind  the  levee.  The  order 
was  not  carried  out,  and  Morgan  was  forced  to  abandon  his  position. 
He  was  afterward  Jackson's  council  in  the  United  States  bank  ease, 
and  was  opposed  to  Daniel  "Webster  in  the  case  of  Myi-a  Clark  Gaines 
against  the  city  of  New  Orleans.  On  Feb.  3,  1835,  Mr.  Grymes.  then 
a  member  of  the  lower  branch  of  the  Louisiana  legislature,  made  an ' 
attack  on  Alcee  La  Branche,  the  speaker  of  the  house,  and  diu-ing  his 
term  in  the  legislature  he  fought  two  duels,  in  one  of  which  he  was 
severely  wounded.  In  the  campaign  of  1840  he  M-as  one  of  the  leading 
Democratic  stump-speakers  in  Louisiana,  his  reputation  as  an  orator 
extending  beyond  the  limits  of  the  state.  In  1845  he  was  a  delegate 
to  the  constitutional  convention,  and  afterward  attorney-general  and 
U.  S.  district  attorney.  He  died  in  New  Orleans,  Dec.  4,  1854. 

Gueydan,  an  incorporated  town  in  the  northwestern  part  of 
Vermilion  parish,  is  a  station  on  the  Southern  Pacific  R.  R..  about 
25  miles  west  of  Abbeville,  the  parish  seat.  It  is  located  in  the  great 
rice  district,  has  rice  mills,  a  bank,  a  money  order  postoffice,  express 
office,  telegraph  station  and  telephone  facilities,  and  a  population  of 
1081.  It  is  the  shipping  and  supply  point  for  all  the  western  and 
northwestern  part  of  the  parish. 

Guichard,  Magloire,  a  resident  of  New  Orleans  and  a  descendant 
of  an  old  French  family,  was  prominent  in  the  affaii-s  of  Louisiana 
about  the  time  the  province  was  purchased  by  the  United  States  and 
for  several  years  following.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the  first  constitu- 
tional convention  in  1811,  and  was  speaker  of  the  house  of  represen- 
tatives in  the  state  legislature  in  1814-15  when  the  doors  of  the  as- 
sembly halls  were  closed  by  order  of  Gen.  Jackson.  On  that  occasion 
Mr.  Guichard  met  Bernard  de  Marigny,  to  whom  he  said :  ' '  "We  are 
accused  of  treason,  for  the  doors  of  the  legislature  are  closed  by  order 


LOUISIANA  483 

of  Gen.  Jackson."  Marigny,  writing  about  the  event  afterward,  said: 
"Qu'il  fallait  avoir  le  diable  an  eoi-ps  pour  faire  de  Magloire  Guiehard 
un  conspirateur ? "  (Those  who  knew  this  good  and  respectable  Mag- 
loire  Guiehard,  a  man  already  aged,  will  they  not  say  it  was  madness 
to  make  of  him  a  conspirator?)  It  was  indeed  madness,  for  Mr. 
Guiehard  retained  the  respect  and  esteem  of  his  fellow-townsmen  as 
long  as  he  lived. 

Gulf  Biologic  Station. — The  following  account  of  this  institution 
is  abridged  from  the  last  biennial  report  of  the  state  superintendent 
of  public  education :  The  Gulf  Biologic  Station  was  created  by  act 
192  of  1898  of  the  general  assembly  of  the  state  of  Louisiana.  It  is 
designed  to  provide  opportunity  for  the  investigation  of  the  biologic 
problems  of  the  state,  and  to  offer  its  facilities  to  students  and  teach- 
ers of  the  biologic  sciences.  The  director  of  the  station  is  B.  H.  Guil- 
beau,  and  the  laboratory  is  located  at  the  mouth  of  Calcasieu  pass, 
near  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  Cameron  parish.  La.  The  U.  S.  jetties,  which 
extend  into  the  gulf  for  more  than  a  mile  and  a  half,  the  extensive 
marshes,  mud  flats,  sandy  beach,  wharfs,  the  open  gulf  and  the  river 
with  its  large  natural  oyster  reefs,  offer  excellent  opportunities  for  the 
study  of  life.  The  station  laboratory  is  large  enough  to  accommodate 
80  students  and  investigators  working  at  one  time.  It  is  well  equipped 
with  tables,  dark  room,  aquaria,  water  and  all  needful  apparatus.  The 
station  owns  a  large  schooner,  2  gasoline  launches  and  a  number  of 
row  boats,  and  possesses  the  necessary  seines,  trawles,  dredges  and 
nets  for  collecting.  Teachers  who  desire  to  provide  themselves  with 
specimens  of  marine  plants  and  animals  are  given  every  opportunity 
to  do  so.  The  laboratory  supplies  dissecting  materials,  glassware,  re- 
agents and  laboratory  outlines,  but  students  are  requested  to  pro- 
vide themselves  with  dissecting  instruments  and  a  hand  lens,  and  are 
required  to  furnish  their  own  text  books,  drawing  materials,  etc. 
The  station  owns  a  number  of  compound  microscopes,  and  the  state 
university  has  agreed  to  furnish  as  many  more  as  are  needed.  Here 
the  teacher  is  afforded  the  best  of  opportunities  to  become  familiar  at 
first  hand  with  the  plants  and  animals  of  the  seacoast.  Though  the 
courses  offered  only  extend  over  4  weeks,  a  good  deal  of  ground  is 
covered,  and  students  are  well  grounded  in  the  first  principles  of  the 
science  of  biology.  The  course  in  nature  study  enables  teachers  hav- 
ing that  work  in  the  public  schools  to  become  thoroughly  acquainted 
with  methods  and  to  acquire  new  facts.  Facilities  are  offered  to  those 
who  desire  to  carry  on  investigations  of  a  special  character  at  the  sta- 
tion during  the  summer.  Field  excursions  are  made  daily,  and  weekly 
trips  are  planned  to  points  of  interest  in  the  vicinity  of  the  pass.  Cal- 
casieu lake  and  the  Mermenton  river.  There  is  no  rail  connection  with 
Cameron,  where  the  station  is  located,  but  the  steamer  Rex,  which 
carries  the  U.  S.  mail  from  Lake  Charles  to  Cameron,  makes  the  trip 
to  Cameron  every  Monday,  Wednesday  and  Friday. 

Gurley,  a  village  in  the  western  part  of  East  Feliciana  parish,  is 
on  the  Yazoo  &  Mississippi  Valley  R.  R.,  about  8  miles  west  of  Clinton, 
the  parish  seat.  It  has  a  money  order  postofBce,  express  ofSce,  tele- 
graph station  and  telephone  facilities,  and  some  retail  trade. 


484  LOUISIANA 

Gurley,  Henry  H.,  lawj-er  and  jurist,  was  born  at  Lebanon.  Conn., 
in  1787.  He  pursued  classical  studies,  attended  Williaiustown  col- 
lege, studied  law  after  graduating,  was  admitted  to  the  bar.  and  be 
gan  to  practice  at  Baton  Rouge.  La.  He  became  U.  S.  district  judge 
for  Louisiana  and  was  elected  a  representative  from  the  state  to  the 
18th.  19th,  20th  and  21st  Congresses.  He  died  at  Baton  Rouge.  La., 
in  1832. 

Gypsvun. — Technically,  gypsum  is  regarded  as  a  mineral  deposit, 
in  some  places  constituting  rock  masses.  In  mineralogy  it  is  classified 
as  a  monoelinic  mineral,  ranging  from  transparent  to  opaque,  its 
colors  being  white,  gray,  flesh-colored,  yellow,  blue,  and  when  impure 
sometimes  reddish-brown  or  even  black.  When  ground  it  is  used  un- 
der the  name  of  land  plaster,  and  calcined  it  becomes  the  plaster-of- 
paris  of  commerce.  The  finer  kinds,  as  alabaster,  are  used  for  statuary 
and  ornamental  purposes.  In  Louisiana  it  is  found  in  immense  beds 
below  the  sulphur  deposits,  but  these  beds  have  never  been  worked, 
and  in  other  parts  of  the  state  gypsum  is  associated  with  limestone. 

H 

Haasville,  a  village  in  the  southwest  corner  of  Avoyelles  parish, 
is  a  station  on  the  Southern  Pacific  R.  R..  about  5  miles  southwest  of 
Chenej'ville.  It  has  a  money  order  postofiice,  express  ofiice  and  tele- 
graph station. 

Hachard,  Madeleine,  was  a  young  postulant  in  the  Ursuline  con- 
vent at  Rouen,  France,  when  the  proposal  came  in  1726  to  send  some 
of  the  nuns  to  Louisiana.  (See  Ursulines.)  She  obtained  the  consent 
of  her  parents  to  accompany  the  mission,  and  upon  arriving  at  Hen- 
nebon  her  novitiate  was  shortened  and  she  took  the  veil,  signing  her- 
self after  that  as  "Hachard  de  St.  Stanislaus."  Marie  Tranchepain 
de  St.  Augustin,  who  had  been  chosen  as  mother  superior  of  the 
Louisiana  mission,  selected  the  young  sister  as  her  secretary  and  the 
two  remained  fast  friends  until  the  death  of  the  mother  superior  in 
1733.  Sister  Hachard  has  been  described  as  a  "brilliant,  well  edu- 
cated woman,  whose  letters  to  her  father  were  wittj%  instructive  and 
charming. ' '  She  wrote  an  account  of  the  long  and  tedious  voyage,  in- 
cluding the  trip  up  the  river  in  a  pirogue  from  the  Balize  to  New 
Orleans  in  company  with  Mother  Tranchepain  and  four  others.  Sis- 
ter Hachard  returned  to  France  in  1762. 

Hackberry,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  northwestern  part  of  Cameron 
parish,  is  about  2  miles  west  of  Calcasieu  lake  and  12  miles  north  of 
Cameron,  the  parish  seat.  Sulphur  is  the  nearest  railroad  station. 
Population  of  100. 

Hackley,  a  village  in  the  northern  part  of  Washington  parish 
near  the  Mississippi  boundary,  is  a  station  on  the  Kentwood  &  Eastern 
R.  R.,  about  9  miles  northeast  of  Franklinton.  the  parish  seat.  It 
has  a  money  order  postofiBce,  and  is  located  in  the  great  truck  farm 
and  berry  district  that  supplies  the  northern  markets  with  early  vege- 
tables and  small  fruits.   Population  300. 


LOUISIANA  485 

Hadnot,  a  post-hamlet  in  tlie  southwestern  part  of  Grant  parish, 
is  about  3  miles  north  of  Meade,  the  nearest  railroad  station,  and  10 
miles  southeast  of  Colfax,  the  parish  seat. 

Hahn,  Michael,  who  was  elected  governor  of  Louisiana  under  the 
protection  of  the  Federal  army  in  1864,  was  born  in  Bavaria  on  Nov. 
24,  1830,  but  came  to  America  with  his  parents  while  still  in  his 
infancy.  For  a  time  the  family  lived  in  New  York  city,  but  later 
removed  to  New  Orleans,  where  Michael  received  his  education  in  the 
public  schools.  He  then  took  up  the  study  of  law,  and  in  1854  was 
graduated  in  the  law  department  of  the  University  of  Louisiana.  In 
1856  he  supported  Stephen  A.  Douglas  for  the  Democratic  nomina- 
tion for  the  presidency,  and  in  1860-61  was  a  member  of  the  com- 
mittee that  made  a  canvass  of  the  state  against  secession.  After  thij 
capture  of  New  Orleans  in  the  spring  of  1862  he  took  the  oath  of 
allegiance  to  the  United  States,  and  in  the  fall  of  that  year  was  elected 
to  Congress  from  the  2nd  district.  He  took  the  oath  of  office  as  a 
Congressman  on  Feb.  17,  1863,  but  as  the  term  for  which  he  was 
elected  expired  on  March  4,  he  served  but  a  few  days.  He  then  re- 
turned to  New  Orleans,  bought  the  paper  known  as  the  "True  Delta," 
in  which  he  advocated  the  emancipation  of  slaves  and  the  policies  of 
President  Lincoln.  On  Feb.  22,  1864,  he  was  elected  governor.  The 
following  winter  he  was  elected  to  the  U.  S.  senate  and  resigned  the 
governor's  office  on  March  4,  1865.  Shortly  after  Andrew  Johnson 
succeeded  to  the  presidency,  Mr.  Hahn  resigned  his  seat  in  the  senate 
because  he  was  at  variance  with  the  president's  views  on  the  question 
of  reconstruction.  About  this  time  the  University  of  Louisiana  hon- 
ored him  with  the  degree  of  LL.D.  In  1867  he  started  a  paper  called 
"The  Republican"  in  New  Orleans,  and  edited  it  for  about  four  years, 
when  he  retired  to  his  plantation  in  St.  Charles  parish,  where  he 
founded  the  village  of  Hahnville.  From  1872  to  1876  he  served  in  the 
Louisiana  legislature;  was  then  register  of  voters;  for  a  time  was 
superintendent  of  the  U.  S.  mint ;  then  judge  of  the  26th  district,  and 
in  1884  was  elected  to  Congress.  He  died  in  Washington,  D.  C, 
March  15,  1886. 

Hahn's  Administration. — Gov.  Hahn  was  inaugurated  on  March 
4,  1864,  with  imposing  ceremonies,  the  object  doubtless  being  to  im- 
press the  people  with  the  power  of  the  Federal  government,  whose 
armed  forces  were  to  support  the  new  administration.  Soon  after  his 
induction  into  office,  Gov.  Hahn  received  from  President  Lincoln  the 
following  letter :  ' '  Until  further  orders,  you  are  hereby  invested  with 
the  powers  exercised  hitherto  by  the  military  governor  of  Louisiana." 
On  the  11th  Gen.  Banks,  with  the  concurrence  of  the  governor,  issued 
his  General  Order  No.  35,  calling  an  election  on  the  28th  for  delegates 
to  a  convention  to  revise  the  state  constitution  and  setting  forth  the 
following  qualifications  for  votei-s:  "Every  free  white  man,  21  years 
of  age,  who  has  been  a  resident  of  the  state  12  months,  and  6  months 
in  the  parish  in  which  he  offers  to  vote,  who  is  a  citizen  of  the  United 
States,  and  who  stall  have  taken  the  oath  prescribed  by  the  president 
in  his  proclamation  of  the  8th  December,  1863,  shall  have  the  right 
to  vote  in  the  election  of  delegates. ' ' 


486  LOUISIANA 

The  election  was  largely  in  the  nature  of  a  farce,  and  no  return 
of  the  votes  was  published.  A  committee  of  the  lower  house  of  Con- 
gr€;ss  afterward  reported:  "From  all  that  is  known  of  the  balloting 
it  appears  that  the  parish  of  Ascension,  within  the  Federal  lines,  and 
neighboring  to  New  Orleans,  and  which  in  1860  had  a  white  popula- 
tion of  3.940,  elected  her  delegates  by  61  votes;  that  Plaquemines, 
with  a  white  population  in  1860  of  2,529,  east  246 ;  and  in  the  parish  of 
Madison,  Montague  was  elected  by  a  vote  of  28.  Elections  were  held 
only  in  the  parishes  included  witliin  the  Federal  lines,  and  these 
lines  were  the  Teche  on  the  one  side  and  the  Amite  on  the  other,  com- 
prehending the  parish  or  city  of  Orleans,  and  the  neighboring  parishes 
on  the  Mississippi.  To  a  question  propounded  to  Gen.  Banks  as  to 
what  portion  of  the  state  voted,  his  reply  was :  'All  as  far  up  as  Pointe 
Coupee,  and  there  were  some  men  from  the  Red  river  who  voted  at 
Vidalia.'  and  in  his  statement  he  announces  that:  'The  city  of  New 
Orleans  is  really  the  State  of  Louisiana. '  ' ' 

The  constitution  was  ratified  by  the  people  on  Sept.  5,  by  a  vote  of 
6,836  to  1,566  (See  Constitutions),  and  at  the  same  time  membei's  of 
Congress  and  the  state  legislature  were  elected.  This  legislature  met 
in  New  Orleans  on  Oct.  3,  with  Lieut. -Gov.  Wells  presiding  over  the 
senate  and  Simeon  Belden  as  speaker  of  the  house.  In  his  message  Gov. 
Hahn  announced  the  occasion  as  "deeply  heart-cheering,"  and  wel- 
comed ' '  the  representatives  of  the  popular  will. ' '  After  referring  to  a 
condition  of  "rebellion,  bloodshed  and  anarchj-.  where  all  should  have 
been  loyalty,  peace  and  contentment,"  he  declared  that  "while  this 
state  was  thus  momentarily  placed  by  the  bad  men  who  had  conspired 
against  the  national  authority,  in  armed  hostility  to  the  Union,  no 
patriot  ever  conceded,  or  could  with  ti'uth  and  propriety  admit,  that 
its  people  had  ever  sanctioned  the  atrocious  doctrine  of  secession ;  and 
although  for  a  time,  under  the  rebel  control,  as  under  Federal  military 
occupation,  the  inalienable  rights  of  the  state  were  in  abe.yance,  they 
were  neither  lost  nor  surrendered."  The  banks  of  the  state  were  in  a 
condition  of  hopeless  insolvency,  and  the  governor  insisted  that,  as  they 
had  arrayed  themselves  as  enemies  to  the  national  government,  they 
were  entitled  to  neither  sympathy  nor  protection.  He  recommended 
that  assistance  be  given  to  the  families  of  those  who  were  serving  in 
the  Federal  army,  and  that  some  means  be  provided  for  the  educa- 
tion of  colored  children.  Fortier  says  that  Gov.  Hahn  "lived  long 
enough  to  respect  the  former  Confederates  whom  he  called  'bad  men,' 
and  to  win,  in  his  tiu-n,  their  respect  at  the  end  of  his  career." 

The  legislature  was  as  implacable  as  the  governor  with  regard  to  the 
Confederates.  On  Oct.  12  a  resolution  was  introduced  in  the  state 
senate  instructing  the  attorney-general  and  the  several  district  attor- 
neys to  begin  criminal  proceedings  against  certain  persons  for  perjury 
and  treason,  or  either.  The  persons  named  in  this  order  were  Thomas 
0.  Moore,  Henry  M.  Hyams,  T.  J.  Semmes,  E.  W.  Moise.  John  Sli- 
dell,  Judah  P.  Benjamin:  all  members  of  the  legislature  that  voted 
in  Dec,  1860,  for  the  act  calling  the  convention  to  pass  the  secession 
ordinance;  and  all  members  of  the  convention  "who  voted  for  or 
signed  the  said  act  of  secession,  by  which  the  state  has  been  pros- 


LOUISIANA  487 

trated  and  ruined ;  also  all  judges  of  the  supreme  and  inferior  coiirts, 
the  public  officers  of  the  state,  cities,  corporations  and  parishes,  who 
have  not  now  renounced  their  treasonable  acts  and  returned  to  their 
loyalty."  All  the  persons  included  in  this  order  were  barred  from 
receiving  any  benefit  from  the  general  amnesty,  and  the  attorney- 
general  and  district  attorneys,  in  ease  of  failure  to  institute  pro- 
ceedings as  directed,  were  to  forfeit  their  offices. 

Although  the  civil  government  of  the  state  had  been  reorganized  and 
a  new  constitution  put  into  effect,  military  rule  still  prevailed  to  a 
large  extent  and  the  powers  of  the  civil  authorities  were  quite  lim- 
ited. The  provisional  court  established  by  president  Lincoln's  order  of 
Oct.  20,  1862,  and  which  began  operations  during  Shepley's  ad- 
ministration, was  still  in  existence.  The  validity  of  the  proceedings  of 
this  tribunal  was  questioned  both  before  and  after  the  state  govern- 
ment was  reorganized,  but  it  continued  to  be  the  court  of  last  resort.  In 
May.  1864,  Gen.  S.  A.  Hurlbut  succeeded  Gen.  Banks  in  command  of 
the  Department  of  the  Gulf,  and  on  Dec.  27.  "upon  the  official  report 
of  the  attorney-general  of  the  State  of  Louisiana,  that  the  ordinary 
courts  of  justice  are  insufficient  to  punish  the  offenders  named  by  him, 
and  in  consideration  that  the  state  government  and  courts  of  Louisi- 
ana owe  their  present  existence  to  military  authority,"  he  ordered 
certain  persons  to  be  brought  for  trial  before  the  military  commission 
then  in  session  in  New  Orleans.  The  legislature  above  referred  to 
was  sustained  by  bayonets,  and  not  having  any  opposition  it  pro- 
ceeded to  enact  laws  that  in  time  of  peace  would  have  condemned  the 
members  to  political  oblivion.  They  repealed  all  the  state  laws  relat- 
ing to  the  manner  of  choosing  presidential  electors  and  by  joint  ballot 
of  the  two  houses  selected  7  electors  to  represent  the  state  in  the 
electoral  college.  Charles  Smith  and  R.  King  Cutler  were  elected  U. 
S.  senators  in  the  places  of  Judah  P.  Benjamin  and  John  Slidell,  who 
had  resigned  their  seats  in  that  body  when  Louisiana  seceded.  Smith 
took  the  place  of  Benjamin,  whose  term  expired  on  March  4,  1865,  and 
the  legislature  elected  Gov.  Hahn  for  the  full  term  to  succeed  Smith. 
To  accept  the  seat  in  the  U.  S.  senate,  the  governor  resigned  on  March 
4, 1865,  and  Lieut.-Gov.  J.  Madison  Wells  succeeded  to  the  office.  This 
brought  the  administration  of  Gov.  Hahn  to  an  end.  During  the 
year  that  he  had  held  the  office  he  had  really  been  governor  over  a 
small  portion  of  the  .state  only.  Gov.  Allen  at  Shreveport  administer- 
ing the  affairs  of  the  state  outside  the  Federal  lines.  (See  Allen, 
Henry  W.) 

Hahnville,  the  parish  seat  of  St.  Charles  parish,  was  founded  in 
1872  by  ex-Gov.  Michael  Hahn,  who  laid  out  the  town  on  his  sugar 
plantation  and  on  Feb.  15,  1873,  he  issued  the  first  number  of  the  St. 
Charles  Herald,  which  paper  he  continued  to  publish  until  his  death 
in  1886.  The  town  is  located  in  the  northern  part  of  the  parish  on 
the  line  of  the  Texas  &  Pacific  R.  R.,  and  has  a  population  of  300. 
According  to  Young's  Directory  for  1909  Hahnville  has  8  general 
stores,  a  large  sugar  mill,  and  some  minor  industries.  Being  located  in 
a  rich  agi'icultural  district  it  is  the  principal  trading  point  for  a  con- 
siderable population,  but  as  it  is  only  about  25  miles  from  New  Or- 


488  LOUISIANA 

leans  it  is  not  probable  that  Hahnville  will  ever  become  an  important 
commercial  center. 

Halle,  a  post-village  in  the  eastern  part  of  Union  parish,  is  about 
4  miles  west  of  the  Ouachita  river  on  the  Little  Book  &  Monroe  R.  R., 
and  15  miles  east  of  Famerville,  the  parish  seat. 

Hall  is  a  post-hamlet  of  Livingston  parish. 

Hall,  Dominick  Augustine,  jurist,  was  a  native  of  South  Caro- 
lina, where  he  was  born  in  1765.  He  began  the  practice  of  law  in 
that  state  in  1786.  but  subsequently  removed  to  the  Territory  of  Or- 
leans, where  he  followed  his  profession  imtil  1809,  when  he  was  ap- 
pointed territorial  district  judge.  When  Louisiana  was  admitted  into 
the  Union  in  1812  he  was  chosen  one  of  the  supreme  judges  of  the  new 
state,  but  soon  resigned  this  office  to  become  U.  S.  district  judge,  which 
position  he  held  until  his  death.  While  the  city  of  New  Orleans  was 
under  martial  law  in  Jan.,  1815,  he  granted  a  writ  of  habeas  corpus 
for  the  release  of  Louis  Louallier,  and  for  this  he  was  arrested  by 
order  of  Gen.  Jackson.  After  the  order  proclaiming  martial  law  was 
revoked  Judge  Hall  fined  Jackson  $1,000  for  contempt  of  court.  (See 
Jackson.  Andrew.)  Judge  Hall  died  in  New  Orleans  on  Dec.  12, 
1820. 

Hall,  Luther  Egbert,  who  became  governor  of  Louisiana  in  1912,  is 
a  graduate  of  the  Law  School  of  Tulane  University,  and  had,  step  by 
step,  attained  the  goal  of  his  expressed  ambition — that  of  a  seat  upon 
the  Supreme  bench  of  the  State — when  he  answered  the  call  of  the  pro- 
gressive and  reform  element  of  the  Democratic  party  in  Louisiana,  as 
voiced  through  the  Good  Government  League  of  the  State,  and  became 
a  candidate  for  Gubernatorial  honors.  He  was  opposed  by  John  T. 
Michell  and  Dr.  James  B.  Aswell,  both  of  whom  withdrew  from  the 
race  after  the  first  primary  election,  leaving  Judge  Hall  unopposed  in 
the  general  election  of  April  16,  1912,  at  which  time  he  received  a 
much  larger  vote  than  did  any  other  candidate  for  state  office.  The 
platform  of  the  Good  Government  League,  upon  which  Judge  Hall 
was  elected  Governor,  resulted  from  a  popular  demand  throughout 
the  State  for  a  reversal  of  the  legislative  aud  administrative  policies 
of  the  Louisiana  government,  and  was  pronouncedly  for  a  "restora- 
tion of  true  democracy,  government  by  the  people,  economy,  lower 
taxation,  and  equal  rights  to  all,"  Two  specific  pledges  of  this  plat- 
form to  which  especial  importance  attached  were  non-interference 
with  the  Legislature,  to  the  end,  as  the  Governor  expressed  it,  "that  the 
General  Assembly  might  return  to  its  original  dignity  as  the  law-mak- 
ing body  of  the  State,"  and  improvement  in  the  fi.scal  sj'stem  of  the 
State.  In  his  inaugural  address  at  Baton  Rouge  he  recounted  the 
various  pledges  of  the  platform  upon  which  he  and  an  unusually  large 
number  of  new  members  of  the  Legislature  had  been  elected,  and 
called  for  their  fulfillment,  but  assured  the  members  of  the  General  As- 
sembly that  they  would  be  entirely  free  from  any  undiie  interference 
with  their  deliberations  on  his  part.  He  adhered  strictly  to  this 
policy,  going  no  further  in  attempting  to  influence  legislation 
than  to  send  special  messages  and  make  recommendations.  The 
regular  session   of   1912   approved   the   income   tax   amendment   to 


LOUISIANA  489 

the  Federal  Constitution,  and  passed  some  twenty-odd  measures 
that  were  good  and  constructive,  tending  to  check  extravagance, 
to  assure  honest  elections,  good  government,  and  greater  progress  and 
prosperity  to  the  State.  Much  time  was  given  to  amending  and  repeal- 
ing laws  passed  by  previous  sessions.  An  anti-lobby  law  was  enacted, 
and  a  measure  providing  for  commission  government  for  New  Orleans. 
A  few  salary-raising  acts  were  passed,  but  these  were  vetoed  by 
the  Governor.  The  compulsory  education  statute,  as  applied  to  New 
Orleans,  was  amended  and  strengthened  to  satisfy  teachers  and 
educational  associations.  The  most  important  work  of  the  session, 
however,  was  provision  for  a  Tax  Commission  of  thirty  members, 
to  amplify  the  work  of  the  Commission  appointed  by  Governor  Blaneh- 
ard  six  years  previously  and  whose  report  the  Legislature  of  1910 
declined  to  hear.  This  new  Commission  was  composed  of  sixteen 
members  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  eight  members  of  the 
Senate,  and  six  citizens  appointed  by  the  Governor.  It  was  the 
intention  that  Commission  should  devise  a  plan  by  which  city, 
parish,  and  State  taxes  could  be  levied  separately,  and  a  system  of 
assessment  devised  that  would  do  away  with  the  Board  of  Equalization 
and  the  Board  of  Appraisers,  substituting  therefor  a  permanent  Tax 
Commission,  made  up  of  one  member  from  each  railroad  commission 
district,  such  commission  to  have  control  of  all  matters  relating  to 
assessment  and  tax  gathering.  Immediately  following  the  adjourn- 
ment of  the  regular  session  of  the  Legislature,  the  Tax  Commission 
met  at  Baton  Rouge  and  proceeded  with  its  labors.  When  it  had  made 
sufficient  progress  to  warrant  such  action.  Governor  Hall  called  an 
extra  session  of  the  Legislature  to  convene  August  12,  1912.  for  the 
purpose  of  hearing  the  report  of  the  Tax  Commission,  formulating  an 
amendment  to  the  Constitution  remodeling  the  system  of  taxation,  to 
provide  for  the  continuance  of  the  Tax  Commission,  and  to  provide  for 
the  expense  of  the  session.  The  Commission  had  only  been  in  session 
three  weeks,  but  had  completely  revised  the  fiscal  system  of  the  State 
and  was  ready  to  make  recommendations.  The  special  session  of  the 
Legislature  convened  on  the  12th  and  received  the  report  of  the  Tax 
Commission  in  a  special  message  from  the  Governor.  The  House  of 
Representatives  passed  a  Constitutional  amendment  designed  to  carry 
out  the  recommendations  of  the  Commission  by  a  vote  of  ninety  to 
fourteen.  The  same  legislation  passed  the  Senate  by  a  vote  of  thirty- 
six  to  three,  and  the  Legislature  adjourned  August  24.  Governor 
Hall  said  of  the  work  of  the  special  session :  "I  regard  the  tax  plan 
adopted  as  the  greatest  progressive  step  ever  taken  in  Louisiana  in 
this  direction,  and  am  confident  that  it  will  meet  with  the  favor  of 
the  people,  and  that  in  time  Louisiana  will  be  looked  upon  as  having 
the  best  system  of  taxation  and  assessment  enjoyed  by  any  state  in 
the  Union. ' '  Eleven  Constitutional  amendments  had  been  provided  by 
the  regular  session,  and  to  these  eight  were  added  by  the  special  ses- 
sion, to  be  voted  upon  by  the  people  at  the  November  election.  In  the 
election,  however,  the  most  important  of  these  amendments,  affecting 
taxation,  met  with  determined  opposition  at  New  Orleans,  by  the 
forces  that  had  opposed  Governor  Hall's  election,  and  were  defeated. 


490  LOUISIANA 

Of  the  nineteen  constitutional  amendments  voted  upon  in  November, 
nine  were  lost  as  follows :  Providing  for  the  segregation  of  taxes,  tax 
exemption  of  industrial  enterprises,  exemption  of  money  on  deposit, 
exemption  of  homes,  tax  home-rule  for  cities.  State  debt  refiinding, 
allowing  women  to  serve  on  school  and  charity-  boards,  tax  exemption 
of  new  railroads,  and  the  recall.  At  the  regular  session  of  the  Leg- 
islature in  1914  efforts  were  made  to  resubmit  the  important  features 
of  tax  reform  to  a  vote  of  the  people,  but  many  changes  had  taken 
place  among  the  members  and  these  measures  were  defeated  in  the 
General  Assembly,  though  they  were  insistently  urged  by  the  Gov- 
ernor. This  session  also  made  appropriations  so  far  in  excess  of  an- 
ticipated revenues  that  the  Governor  was  obliged  to  veto  parts  of  the 
general  appropriation  biU  embodying  expenditures  amounting  to  a 
million  and  a  half  dollars,  and  to  thus  render  an  extra  session  inevat- 
able.  This  session  passed  legislation  embodying  the  following  Consti- 
tutional amendments  to  be  voted  upon  by  the  people  in  November, 
1914:  Relative  to  foreign  banking  concerns  doing  exclusively  a  busi- 
ness of  lending  money  or  dealing  in  bills  of  exchange,  exempting  from 
taxation  money  in  hand  or  on  deposit,  to  exempt  the  city  of  Monroe — 
because  it  maintains  its  separate  school  system — from  three  mills  par- 
ish school  tax.  increasing  the  Governor's  salary  from  $5,000  to  $7,500 
on  and  after  the  third  Monday  in  May.  1916 ;  exempting  from  tax  for 
a  period  of  ten  years  the  capital  stock  and  property  of  irrigation  com- 
panies: permitting  women  to  ser^-e  on  boards  of  charity,  correction 
and  education ;  authorizing  the  Board  of  Commissiouei"s  of  Audubon 
Park  to  issue  bonds  for  public  improvements:  allo^ving  widows  and 
veterans  who  man-ied  prior  to  1890  to  participate  in  the  pension  fund ; 
providing  for  the  appointment  of  an  assistant  district  attorney  in  Cal- 
casieu and  Caddo  disti-icts;  providing  for  the  retirement  of  levee 
bonds:  authorizing  parishes  to  issue  bonds  for  road  improvements; 
giving  the  Port  Commission  authority  to  dig  a  canal  uniting  Lake 
Pontchartrain  and  the  Mississippi  River :  to  give  an  additional  .iudge 
to  the  13th.  25th.  and  28th  judicial  di.stricts:  providing  for  a  license 
tax  on  motor  vehicles,  the  proceeds  to  be  used  for  road  improvement ; 
proA-iding  for  the  control  of  Lakeshore  Park,  on  Lake  Pontchartrain, 
and  authorizing  a  bond  issue:  providing  for  the  recall  of  officials. 
While  the  special  session  of  the  Legislature  of  1912  was  in  session, 
Governor  Hall  was  invited  to  become  a  member  and  chairman  for 
Louisiana  of  the  Finance  Committee  of  the  Democratic  National  Com- 
mittee, and  to  attend  the  notification  ceremonies  incident  to  the  nom- 
ination of  Woodrow  "Wilson  for  President  of  the  United  States.  The 
Governor  accepted  the  chairmanship,  hut  could  not  participate  in  the 
notification  ceremonies  because,  as  he  said,  the  legislature  was  in  ses- 
sion considering  the  "most  important  measures  that  have  come  be- 
fore it  in  a  generation. ' ' 

Hamburg,  a  post  and  money  order  hamlet,  located  near  the  cen- 
ter of  Avoyelles  parish.  It  is  an  express  and  telegraph  station  on 
the  Texas  &  Pacific  R.  R. 

Hamlin,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  northwestern  part  of  Sabine  parish,  is 


LOUISIANA  491 

situated  near  the  Bayou  St.  Michael,  5  miles  northeast  of  Noble,  the 
nearest  railroad  station,  14  miles  northwest  of  Many,  the  parish  seat. 

Hammond,  an  incorporated  town  in  the  southern  part  of  Tangi- 
pahoa parish,  is  situated  at  the  junction  of  the  Illinois  Central  and 
the  Yazoo  &  Mississippi  Valley  railroads,  about  15  miles  south  of 
Amite,  the  parish  seat,  in  the  great  long  leaf  yellow  pine  district, 
east  of  the  Mississippi  river,  a  large  part  of  which  is  still  virgin  forest. 
The  surrounding  country,  of  which  Hammond  is  the  shipping  and 
supply  point,  is  developing  into  a  fine  stock  and  dairy  district  as  the 
timber  is  cut.  Excellent  train  service  is  afforded  by  the  Illinois  Cen- 
tral road  and  the  shipping  facilities  are  equally  good  to  the  great 
markets  of  the  north  and  to  New  Orleans.  The  town  is  in  the  famous 
"Ozone  Belt,"  of  the  South,  and  is  developing  into  one  of  the  best 
known  of  the  southern  winter  resorts.  It  has  three  hotels,  fine  schools, 
beautiful  churches,  electric  lights  and  is  installing  one  of  the  best 
waterworks  and  sewerage  systems  in  the  South.  There  are  fine  ar- 
tesian wells  that  supply  the  town  with  pure  water,  and  the  mineral 
water  is  bottled  and  exported  for  medicinal  purposes.  The  principal 
industries  are  sawmills,  planing  mills,  brickyards  and  wood-working 
factories.  It  has  an  international  money  order  postoffice,  express  of- 
fices, telegraph  and  telephone  facilities,  two  banks  and  numerous 
mercantile  establishments.  Its  population  in  1910 -was  2942. 

Hanna,  a  post-village  in  the  southwestern  part  of  Red  river 
parish  is  situated  on  the  Red  river,  and  is  a  station  on  the  Texas  & 
Pacific  R.  R.,  about  5  miles  south  of  Coushatta,  the  parish  seat. 
Population  100. 

Happy  Jack,  a  post  village  in  the  central  part  of  Plaquemines 
parish,  is  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Mississippi  river,  and  the  New  Or- 
leans, Fort  Jackson  &  Grand  Isle  R.  R.,  about  6  miles  below  Pointe 
a  la  Hache,  the  parish  seat.  It  is  in  a  district  of  orange  groves  and 
does  considerable  business. 

Hardie,  a  post-village  in  the  northern  part  of  Caldwell  parish,  is 
about  5  miles  northwest  of  Corey,  the  nearest  railroad  station,  and 
12  miles  northwest  of  Columbia,  the  parish  seat. 

Hardshell,  a  post-village  in  the  northern  part  of  Vernon  parish, 
is  about  9  miles  northeast  of  Orangeville,  the  nearest  railroad  station, 
and  10  miles  northeast  of  Leesville,  the  parish  seat. 

Hard  Times  Landing,  a  small  settlement  in  the  eastern  part  of 
Tensas  parish,  is  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Mississippi  river,  almost 
opposite  and  about  6  miles  distant  from  Grand  Gulf,  Miss.,  and  about 
15  miles  above  St.  Joseph,  the  parish  seat.  In  the  spring  of  1863  this 
landing  came  into  considerable  prominence  as  being  the  place  where 
Gen.  Grant  massed  his  forces  for  the  beginning  of  the  Vicksburg 
campaign.  'Population  135. 

Hargis,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  northwestern  part  of  Grant  parish, 
is  about  3  miles  southeast  of  Verda,  the  nearest  railroad  station,  and 
15  miles  northwest  of  Colfax,  the  parish  seat. 

Harmanson,  John  H.,  lawyer  and  planter,  was  born  at  Norfolk, 
Va.,  in  Jan.,  1803.  After  pursuing  classical  studies  he  graduated  at 
Jefferson  college  in  Mississippi,  studied  law  and  practiced  in  Louisi- 


492  LOUISIANA 

ana.  where  he  became  interested  in  planting.  In  1844  he  was  a  state 
senator,  and  was  elected  a  representative  from  Louisiana  to  the  31st 
Congress  as  a  Democrat,  sersang  until  his  death,  which  oecurrred  at 
New  Orleans  on  Oct.  25,  ISoO. 

Haxpe,  Benard  De  La,  a  French  officer  of  distinction,  arrived  in 
the  Bay  of  Jlobile  in  Aug..  1718.  to  settle  a  colony  on  the  Red  river, 
bringing  with  him  60  people  for  his  concession.  Though  he  spent 
only  a  few  years  in  the  young  colony  of  Louisiana,  returning  to 
Prance  in  1723.  he  has  contributed  largely  to  the  general  knowledge 
of  this  early  period  through  his  manuscript  journal  of  the  first  estab- 
lishment of  the  French  in  Louisiana,  down  to  1722.  (A  translation  of 
this  valuable  manuscript  is  found  in  Vol.  III.  Historical  Collections 
of  Louisiana.  1851).  He  arrived  at  Natchitoches  before  the  close  of 
the  year  1718.  and  built  a  fort  there.  He  also  explored  at  this  time 
large  portions  of  Texas,  and  extended  his  discoveries  to  the  Arkansas, 
where  he  visited  an  Indian  village  "of  3  miles  in  extent,  containing 
upwards  of  4.000  persons."  He  likewise  constructed  Fort  St.  Louis 
de  Carlorette  (q.  v.)  on  north  latitude  33  deg.  55  min.,  as  a  sign  of 
the  jurisdiction  of  France,  and  concluded  various  alliances  with  the 
Indian  tribes.  He  was  later  commissioned  by  the  "Western  Company, 
Aug.  10.  1721,  to  make  another  attempt  to  establish  a  permanent 
settlement  on  Bay  St.  Bernard,  and  sailed  thither  with  a  well  equipped 
expedition,  which  took  formal  possession  of  the  region  in  the  name  of 
France.  The  Indians  again  proved  hostile,  however,  and  La  Harpe 
did  not  deem  it  prudent  to  attempt  an  establishment.  Later  in  the 
year  Bienville  appointed  him  to  the  couimand  of  an  expedition  to  the 
Arkansas  river  to  tind  out  whether  it  was  navigable  as  far  as  the 
Indian  nations  he  had  discovered  in  1719.  He  set  out  in  December 
with  a  detachment  of  18  soldiers  and  provisions  for  45  days,  and 
ascended  the  Arkansas  for  a  distance  of  350  miles,  but  on  account  of 
sickness  among  his  men,  the  hostility  of  the  Indians,  and  his  feeble 
force,  he  was  \inable  to  make  a  settlement.  He  returned  to  Biloxi  on 
May  25, 1722.  ha^nng  narrowly  escaped  a  surprise  by  a  Chickasaw  war 
party.  The  services  of  La  Harpe  established  the  claim  of  France  to 
the  extensive  region  drained  by  the  Upper  Red  river  and  the  Arkansas, 
and  largely  tended  to  balk  the  Spanish  in  their  efforts  to  form  settle- 
ments within  that  country.  That  his  efforts  were  appreciated  by  Gov. 
Bienville  is  evidenced  by  a  certificate  issued  by  the  latter,  dated  Biloxi, 
July  1.  1720.  and  couched  in  the  most  complimentary  language. 

Harris  is  a  post-hamlet  of  Natchitoches  parish. 

Harris^  John  S.,  U.  S.  senator  from  Loiiisiana,  was  born  in  Trux- 
ton,  N.  Y.,  Dee.  18,  1825.  He  received  a  good  education ;  moved  with 
family  to  Milwaukee,  Wis.,  in  1846.  and  then  to  Concordia  parish, 
La.  In  1863  he  became  a  planter,  was  elected  to  the  Louisiana  con- 
stitutional convention  in  1867,  to  the  state  senate  in  1868,  and  to  the 
U.  S.  senate  from  Louisiana  as  a  Republican.  He  served  in  the  U. 
S.  senate  from  July  17,  1868,  to  March  3.  1871. 

Harrisonburg:,  the  parish  seat  of  Catahoula  parish,  is  located  in 
the  eastern  part  of  the  parish  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Ouachita  river, 
which  is  the  only  channel  of  transportation,  as  the  town  is  without  a 


LOUISIANA  493 

railroad,  Florence,  about  10  miles  east  on  the  New  Orleans  &  North- 
western, being  the  nearest  railway  station.  The  first  white  man  to 
settle  on  the  present  site  of  Harrisonburg  was  Jacob  Simmons.  The 
place  was  designated  as  the  parish  seat  when  the  parish  was  organized 
and  the  firet  courthouse  was  erected  in  1808.  Three  years  later  the 
land  was  acquired  by  preemption  by  John  Hamberlin,  who  subse- 
quently sold  it  to  John  Harrison,  and  in  1818  the  latter  employed 
Edward  Dorsey  to  survey  and  make  a  plat  of  the  town  site,  and  it  was 
from  Mr.  Harrison  that  the  town  derived  its  name.  Prior  to  the  Civil 
war  Harrisonburg  was  a  busy  little  town.  During  hostilities  the  Con- 
federates built  Fort  Beauregard  on  the  hill  overlooking  the  town,  and 
this  place  was  several  times  attacked  by  the  Federals,  with  the  result 
that  during  the  bombardments  the  town  was  set  on  fire  and  a  large 
portion  of  it  destroyed.  The  Harrisonburg  of  the  present  day  has 
recovered  some  of  this  old  ante-bellum  prestige.  It  has  a  money  order 
postoffice,  several  general  stores,  a  newspaper,  and  is  an  important 
shipping  point  and  trading  center  for  a  large  section  of  the  parish. 
Population  361. 

Hart,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  northwestern  part  of  Vernon  parish, 
is  about  3  miles  south  of  Orangeville,  the  nearest  railroad  station, 
and  6  miles  northwest  of  Leesville,  the  parish  seat. 

Harvells  Mills,  a  postoffice  in  the  western  part  of  St.  Helena 
parish,  is  about  6  miles  southwest  of  Greensburg,  the  parish  seat,  and 
most  convenient  railroad  station. 

Harvey,  a  village  in  the  northern  part  of  Jefferson  parish,  is  on 
the  west  bank  of  the  Mississippi  river,  about  6  miles  above  New  Or- 
leans, and  is  a  station  on  the  Southern  Pacific  R.  R.  It  has  a  money 
order  postoffice,  erpress  office,  telegraph  station  and  telephone  facil- 
ities, several  mercantile  establishments,  and  a  population  of  175. 

Hatcher,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  northwest  corner  of  Sabine  parish, 
is  situated  on  a  branch  of  Bear  creek,  about  5  miles  southwest  of  Ben- 
son, the  nearest  railroad  station.  It  is  located  in  the  western  long 
leaf  yellow  pine  district  and  has  important  lumber  interests. 

Haughton,  an  incorporated  town  of  Bossier  parish,  about  14  miles 
east  of  Shreveport,  is  on  the  Vicksburg,  Shreveport  &  Pacific  R.  R. 
It  is  the  shipping  and  supply  town  of  the  eastern  part  of  the  parish, 
has  a  money  order  po.stolfice,  telegraph  station,  express  office,  tele- 
phone facilities,  several  business  houses,  two  saw  mills,  one  of  which 
has  a  planing  mill  in  connection,  a  grist  mill,  cotton-gin,  chair  fac- 
toi-y  and  a  hotel.   Population  249. 

Hawthorn,  a  post-village  in  the  central  part  of  Vernon  parish,  is 
on  the  Kansas  City  Southern  R.  R.,  about  4  miles  northwest  of  Lees- 
ville, the  parish  seat.  It  has  lumber  industries  and  a  population  of 
175. 

Hayes,  a  village  in  the  southeastern  part  of  Calcasieu  parish,  is 
on  the  Southern  Pacific  R.  R.,  about  20  miles  southeast  of  Lake 
Charles,  the  parish  seat.  It  has  a  money  order  postoffice,  express 
office,  telegraph  station  and  telephone  facilities,  and  is  a  trading  and 
shipping  point  for  the  neighborhood. 


494  LOUISIANA 

Hayes,  Rutherford  Birchard,  19th  president  of  the  United  States, 
•was  born  at  Dehuvare.  Ohio.  Oct  4.  1822.  a  son  of  Rutherford  and 
Sophia  (Birchard)  Hayes,  the  former  of  Scotch  and  the  latter  of 
English  ancestry.  In  1842  he  graduated  at  Kenyon  college.  Gambler, 
Ohio,  entered  the  Harvard  law  school  the  following  year,  and  gradu- 
ated there  in  1845.  He  began  practice  at  Lower  Sandiisky,  Ohio,  but 
in  1849  removed  to  Cincinnati.  Prior  to  the  formation  of  the  Repub- 
lican party  he  was  a  Whig,  but  when  the  new  party  was  organized  he 
became  one  of  its  stanchest  supporters.  In  1858  he  was  elected  city 
solicitor  of  Cincinnati,  but  was  defeated  for  reelection  in  April.  1861. 
On  May  23,  of  that  year,  he  accepted  a  commission  as  major  of  the 
23d  Ohio  infantry,  and  by  successive  promotions  attained  the  rank 
of  brigadier-general.  At  the  election  of  1864  he  was  chosen  to  rep- 
resent his  district  in  the  lower  house  of  Congress,  and  in  June.  1865, 
resigned  his  commission  in  the  army.  As  a  member  of  the  house  he 
voted  with  his  party  on  all  matters  touching  the  reconstruction  of  the 
Southern  .states:  favored  negro  suffrage,  and  gave  a  hearty  support  to 
the  movement  for  the  impeachment  of  President  Andrew  Johnson. 
In  1867  he  was  elected  governor  of  Ohio,  defeating  Allen  6.  Thur- 
man :  was  reelected  in  1869  over  George  H.  Pendleton ;  was  defeated 
by  "William  Allen  for  Congress  in  1872 ;  and  on  the  7th  ballot  in  the 
Republican  national  convention  of  1876  was  nominated  for  the  presi- 
dency. The  resnlt  of  the  election  was  not  decided  until  Blarch  2, 
1877,  when  he  was  declared  to  be  the  successful  candidate.  (See 
Electoral  Commission.)  On  Nov.  17.  1876.  he  wrote  a  letter  to  John 
Sherman,  then  in  New  Oi-leans.  in  which  he  said:  "Tou  feel.  I  am 
sure,  as  I  do.  about  this  whole  business.  A  fair  election  would  have 
given  us  about  40  electoral  votes  at  the  South,  at  least  that  many. 
But  we  are  not  to  allow  our  friends  to  defeat  one  outrage  by  another. 
There  must  be  nothing  curved  on  our  part.  Let  Mr.  Tilden  have  the 
place  by  violence,  intimidation  and  fraud,  rather  than  undertake  to 
prevent  it  by  means  that  Avill  not  bear  the  severest  scrutiny."  Not- 
withstanding this  expression  of  high  moral  sentiment,  Mr.  Hayes  ac- 
cepted the  presidency  at  the  hands  of  a  commission,  which,  "by 
means  that  will  not  bear  the  severest  scrutiny"  declared  he  had  a 
majority  of  one  vote  in  the  electoral  college,  and  on  March  o.  the  4th 
being  on  Sunday,  he  was  inaugurated.  In  his  inaugural  address  he 
announced  it  as  his  intention  to  put  forth  his  "best  efforts  in  behalf 
of  a  civil  policy  which  will  forever  wipe  out  in  any  political  affairs 
the  color  line  and  the  distinction  between  the  North  and  the  South, 
to  the  end  that  we  may  have  not  merely  a  united  North  or  South, 
but  a  imited  country."  One  of  his  first  official  acts  was  to  withdraw 
the  Federal  troops  from  South  Carolina  and  Louisiana,  and  to  recog- 
nize the  administration  elected  by  the  people  in  those  states.  Con- 
cerning this  movement  he  said  in  his  message  to  Congress  on  Dec. 
3.  1877:  "The  results  that  have  followed  are  indeed  significant  and 
encouraging.  All  apprehension  of  danger  from  remitting  those  states 
to  local  .self-governments  is  dispelled,  and  a  most  sahitary  change 
in  the  minds  of  the  people  has  begun  and  is  in  progress  in  every 
part  of  that  section  of  the  country  once  the  theatre  of  unhappy  civil 


LOUISIANA  495 

strife,  substituting  for  suspicion,  distrust  and  aversion,  concord, 
friendship  and  patriotic  attachment  to  the  Union.  *  *  *  There 
has  been  a  general  reestablishment  of  order,  and  of  the  orderly  ad- 
ministration of  justice.  Instances  of  remaining  lawlessness  have  be- 
come of  rare  occurrence ;  political  turmoil  and  turbulence  have  dis- 
appeai-ed ;  useful  industries  have  been  resumed ;  public  credit  in  the 
Southern  states  has  been  greatly  strengthened ;  and  the  encouraging 
benefits  of  a  revival  of  commerce  between  the  sections  of  the  country, 
lately  embroiled  in  civil  war,  are  fully  enjoyed."  Though  there  has 
always  been  some  doubt  as  to  the  legality  of  Mr.  Hayes'  title  to  the 
presidency,  his  conciliatory  policy  toward  the  State  of  Louisiana  has 
entitled  him  to  the  gratitude  of  her  people,  and  they  have  not  for- 
gotten that  he  was  the  first  president  after  the  great  Civil  war  to 
make  an  honest  and  patriotic  effort  to  restore  good  feeling  between 
the  North  and  the  South.   Mr.  Hayes  died  on  Jan.  17,  1893. 

Haynesville,  a  town  of  Claiborne  parish,  was  incorporated  on 
March  18,  1861.  It  is  situated  in  the  northwest  corner,  about  15  miles 
from  Homer,  the  parish  seat,  and  is  a  station  on  the  Louisiana  & 
Northwest  R.  R.  It  has  a  money  order  postoffice  with  2  free  rural 
delivery  routes,  a  bank,  express  office,  telegraph  station,  telephone 
facilities,  several  good  mercantile  establishments  and  is  a  good  busi- 
ness towTi.  Population  663. 

Hays,  Harry  T.,  soldier,  entered  the  Confederate  service  as 
colonel  of  the  7th  Louisiana  infantry,  one  of  the  finest  regiments  of 
the  state.  He  took  part  in  the  battle  of  Manassas ;  in  the  Shenandoah 
Valley  campaign  of  1862,  and  at  Port  Republic  was  wounded.  This 
prevented  his  taking  part  in  the  Seven  Days'  battles.  On  July  25, 
1862,  while  still  absent  on  account  of  his  wound,  Col.  Hays  was  com- 
missioned brigadier-general,  taking  the  brigade  formerly  commanded 
by  Gen.  Richard  Taylor.  At  the  battle  of  Sharpsburg  his  brigade 
was  in  the  thickest  part  of  the  battle,  and  at  Fredericksburg,  Chan- 
cellorsviUe,  Gettysburg  and  other  battles.  Gen.  Hays  exhibited  great 
bravery  and  valor.  Winder  tells  how  his  charge  won  the  day  at  Gettys- 
burg: "Hays  moved  his  command  forward  in  gallant  style  with  a 
cheer,"  and  from  the  first  battle  in  which  he  took  part,  down  to  that 
terrible  sti-uggle  in  the  Wilderness,  in  the  spring  of  1864,  the  name 
of  Gen.  Hays  is  mentioned  with  flattering  frequency  in  the  reports 
of  the  various  commanders.  On  May  9, 1864,  he  was  severely  wounded 
at  Spottsylvania  Court  House,  but  had  sufficiently  recovered  by  fall 
to  attend  to  getting  together  all  the  absentees  from  the  commands  east 
of  the  Mississippi.  On  May  10,  1865,  he  was  appointed  major-general 
in  the  ai'my  of  the  Confederate  States,  but  at  this  time  the  Confed- 
eracy had  ceased  to  exist  anywhere  except  in  the  Trans-Mississippi 
department,  where  he  then  was,  but  on  May  26,  1865,  this  department 
also  gave  up  the  fight  and  the  war  was  ended.  After  the  close  of  the 
war  Gen.  Hays  lived  in  New  Orleans.  In  1867  he  was  elected  sheriff 
of  Orleans  parish,  but  considerable  influence  was  brought  to  bear  and 
Gen.  Mower  removed  him  from  office.  He  died  in  New  Orleans,  La., 
Aug.  21,  1876. 


496  LOUISIANA 

Head  of  Island,  a  money  order  post-village  in  the  southwestern 
part  of  Livingston  parish,  is  situated  on  the  Amite  river,  about  12 
miles  east  of  Gonzales,  the  nearest  railroad  station.  Population  100. 

Health,  State  Board  of.— The  first  mention  of  a  board  of  health, 
in  the  acts  of  the  general  assembly  of  the  State  of  Louisiana,  was  an 
act  approved  March  17,  1818,  which  established  a  board  of  health  and 
health  officers,  "to  prevent  the  introduction  of  malignant,  pestilen- 
tial and  infectious  diseases  into  the  city  of  New  Orleans."  This  act 
pro^•ided  for  a  consulting  physician  and  quarantine  master  to  quar- 
antine vessels  from  foreign  ports;  also  for  quarantine  of  infectious 
diseases  in  the  city.  The  state  government  was  authorized  to  advance 
a  loan  of  $10,000  to  the  board  of  health,  to  carry  out  the  quarantine 
regula.tions.  All  pilots  were  required  to  report  diseases  on  ships  to 
the  board ;  this  act  was  repealed  on  March  6,  1819.  The  legislature 
enacted  a  second  "code  of  public  health"  on  Feb.  17,  1821,  the  mayor 
of  New  Orleans  to  be  exofficio  president  of  this  board ;  the  city  council 
to  choose  5  aldermen,  and  the  governor,  with  the  advice  and  consent 
of  the  senate,  was  to  appoint  7  inhabitants  of  New  Orleans  to  act 
with  those  chosen  by  the  council,  on  the  board.  They  were  to  serve 
without  compensation,  though  the  secretary  was  to  receive  $800.00  a 
year  for  his  services.  The  act  gave  the  board  the  power  to  purchase 
10  acres  of  land  on  the  Mississippi  river  near  Fort  St.  Philip  for  a 
quarantine  station,  and  licenses  were  to  be  issued  to  dealers  to  sup- 
ply the  station  with  the  necessary  provisions.  The  officers  at  the 
station  were  the  resident  physician,  health  officer  and  steward.  It 
was  the  duty  of  the  health  officer  to  board  all  incoming  vessels  and 
compel  the  sailing  masters  or  captains  to  declare  under,  oath  all  cases 
of  sickness.  All  vessels  that  could  not  show  a  clean  bill  of  health 
were  to  be  detained  not  less  than  15  days  at  the  station.  Shipmasters 
violating  this  law  forfeited  $500  to  the  board  of  health,  or  were  subject 
to  6  months  in  jail.  The  first  health  officers  for  the  city  of  New  Or- 
leans were  provided  for  in  the  same  act  and  consisted  of  7  wardens, 
whose  duty  it  was  to  inspect  houses,  yards,  boats,  etc..  and  who  might 
arrest  and  take  to  the  quarantine  ground  such  persons  as  the  board 
might  direct.  All  keepers  of  irms,  taverns  and  boarding  houses  were 
required  to  report,  on  blanks  furnished  bj^  the  mayor,  the  names  of  all 
guests  and  boarders.  A  failure  to  make  this  report  subjected  the 
keeper  to  a  fine  of  $100,  and  a  false  report  subjected  him  to  a  fine  of 
$500.  If  a  guest  fell  sick  the  ease  was  to  be  reported  to  the  board  of 
health  within  12  hours.  All  the  physicians  of  the  city  were  required 
to  report  all  fever  cases  between  May  1  and  Nov.  1,  and  the  sextons  of 
cemeteries  were  to  report  all  burials.  Failure  to  do  this  rendered  the 
physician  or  sexton  subject  to  a  fine.  In  1877  a  new  law  was  passed 
which  provided  for  a  state  board  of  health,  to  consist  of  9  members, 
4  to  be  appointed  by  the  governor  of  the  state  and  5  elected  by  the 
city  council  of  New  Orleans.  They  were  given  power  to  make  rules  for 
vaccination  in  New  Orleans,  and  call  upon  the  police  to  enforce  these 
rules ;  to  establish  quarantine  stations  upon  any  of  the  approaches  to 
New  Orleans,  and  the  president  of  the  board  was  to  keep  a  register 
of  vital  statistics.    All  the  power  the  board  had  under  the  existing 


LOUISIANA  497 

laws  was  retained.  In  1878  Shreveport  and  Baton  Rouge  were  made 
sanitary  districts ;  the  officers  in  these  districts  were  appointed  l)y  the 
governor  and  the  mayors  of  the  respective  cities,  and  had  duties  very 
similar 'to  those  of  New  Orleans,  such  as  power  to  condemn  unsafe 
buildings,  make  quarantine  rules,  and  keep  a  register  of  vital  statis- 
tics. In  1882  a  supplementary  law  was  passed,  giving  the  board  charge 
of  the  slaughter  houses  that  supplied  the  city  of  New  Orleans  with 
food.  Incorporated  towns  were  authorized  to  establish  local  boards 
of  health,  with  power  to  pass  ordinances  for  the  repression  of  in- 
fectious or  contagious  diseases  and  to  regulate  the  water  siipply, 
drainage  and  ventilation  of  buildings.  No  other  acts  regarding  pub- 
lic health  were  passed  until  a  new  state  board  of  health  was  created  by 
an  act  of  July,  1898.  This  board  consisted  of  7  physicians,  appointed 
by  the  governor,  to  hold  for  seven  years,  their  terms  expiring  differ- 
ent years.  The  board  was  to  have  exclusive  jurisdiction  over  maritime 
quarantine  of  the  state  and  to  prepare  sanitary  codes  and  to  inspect 
and  carry  out  the  laws  in  force  regarding  the  adulterations  of  food. 
Parish  and  city  boards  of  health  were  to  be  created  to  act  under  the 
direction  of  the  state  board  of  health.  This  same  act  provided  that 
the  municipal  board  of  New  Orleans  was  to  make  the  sanitary  regula- 
tions for  the  slaughter  houses  of  St.  Bernard  parish  and  the  city  of 
New  Orleans.  An  act  of  1902  provided  that  the  state  board  of  health 
should  meet  every  3  months,  the  membei-s  to  reeive  $10  a  day  and 
traveling  expenses  of  5  cents  a  mile.  In  addition  to  the  exclusive  con- 
trol of  maritime  quarantine,  the  board  was  given  supervision  of  land 
quarantine.  New  parish  boards  of  health,  to  consist  of  3  persons 
selected  by  the  police  .iury  and  5  appointed  by  the  municipal  au- 
thorities, were  created  to  act  in  con.iunction  with  the  state  board  in 
matters  affecting  the  whole  state. 

Heard,  William  Wright,  governor  of  Louisiana  from  1900  to  1904, 
was  born  in  1853,  and  was  reared  on  his  father's  farm  in  the  northern 
part  of  Louisiana.  His  parents,  who  came  to  Louisiana  from  Georgia, 
had  five  sons  and  two  daughters.  "When  the  Civil  war  broke  out  in 
1861,  all  the  Heard  boys  who  were  old  enough  to  bear  arms  entered 
the  Confederate  service.  As  William  was  not  old  enough  to  .join  the 
army,  he  stayed  at  home  and  aided  in  the  support  of  the  family. 
After  the  war  he  attended  school  at  Farmerville,  the  seat  of  Union 
pari.sh,  where  he  received  his  academic  education.  In  1876  he  was 
elected  clerk  of  the  district  court  and  after  the  expiration  of  his  term 
he  remained  in  the  office  as  deputy,  being  connected  with  it  in  various 
capacities  until  1892.  In  1884  he  was  elected  to  the  lower  branch 
of  the  state  legislature,  and  subsequently  to  the  state  senate.  He  at- 
tracted considerable  attention  as  a  senator  by  his  intelligent  and 
courageous  opposition  to  the  Louisiana  lottery  company  when  it  was 
seeking  a  renewal  of  its  charter,  and  the  prominence  thus  gained  led 
to  his  being  elected  auditor  of  public  accounts  in  1892.  Four  years 
later  he  was  reelected  auditor,  and  in  1900  was  nominated  by  the 
Democratic  party  for  governor.  He  w^as  elected  by  a  large  majority 
and  was  inaugurated  on  May  21.  Gov.  Heard  became  a  member  of  the 
1—32 


498  LOUISIANA 

Baptist  clnirch  in  1870,  and  was  for  some  years  president  of  the 
Baptist  state  convention. 

Heard's  Administration. — Gov.  Heard  was  elected  on  April  12, 
1900.  the  legislature  was  convened  in  regular  session  on  May  14.  and 
on  the  21st  he  was  inaugurated.  Lieut. -Gov.  Estopinal  taking  the  oath 
of  ofiSee  at  the  .same  time.  Several  important  acts  were  passed  during 
this  session  of  the  general  assembly.  On  July  6  the  governor  approved 
an  act  directing  the  general  assembly  to  assume,  on  behalf  of  the  state, 
control  of  the  state  penitentiar.y  and  provide  for  the  employment  of 
the  convicts  under  state  supervision,  the  act  to  go  into  effect  on  March 
1,  1901,  at  the  expiration  of  the  contractor's  lease.  This  was  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  provisions  of  the  constitution  of  1898.  (See  Peniten- 
tiary.) An  appropriation  of  $200,000  was  made  to  carry  out  the  pro- 
visions of  the  act,  and  during  the  first  year  it  was  in  force  the  income 
from  the  convict  farms,  etc.,  was  $180,000,  while  the  mortality  among 
the  convicts  was  rediieed  nearly  50  per  cent,  thus  showing  the  wis- 
dom of  such  legislation.  Another  act  of  the  same  date  pro\'ided  that 
any  bank  operating  under  the  laws  of  the  state,  in  declaring  divi- 
dends, must  carry  over  as  a  surplus  at  least  10  per  cent  of  the  net 
protits  that  may  have  accrued  since  the  last  previous  dividend,  and 
that  this  method  must  be  continued  until  such  surplus  equals  20  per 
cent  of  the  capital  stock  of  the  bank,  which  surplus  must  not  be  with- 
drawn or  impaired  in  any  wa.v.  The  effect  of  this  act  has  been  to 
create  confidence  in  the  Louisiana  state  banks  and  to  place  these  insti- 
tutions on  a  sound  fijiancial  basis,  with  a  reserve  fund  large  enough 
to  meet  any  ordinary  contingency. 

On  July  11,  1900,  Gov.  Heard  approved  an  act  permitting  munic- 
ipal corporations  to  expropriate  gas,  electric  light  and  water  works 
plants  belonging  to  private  owners.  By  the  provisions  of  the  act, 
when  the  municipal  authorities  cannot  reach  an  agreement  with  the 
owner  they  may  apply  by  petition  to  the  .judge  of  the  district  court, 
who  shall  order  the  clerk  to  notify  the  o'mier  to  appoint  six  com- 
missioners, property  owners  and  residents  of  the  parish,  to  examine 
and  determine  the  value  of  the  property  and  make  a  report  within 
15  days.  When  the  report  of  the  commissioners  has  been  filed  with 
the  clerk  that  officer  shall  then  cause  the  sheriff  to  notify  both  parties, 
directing  them  to  show  cause  why  the  commissioners'  report  should 
not  be  approved  by  the  court.  Objections  on  the  part  of  either  the 
owner  or  the  municipalitA-  may  be  heard  in  court,  and  either  party 
has  the  right  of  an  appeal  to  the  supreme  court,  though  such  appeal 
shall  not  suspend  the  judgment  of  the  district  court,  the  pajTiient  of 
the  amount,  or  the  deposit  thereof  in  the  hands  of  the  sheriff,  giving 
the  municipal  authorities  possession  of  the  plant  until  the  appeal 
may  be  decided  against  them.  In  all  such  expropriation  proceedings 
the  rights  of  mortgages  and  other  creditore  are  protected.  This  act 
has  been  criticized  as  "socialistic,"  etc.,  but  there  is  no  doubt  that  it 
has  served  to  protect  some  of  the  smaller  cities  of  the  state  against 
poor  service  and  extortionate  prices  by  private  concerns. 

The  day  following  the  passage  and  approval  of  this  act  the  general 
assembly  adopted  the  magnolia  flower  as  the  state  flower,  certainly 


LOUISIANA  499 

a  most  appropriate  selection.  Other  acts  appropriated  $25,000  for 
the  establishment  of  a  permanent  lepers'  home;  created  a  bureau  of 
labor  statistics ;  enlarged  the  powers  of  the  railroad  commission ; 
created  an  oyster  commission,  and  a  resolution  approved  the  speech 
of  Hon.  Bourke  Cochran  at  Montgomery,  Ala.,  in  which  he  advocated 
a  repeal  of  the  15th  amendment  to  the  Federal  constitution. 

On  May  2,  1901.  President  McKinley  visited  New  Orleans  and  was 
received  by  G-ov.  Heard  in  the  cabildo.  This  was  the  first  time  a  presi- 
dent in  ofiSee  ever  visited  Louisiana.  The  Lake  Borgue  canal  was 
opened  in  1901.  Including  Bayou  Dupre,  the  canal  is  7  miles  in  length 
and  gives  the  city  of  New  Orleans  direct  water  communication  with 
Mississippi  sound.  On  Dec.  11,  1901,  the  Rice  Association  of  America 
was  organized  at  Crowley.  The  objects  of  the  association,  as  declared 
at  the  time  it  was  formed,  are  "to  foster  and  pi-omote  the  rice  in- 
dustry; to  find  and  secure  markets  for  the  sale  of  all  rice  products, 
to  the  best  advantage  of  the  rice  grower  and  manufacturer;  and  to 
encourage  the  investment  of  capital  in  all  rice  entei-prises. " 

On  July  12,  1865,  Gen.  P.  H.  Sheridan  confiscated  at  Shreveport 
old  Louisiana  state  bonds  to  the  amount  of  $4,476,000,  but  as  the 
capture  was  made  after  the  war  had  closed  the  U.  S.  government 
never  laid  claim  to  the  bonds.  From  that  time  until  1901,  as  the 
bonds  were  properly  identified  by  the  state  officials,  certificates 
were  issued.  In  1901  the  value  of  the  bonds  equaled  about  $545,- 
000.  Some  of  these,  for  which  the  national  treasury  held  descrip- 
tive certificates,  were  missing  from  the  state  treasury.  This  echo 
of  the  war  caused  some  annoyance,  but  the  state  authorities  and 
the  U.  S.  treasury  department  finally  took  steps  to  adjust  the  mat- 
ter to  the  satisfaction  of  all  concerned. 

In  April,  1902,  the  Louisiana  supreme  court  handed  down  a  de- 
cision in  a  peculiar  case.  The  owner  of  an  orange  grove  in  Plaque- 
mines parish  sold  the  crops  for  the  years  1899  and  1900  in  advance 
for  $8,000,  one  half  of  which  was  paid  at  the  time  the  sale  was 
made  and  the  other  half  to  become  due  on  Dec.  1,  1900.  In  the 
contract  it  was  stipulated  that  "the  purchaser  assumes  all  risks." 
Three  months  after  the  transaction  was  completed  a  severe  frost 
came  and  killed  the  trees,  so  that  the  purchaser  suffered  a  total 
loss  of  the  crops  for  the  two  years.  He  therefore  brought  suit  to 
recover  the  $4,000  already  paid,  and  the  defendant  set  up  a  claim 
for  the  additional  $4,000.  The  court  decided  that  the  owner  could 
keep  the  $4,000  that  he  had  received,  and  released  the  purchaser 
from  further  payment.  Some  of  the  justices  rendered  a  dissenting 
opinion,  holding  that  the  "assumption  of  all  risks"  covered  the 
loss  of  the  trees,  or  that  it  meant  only  ordinary  risks.  If  the  for- 
mer interpretation  was  accepted  by  the  court  the  plaintiff  was  liable 
for  the  full  amount  of  $8,000,  but  if  the  clause  covered  only  ordi- 
nary risks  he  was  entitled  to  recover  the  $4,000  paid  at  the  time 
the  contract  was  concluded. 

Early  in  April,  1902,  Gov.  Heard  reported  to  the  U.  S.  secretary 
of  state  that  the  English  government  had  agents  in  Louisiana  en- 
gaged in  purchasing  horses  for  use  in  the  war  against  the  Boers 


500  LOUISIANA 

in  South  Africa ;  that  a  camp  had  been  established  near  New  Or- 
leans, and  protested  against  what  he  considered  a  violation  of  the 
neutrality  laws.  After  an  investigation  of  the  matter  the  national 
government  decided  that  the  neutrality  laws  had  not  been  violated, 
the  only  camp  being  one  where  horses  and  mules  were  received 
and  kept  for  shipment.  However,  the  course  of  the  governor  in 
entering  his  protest  was  subsequently  approved  by  the  general  as- 
sembly whicli  met  in  regular  session  on  May  12,  1902. 

During  this  session  a  board  of  education  Avas  created,  to  con- 
sist of  the  governor,  the  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  the 
attorney-general,  and  seven  citizens — one  from  each  Congressional 
district — to  l)e  appointed  by  the  governor.  Parish  school  boards 
were  also  established  and  authorized  to  conduct  graded  and  cen- 
tral high  schools  when  necessary.  An  appropriation  of  $100,000 
was  made  to  cover  the  cost  of  the  Louisiana  exhibit  at  the  Louisi- 
ana Purchase  exposition  at  St.  Louis  in  1904;  jurisdiction  over  a 
portion  of  Chalmette  plain  was  ceded  to  the  United  States ;  the 
governor  was  authorized  to  accept  from  the  owners  the  title  to 
Camp  Moore  in  Tangipahoa  parish  for  a  Confederate  cemetery,  and 
the  sum  of  $1,000  was  appropriated  for  its  care  and  improvement; 
June  3  was  declared  a  legal  holiday  to  be  known  as  "Confed- 
erate day";  Franklin  college  was  donated  to  the  school  board  of 
St.  Landry  parish ;  railroad  companies  were  directed  to  provide 
separate  coaches  and  waiting  rooms  for  colored  people;  and  the 
appointment  of  a  commission  to  determine  the  location  of  the 
Louisiana  military  organizations  at  the  siege  of  Vicksburg  was 
authorized. 

During  the  year  1902  oil  was  found  at  Jennings  and  Welsh  in 
Calcasieu  parish  and  at  Breaux  Bridge  in  the  parish  of  St.  Martin, 
not  much  over  100  miles  from  New  Orleans.  The  U.  S.  geological 
survey  reported  the  gulf  coast  oil  as  unsuited  for  illuminating  pur- 
poses; its  value  as  a  gas  or  an  asphalt  oil  undetermined;  its  quali- 
ties as  a  lubricating  oil  somewhat  doubtful,  but  tliat  it  was  avail- 
able and  economical  as  a  generator  of  steam.     (See  Oil.) 

On  Dec.  2,  1908,  Gov.  Heard  issued  his  proclamation  calling  the 
general  assembly  to  meet  in  extraordinary  session  on  the  10th  to 
consider:  1 — To  consider  the  boll  weevil  cotton  pest;  2 — To  re- 
peal the  law  requiring  a  new  registration  of  voters  in  the  country 
parislies  on  Dec.  31,  1903,  and  to  provide  for  a  supplementary 
registration  instead;  3— To  provide  for  the  erection  of  dwellings 
for  the  officers  of  the  colored  insane  asylum  at  Alexandria,  an  in- 
stitution authorized  by  the  preceding  legislature;  4 — To  reimburse 
the  tiscal  agents  of  the  state  for  money  advanced  by  them  to  pay 
the  interest  on  the  "Hope  bonds,"  funded  iiuder  a  decree  of  the 
supreme  court,  and  for  the  overflow  sufferers  and  repairs  on  the 
lepers'  home;  5 — To  make  appropriations  for  the  expenses  of  the 
special  session,  for  paving  the  sidewalks  and  improving  the  grounds 
of  the  state  eapitol;  6 — To  enable  the  senate  to  act  on  all  interim 
appointments.  The  special  session  lasted  12  days,  during  which 
time  all  the  recommendations  of  the  governor  were   acted  upon 


LOUISIANA  501 

favorably,  with  the  exception  of  the  one  asking  for  the  repeal  of  the 
registration  law.  A  crop  pest  commission  was  created  to  combat 
the  ravages  of  the  boll  weevil ;  an  appropriation  of  $25,000  was 
made  for  residence  for  the  officers  of  the  colored  insane  asylum, 
and  the  appropriation  bills  for  the  relief  of  the  fiscal  agents  and 
improvements  were  passed  and  approved.  On  the  question  of  reg- 
istration, the  secretary  of  state  was  directed  to  furnish  blanks  for 
a  new  registration  to  begin  on  Jan.  1,  1904. 

The  legislature  of  1902  appropriated  $2,500  for  a  centennial  cele- 
bration of  the  transfer  of  Louisiana  to  the  United  States  and  re- 
quested the  Louisiana  Historical  society  to  prepare  a  suitable  pro- 
gram, etc.  On  Dec.  11,  1903,  Gov.  Heard  issued  a  proclamation 
recommending  the  citizens  of  each  parish  to  assemble  at  the  court- 
house on  Saturday,  Dec.  19,  to  observe  the  anniversary  by  appro- 
priate ceremonies,  especially  the  hoisting  of  the  American  flag. 
The  proclamation  was  generally  complied  with  and  the  governor's 
recommendations  were  carried  out  in  a  majority  of  the  parishes. 
(See  Centennial  Celebration.) 

Probably  the  most  important  event  of  Gov.  Heard's  administra- 
tion was  the  filing  of  tlie  suit  in  the  U.  S.  supreme  court  for  the 
ad.justment  of  the  maritime  l)oundary  between  the  states  of  Lou- 
isiana and  IMississippi.  By  the  act  of  Congress  under  which  Lou- 
isiana was  admitted  in  1812,  the  boTindary  included  "all  the  islands 
within  three  leagues  (about  10  statute  miles)  of  the  shore."  Five 
years  later  Mississippi  was  admitted  under  an  enabling  act  which 
was  construed  as  extending  the  east  line  of  the  state,  "due  south 
to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  thence  westerly,  including  all  islands  witliin 
six  leagues  (about  20  miles)  of  the  shore,  to  the  most  easterly 
junction  of  the  Pearl  river  with  Lake  Borgne,  thence  up  said 
river,"  etc.  Hence,  whatever  the  "shore"  of  Louisiana  might  be, 
the  islands  within  ten  land  miles  of  the  same  had  been  assigned 
to  her  jurisdiction  five  years  before  the  boundary  of  Mississippi  was 
defined  as  including  the  islands  within  20  miles  of  her  shore. 

But  little  attention  was  paid  by  either  state  to  the  islands  affected 
by  these  overlapping  boundaries  until  the  development  of  the  oys- 
ter industry,  when  tlie  disputed  territory  suddenly  came  to  be 
worth  from  two  to  ten  iiiillious  of  dollars.  The  legislatures  of  both 
states  passed  laws  regulating  the  oyster  fishing,  and  a  clash  of 
authority  was  inevitable.  Early  in  1901  a  dispute  arose  between  the 
fishermen  and  for  a  time  it  looked  as  though  there  would  be  a  re- 
sort to  arms  by  the  sheritfs  of  St.  Bernard  parish.  La.,  and  Har- 
rison county.  Miss.  In  this  emergency  Gov.  Heard  called  a  meeting 
at  New  Orleans  in  Jan.,  1901,  to  consider  some  plan  of  settlement. 
As  a  result  of  this  meeting  Gov.  Heard  appointed  five  commission- 
ers, to  confer  with  a  similar  number  to  be  appointed  by  Gov.  Lon- 
gino  of  IMississippi,  and  endeavor  to  adjust  the  question  of  boun- 
dary in  a  way  that  would  be  satisfactory  to  the  fishermen  of  both 
states.  The  commissioners  met  at  New  Orleans  on  Jlarch  26,  when 
the  Louisiana  members  insisted  iipon  a  boundary  "following  the 
deep  water  channel  through  the  sound  into  the  gulf  eastward  of 


502  LOUISIANA 

tin-  Chaiideleur  islands."  To  this  the  Mississippi  commissioners 
replied  that  they  considered  as  islands  considerable  territory  thai 
Louisiana  claimed  to  he  mainland.  The  report  of  the  joint  com- 
mission said:  "It  is  apparent  that  the  only  hope  of  settlement  is 
a  friendly  suit  in  tlie  supreme  court  of  the  United  States,  and  Ave 
respectfully  suggest  that  course."  Accordingly,  a  suit  was  filed 
in  Oct.,  1902,  by  "The  State  of  Louisiana,  one  of  the  United  States 
of  America,  by  William  "W.  Heard,  governor,  and  upon  the  informa- 
tion of  "Walter  Guion,  attorney-general."  In  the  bill  of  complaint 
Louisiana  claimed  as  the  boundary  "the  deep  water  channel  off  the 
moiith  of  the  Pearl  river,  eastward  following  the  deep  water  chan- 
nel to  the  mouth  of  Half  ]\Ioon  island,  through  the  Mississippi 
sound  cliannel  to  Cat  Island  pass,  northeast  of  Isle  au  Pitre,  into 
the  Gulf  of  ^Mexico."  Louisiana  examined  about  100  witnesses  and 
introduced  nearly  that  number  of  maps,  charts  and  diagrams,  be- 
sides numerous  documents.  Mississippi  made  a  similar  effort,  and 
the  evidence  submitted  to  the  court  covered  about  12,000  type- 
written pages.  Gov.  Heard's  term  expired  before  a  decision  was 
reached,  but  the  general  assembly  on  June  17,  1904,  adopted  a 
resolution  approving  his  course  in  filing  the  suit,  and  a  few  days 
later  made  an  appropriation  to  employ  counsel  to  assist  the  attor- 
nej^-general.  Argument  was  heard  by  the  court  in  Oct.,  1905,  and 
on  March  5,  1906,  the  opinion  was  handed  down  by  Chief  Justice 
Fuller.  In  the  decision  it  was  held  that  "the  peninsula  of  St.  Ber- 
nard and  adjoining  i,slands  are  a  part  of  the  territory  of  Louisiana, 
imder  the  act  of  Congress  in  1812  defining  the  boundary  of  that 
state,  and  that  the  latter  act  defining  the  boundary  of  jMississippi 
cannot  be  taken  as  intended  to  controvert  the  Louisiana  act."  The 
chief  justice  said:  "The  general  laud  office  of  the  United  States, 
in  all  the  maps  it  has  caused  to  be  made  of  Louisiana  and  Jlis- 
sissippi.  has  been  consistent  in  its  recognition  of  the  ownership 
by  Louisiana  of  the  dispiited  area.  *  *  *  The  record  contains 
much  evidence  of  the  exercise  by  Louisiana  of  jurisdiction  over  the 
territory  in  dispute  and  the  general  recognition  of  it  by  Mississippi 
as  belonging  to  Louisiana." 

The  boundary  as  fixed  by  the  suit  begins  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Pearl  river;  thence  eastwardly  through  Heron  bay  and  the  pass 
between  Grand  island  and  the  mainland  to  a  point  about  a  mile 
north  of  the  most  northern  point  of  the  Isle  au  Pitre;  thence 
southeast  through  the  pass  between  Isle  au  Pitre  and  Cat  island 
for  a  distance  of  some  4  miles ;  and  thence  due  east  to  the  deep 
water  channel  east  of  the  Chandeleur  islands. 

At  the  election  for  state  officers  on  April  19,  1904,  Newton  C. 
Blanchard.  the  Democratic  candidate  for  governor,  was  elected  over 
W.  J.  Rehan,  TJepublioan,  by  a  majority  of  42.468.  Jared  Y.  San- 
ders, Democrat,  Avas  elected  lieutenant-governor  by  substantially 
the  same  vote,  and  witli  the  assembling  of  tlie  legislature  in  reg- 
ular session  on  :\lay  9  Gov.  Heard  ".s  administration  came  to  an  end. 

Heam,  Lafcadio,  journalist  and  author,  was  born  about  1850,  on 
the  island  of  Santa  I\Iaura,  one  of  the  Ionian  group,  Greece,  his 


LOUISIANA  503 

mother  being  a  Greek  woman  and  his  father  an  English  army  sur- 
geon, who  was  stationed  in  Greece  during  tlie  English  protectorate. 
Lafcadio  was  educated  in  England,  Ireland  and  France,  and  after 
the  death  of  his  father  came  to  the  United  States.  In  Cincinnati, 
Ohio,  he  learned  the  printer's  trade,  at  which  he  worked  for  some 
time,  then  became  a  reporter,  and  finally  a  traveling  correspondent 
for  a  Cincinnati  paper.  One  of  his  vacations  was  spent  in  the 
South,  and  liking  the  country  he  became  a  resident  of  New  Orleans, 
where  he  engaged  in  journalism.  In  the  meantime  he  devoted  con- 
siderable time  to  the  study  of  Oriental  literature,  wliich  possessed 
a  strange  fascination  for  him.  His  first  book,  "Stray  Leaves  from 
Strange  Literature,"  has  been  described  as  a  prose  poem.  He  wrote 
also  "Chinese  Ghosts,"  which  deals  with  the  legendary  lore  of 
that  country,  translated  from  the  French  of  Theophile  Gautier 
"One  of  Cleopatra's  Nights,"  and  wrote  a  charming  story,  "Chita," 
while  residing  in  New  Orleans. 

Herbert,  Louis,  soldier,  was  born  in  Louisiana.  He  was  appointed 
to  the  U.  S.  military  academy,  where  he  graduated  in  184.5  as  brevet 
second-lieutenant  of  engineers,  and  served  in  the  regular  army  as 
assistant  engineer  in  the  construction  of  Fort  Livingston,  Bara- 
taria  Island,  La.,  1845-46.  He  then  resigned  from  the  army  and 
became  a  planter  in  Iberville  parish.  Later  he  became  an  officer  in 
the  Louisiana  state  militia;  was  a  member  of  the  state  senate,  and 
was  chief  engineer  of  the  state  from  1855  to  1860.  At  the  opening 
of  the  Ci\dl  war  he  entered  the  service  of  the  Confederate  States  as 
solonel  of  the  3d  La.  infantry;  served  in  the  battles  at  "Wilson's 
creek  at  Pea  Ridge,  where  he  was  captured.  On  May  26,  1862  he 
was  commissioned  brigadier-general  and  after  being  exchanged 
led  the  2nd  brigade.  Little's  division,  Price's  army,  in  northern 
]\Iississippi.  He  took  a  gallant  part  in  the  battle  of  luka  and  was 
afterwards  for  a  time  in  command  of  Little's  division;  distinguished 
himself  in  the  battle  of  Corinth,  and  served  in  the  siege  of  Vicks- 
burg.  After  fall  of  that  city.  Gen.  Hebert  was  exchanged  and  sent 
to  North  Carolina  to  take  charge  of  the  heavy  artillery  in  the  Cape 
Fear  district,  and  continued  to  act  as  chief  engineer  of  the  De- 
partment of  North  Carolina  until  the  close  of  the  war.  After  peace 
was  declared  he  returned  to  his  home  in  Louisiana  and  resumed 
his  life  as  a  planter. 

Hebert,  Paul  Octave,  twelfth  governor  of  the  State  of  Louisiana, 
was  a  native  of  the  state,  iiaving  been  born  in  the  parish  of  Iber- 
ville, Dec.  12,  1818.  He  was  a  son  of  Paul  Hebert  and  a  descendant 
of  the  Acadians  who  came  to  Louisiana  about  the  middle  of  the  18th 
century.  In  1836  he  graduated  with  honors  at  Jeflferson  college, 
and  soon  after  entered  the  U.  S.  military  academy  at  "West  Point, 
N.  Y.,  where  he  graduated  in  1840,  standing  first  in  a  class  of  42, 
among  whom  were  William  T.  Sherman  and  George  H.  Thomas. 
Upon  graduating  he  entered  the  army  as  second  lieiitenant  of  en- 
gineers; served  as  assistant  to  the  board  of  engineers  until  Aug.  30, 
1841 ;  then  returned  to  the  academy  and  was  assistant  professor  of 
engineering  until  July  21,  1842,  when  he  was  appointed  assistant 


504  LOUISIANA 

engineer  in  the  construction  of  the  western  passes  to  New  Orleans. 
On  IMarch  31,  1845,  lie  resigned  his  commission  in  the  anny  and 
was  appointed  chief  engineer  of  the  State  of  Louisiana  and  held 
this  position  until  1S47.  On  April  9.  1847.  he  was  appointed  lieu- 
tenant-colonel of  the  ]4th  infantry,  with  which  he  served  through 
the  Mexican  war,  taking  part  in  the  engagements  at  Contreras, 
Churubusco,  ]\Iolino  del  Key  and  the  storming  of  Chapultepee.  For 
gallant  conduct  at  IMolino  del  Rey  he  was  brevetted  colonel,  and 
at  the  capture  of  tlie  City  of  Mexico  was  in  command  of  his  regi- 
ment. After  the  war  lu^  returned  to  Louisiana  and  became  a  planter 
in  Iberville  parish.  In  1851  he  was  appointed  commissioner  to  the 
World's  fair  in  Paris.  The  following  year  he  was  a  delegate  to  the 
Louisiana  constitutional  convention,  and  the  same  year  was  elected 
governor.  On  Aug.  11,  1861,  he  was  commissioned  brigadier-gen- 
eral in  the  provisional  army  of  the  Confederate  States,  having  pre- 
viously lield  that  rank  in  the  state  forces  by  appointment  of  Gov. 
Moore.  During  tlie  tirst  year  of  the  war  he  was  in  command  of  the 
district  of  Louisiana,  particularly  the  defenses  of  New  Orleans.  He 
then  succeeded  Gen.  Magruder  in  command  of  the  Trans-^Iissis- 
sippi  department.  Gen.  Hebert  was  actively  engaged  at  ililliken's 
bend,  which  was  his  only  engagement  of  consequence  during  the 
war.  In  1864  he  was  assigned  to  the  command  of  the  district  of 
Texas  and  the  Territory  of  Arizona,  which  he  surrendered  to  Gen. 
Gordon  Granger,  who  returned  Gen.  Hebert 's  sword.  President 
Jolmson  removed  Gen.  Hebert 's  political  disabilities  in  1865,  and 
Gov.  Kellogg  appointed  him  state  engineer.  Under  Grant's  admin- 
istration he  was  a  member  of  the  U.  S.  board  of  engineers  for  the 
construction  of  levees  on  the  Jlississippi.  For  several  years  he 
was  president  of  the  New  Orleans  Jockey  club.  His  death  occurred 
in  that  city  on  Aug.  29,  1880. 

Hebert's  Administration. — The  constitution  of  1852  provided  that 
tlie  sessions  of  the  legislature  should  be  lield  annually  and  limited 
to  60  days.  The  tirst  general  assembly  under  this  constitution  met 
at  Baton  Rouge  on  Jan.  17,  1853,  and  the  next  day  Gov.  Hebert 
was  inaugurated.  Lieut. -Gov.  Farmer  was  also  inducted  into  of- 
fice at  the  same  time.  In  his  inaugural  address  the  governor  showed 
an  inclination  to  favor  the  acquisition  of  Cuba,  in  order  to  prevent 
the  emancipation  of  slaves  on  that  island.  (See  Lopez  Expedition.) 
Numerous  corporations  were  chartered  during  this  session;  a  gen- 
eral system  of  free  banking  was  established;  and  the  state  was  re- 
divided  into  Congressional  districts.  In  the  summer  and  autumn 
of  1853  Louisiana  was  scourged  by  the  most  disastrous  epidemic  of 
yellow  fever  that  had  ever  visited  the  state  up  to  that  time.  Its 
ravages  were  not  confined  to  New  Orleans  and  the  immediate  vi- 
cinity as  on  former  occasions,  but  spread  to  almo.st  every  pai-ish  in 
the  state,  claiming  victims  by  the  thousand.  Notwithstanding  this 
frightful  visitation,  the  work  of  building  railroads  and  other  in- 
ternal imiu-ovements  went  on,  and  upon  the  whole  the  state  was 
prosperous. 


LOUISIANA  505 

The  annual  session  of  the  legislature  of  1854  began  on  Jan.  16. 
At  that  time  the  belief  was  prevalent  in  Louisiana  that  Spain  was 
taking  steps  to  abolish  slavery  in  Cuba,  and  in  his  message  Gov. 
Hebert  said:  "Will  the  Federal  government,  charged  with  the  in- 
ternational interests  of  states,  anticipate  the  threatened  peril,  or 
patiently  and  quietly  await  the  occurrence  of  it?  The  evil  would 
then  be  irremediable.  Confiding,  as  we  may  .justly  do,  in  the  firm- 
ness, patriotism  and  truly  national  spirit  of  the  chief  magistrate  of 
the  Union,  the  deliberate  expression  of  the  sentiments  of  the  people 
of  Louisiana  upon  this  all-important  subject  would  at  once  sustain 
the  watchfulness  of  the  administration,  and  strengthen  their  hands 
in  executing  any  measure  for  our  protection  whicli  they  might  deem 
necessary  to  adopt.  Gayarre  says:  "The  chief  magistrate  of  the 
Union  was  then  Franklin  Pierce,  and  the  'measure'  which  was  ex- 
pected for  our  protection  was  the  acquisition  of  Cuba.  Owing  to 
the  large  appropriations  for  the  support  of  the  public  schools  and 
to  reclaim  the  swamp  lands  granted  by  Congress  in  1849,  the  state 
debt  had  been  increased  to  over  .i^3,000,000,  but  the  development  of 
resources  had  kept  pace  and  the  people  did  not  suffer  under  the 
burden  of  the  greater  indebtedness,  though  60  tax  collectors  had 
defaulted  in  the  amount  of  nearly  $272,000.  But  little  important 
legislation  was  enacted  during  the  session. 

Another  epidemic  of  yellow  fever  oecvirred  in  1854,  and  when  the 
general  assembly  met  at  Baton  Rouge  on  Feb.  15,  1855,  the  gov- 
ernor said  in  his  message:  "The  general  prevalence  of  that  dis- 
ease during  two  successive  years,  in  the  most  malignant  form,  seems 
to  authorize  tlie  conclusion  that,  supposing  it  to  have  been  at  any 
time  of  foreign  origin,  it  has  now  assumed  a  fixed  habitation  within 
our  borders."  With  regard  to  the  public  school  system  he  declared: 
"Indeed,  the  system  may  be  considered  almost  a  failure,  or  rather  it 
is  not  a  system.  It  is  the  bewildering  confusion  of  chaos."  Not- 
withstanding this  criticism,  the"  "system"  prospered  until  the 
schools  conducted  under  it  were  closed  by  the  war.  The  swamp  land 
board  made  a  report  to  this  legislature,  showing  that  650,000  acres 
of  overflowed  lands  had  been  reclaimed  at  a  cost  of  $156,000.  Every 
governor  from  the  time  of  ClaiI>orne  liad  complained  of  the  disor- 
ganized state  of  the  militia,  and  Gov.  Hebert  was  no  exception  to 
the  rule.  "It  is  the  duty  of  Louisiana,"  said  he,  "a  diity  which  she 
owes  to  her  own  self-preservation  and  to  her  si.ster  states  of  the 
South,  to  cultivate  the  martial  spirit  of  her  people.  Her  position 
exposes  'her  to  the  first  assault  of  the  enemy.  She  should  be  ready 
at  all  times  to  contribute  her  full  share  to  the  defense.  She  must 
be  prepared  to  meet  the  responsibilities  which  the  spirit  of  fanat- 
icism at  home  may  impose  upon  her,  and  which  an  attitude  of  firm- 
ness, with  all  the  preparation  to  maintain  it,  may  alone  avert."  The 
legislature  to  which  this  message  was  delivered,  like  its  predeces- 
sors, chartered  a  number  of  corporations;  regulated  the  mode  of 
procedure  in  criminal  prosecutions ;  and  provided  for  the  sale  of 
1,000,000  acres  of  the  swamp  lands  granted  by  Congress.  U.  S. 
Senator  Pierre  Soule  had  resigned  his  seat  in  March,  1853,  to  be- 


506  LOUISIANA 

coine  minister  to  Spain,  and  John  Slidell  had  been  elected  to  fill 
out  the  unexpired  term.  The  legislature  of  1855  elected  Mr.  Sli- 
dell to  succeed  himself. 

In  the  gubernatorial  campaign  of  1855  the  Democrats  nominated 
Robert  C.  Wickliffe.  The  Americans  or  Know  Nothings  and  the 
"Whigs  united  in  the  support  of  Charles  Derbiguy.  The  election 
resulted  in  the  choice  of  Wickliflfe,  who  received  22,952  votes  to 
19,755  for  his  opponent.  Charles  H.  ilouton  was  elected  lieuten- 
ant-governor, and  again  the  Democratic  party  elected  a  majority  of 
both  houses  of  the  general  assembly.  Gov.  Hebert's  administration 
terminated  with  the  inauguration  of  his  successor  in  Jan.,  1856. 

Hecker  is  a  post-hamlet  of  Calcasieu  parish.     Population  200. 

Heflin,  a  village  in  the  southern  part  of  Webster  parish,  is  a  sta- 
tion on  the  Louisiana  &  Arkansas  R.  R,,  about  10  miles  south  of 
Minden.  tlie  parish  seat.  It  has  a  money  order  postoffice  and  tele- 
graph station,  and  supplies  the  soiitheastern  part  of  the  parish. 

Henderson,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  extreme  southeast  corner  of  East 
Carroll  parish,  is  situated  on  the  i\lississippi  river,  about  5  miles 
southeast  of  Stamboul,  the  nearest  railroad  station.  It  is  a  shipping 
point  on  the  river  for  a  large  area. 

Hennepin,  Louis,  missionary  and  explorer,  Avas  born  at  Ath,  Bel- 
gium, about  1640.  At  an  earl.y  age  he  entered  the  order  of  Recol- 
lets  of  St.  Francis :  spent  several  years  in  Italy ;  was  then  employed 
by  the  order  to  solicit  alms  in  various  places;  was  ordered  to  Can- 
ada in  1673,  and  three  years  later  founded  a  convent  at  Fort  Fronte- 
nac.  In  1678  he  joined  La  Salle's  expedition  down  the  Illinois  and 
Mississippi  rivers,  and  in  the  spring  of  1680  explored  the  Upper  Mis- 
sissii)]vi,  discovering  and  naming  the  Falls  of  St.  Anthony.  He 
then  returned  to  Quebec  and  later  to  France,  where  his  "Descrip- 
tion de  la  Louisiane,"  etc.,  was  piiblished  in  1684,  and  dedicated  to 
Louis  XIV.  In  1697  a  second  work,  entitled  "New  Discovery  of  a 
Vast  Country  Situated  in  America,"  was  published  and  dedicated 
to  William  III.  of  England.  This  second  work  was  about  the  same 
as  the  former,  with  the  addition  of  a  description  of  a  voyage  down 
the  Mississippi,  which  has  led  to  the  claim  that  Hennepin  discov- 
ered the  mouth  of  tlie  great  river  before  it  was  discovered  bj'  La 
Salle.  Sparks,  in  his  "Life  of  La  Salle,"  declares  this  portion  of 
Hennepin's  writings  to  be  a  fabrication,  copied  from  Le  Clerq's 
narrative.  Shea,  in  his  "Description  of  Louisiana,"  explains  the 
matter  by  saying  that  the  story  of  the  voyage  down  the  Missis- 
sippi was  interpolated  by  the  Dutch  publishers  without  Hennepin's 
knowledge.    Father  Hennepin  died  in  Holland  about  1702. 

Henry,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  southeastern  part  of  Vermilion  par- 
ish, is  about  4  miles  southeast  of  Rosehill,  the  nearest  railroad  sta- 
tion, and  8  miles  southeast  of  Abbeville,  the  parish  seat.  It  is  lo- 
cated in  the  rice  district  of  southwestern  Louisiana  and  has  a  pop- 
ulation of  125. 

Herbert  is  a  post-hamlet  of  Caldwell  parish. 

Hermitage,  a  money  order  post-A'illage  in  the  extreme  northern 
part  of  West  Baton  Rouge  parish,  is  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Mis- 


LOUISIANA  507 

sissippi  river  about  3  miles  northeast  of  Glynn,  the  nearest  railroad 
station.     It  is  an  old  settlement  and  has  a  population  of  175. 

Hessmer,  a  post-village  and  station  in  the  western  part  of  Avoy- 
elles parish,  is  on  the  line  of  the  Louisiana  Railway  &  Navigation 
company,  4  miles  west  of  Mansura,  in  a  rich  agricultural  district, 
and  has  an  express  office,  telegraph  station,  telephone  facilities, 
and  a  good  retail  trade.     Population,  450. 

Hester,  a  post-village  in  the  central  part  of  St.  James  parish,  is 
situated  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Mississippi  river  and  the  Yazoo  & 
Mississippi  Valley  R.  R.,  about  4  miles  east  of  Convent,  the  parish 
seat.    It  has  an  express  office  and  telegraph  station. 

Hibernians,  Ancient  Order  of. — (See  Catholic  Societies.) 

Hickory  Valley,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  northeastern  part  of  Winn 
parish,  is  located  on  Bayou  Buckoa,  about  4  miles  southeast  of 
Sikes,  the  nearest  railroad  station,  and  15  miles  northeast  of  Winn- 
field,  the  parish  seat. 

Hicks,  a  post-village  in  the  northeastern  part  of  Vernon  parish, 
is  about  15  miles  northeast  of  Leesville,  the  parish  seat.  It  is  lo- 
cated in  the  lumber  region,  has  sawmill  interests. 

Hico  is  a  village  near  the  northern  boundary  of  Lincoln  parish, 
5  niiles  northwest  of  Dubach,  the  nearest  railroad  station,  and  16 
miles  nortliwest  of  Ruston,  the  parish  seat.  It  has  a  money  order 
postoffice,  one  free  rural  delivery  route  and  a  population  of  150. 

Higgins,  Edward,  soldier,  was  a  lieutenant  in  the  U.  S.  navy  from 
1836  to  1844.  In  1848  he  resigned  from  the  service  to  take  com- 
mand of  an  ocean  steamer,  and  continued  in  the  merchant  marine 
until  it  was  evident  that  there  would  be  war  between  the  North 
and  South.  In  April,  1861,  he  left  the  steamship  company  to  enter 
the  service  of  the  Confederate  States  as  captain  of  the  1st  La.  ar- 
tillery, and  served  as  aide-de-camp  to  Gen.  Twiggs  during  the  time 
that  officer  was  in  command  at  New  Orleans.  In  Feb.,  1862,  Capt. 
Higgins  received  a  commission  as  lieutenant-colonel  in  the  22nd 
La.  and  at  the  time  of  the  attack  upon  New  Orleans  was  in  com- 
mand of  Forts  Jackson  and  Saint  Philip.  In  Dec,  1862,  he  had 
command  of  the  heavy  batteries  at  Snyder's  mill,  and  for  his  gal- 
lant conduct  during  the  battle  received  special  commendation  from 
Gen.  Pemberton.  At  the  siege  of  Vicksburg  he  was  in  charge  of 
the  batteries  of  heavy  artillery  on  the  river  front,  and  strengthened 
the  works  all  along  the  river  in  every  possible  way.  His  manage- 
ment of  these  works  was  so  satisfactory  that  his  s^iperiors  gave 
special  mention  of  him  ''n  their  reports,  after  the  fall  of  the  city. 
He  was  exchanged  soon  after  the  capture  of  Vicksburg,  was  com- 
missioned brigadier-general  on  Oct.  29,  1863,  and  placed  in  com- 
mand of  the  posts  and  batteries  around  Mobile.  After  the  war  he 
settled  in  Louisiana,  where  he  resided  vmtil  his  death. 

Highland,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  southwestern  part  of  Tensas  par- 
ish, is  about  7  miles  west  of  Goldman,  the  nearest  railroad  station, 
and  15  miles  southwest  of  St.  Joseph,  the  parish  seat. 


508  LOUISIANA 

Highways. — (See  Koads.) 

Hill,  a  post-hamlet  iu  the  northeastern  part  of  Winn  parish,  is 
about  2  miles  southwest  of  Sikes  Station,  the  nearest  railroad  town, 
and  12  miles  northeast  of  Winutield,  the  parish  seat. 

Hineston,  a  village  in  the  western  part  of  Kapides  parish,  is  a 
station  on  the  WoodM'orth  &  Louisiana  Central  K.  K.,  about  25 
miles  soutliwest  of  Alexandria,  the  parish  seat.  It  is  a  trading  and 
sliipping  point  of  some  importance,  and  has  a  population  of  100. 

Historical  Society. — The  Louisiana  Historical  society  was  tirst 
organized  ou  Jan.  15,  1836,  when  Judge  Henry  A.  Bullard  was 
elected  president  and  Louis  Janin  and  a  ]Mr.  Harrison,  secretaries. 
For  want  of  proper  encouragement  the  society  soon  fell  into  decay, 
but  it  was  reorganized  in  June,  1846,  by  John  Perkins.  J.  D.  B. 
DeBow,  Edmund  Forstall,  Charles  Gayarre,  Gen.  Josepli  Walker, 
Alfred  Hennen  and  others.  Judge  Francois  X.  ]\Iartin  was  at  that 
time  elected  president,  but  liis  death  occurred  in  Dec,  1847,  when 
Judge  BuUard  was  again  elected  to  the  office,  with  John  Perkins 
and  J.  D.  B.  DeBow,  secretaries.  The  society  was  incorporated  by 
act  of  the  legislature,  approved  Jan.  16,  I860,  several  prominent 
citizens  being  named  as  the  incorporators,  among  whom  were  J.  J. 
Burke,  Charles  Gayarre,  Henry  W.  Allen,  A.  B.  Roman,  Richard 
Taylor,  J.  B.  Wilkinson  and  F.  L.  Claiborne.  The  object  of  the  so- 
ciety was  declared  to  be  '"the  collecting  and  preserving  of  facts, 
documents,  records  and  memorials  relating  to  the  natural,  aborigi- 
nal and  civil  history  of  the  state,"  and  for  the  better  preservation 
of  the  same  a  room  in  the  state  capitol  was  set  apart  for  the  use  of 
the  society.  In  the  event  of  the  dissolution  of  the  society  for  any 
reason,  the  books,  maps,  manuscripts,  etc.,  belonging  to  it  were  to 
be  turned  over  to  the  state,  thus  virtually  making  the  society  a 
state  institution.  Charles  Gayarre  was  elected  president  and  served 
until  1888,  though  for  some  years  the  organization  continued  a 
state  of  comparative  inactivity.  On  April  30,  1877,  the  act  of  Jan. 
16,  1860,  was  amended  and  reenacted,  the  incorporators  at  that 
time  being  named  as  Charles  Gayarre,  F.  T.  Nicholls,  Louis  A.  Wiltz, 
Robert  I\I.  Lusher,  E.  T.  :\Ierrick,  W.  W.  Howe,  George  AV.  Cable, 
B.  J.  Sage,  H.  B.  Magruder,  William  Walker,  F.  S.  Richardson, 
Joseph  A.  Quintero,  George  A.  Pike,  Alexander  Dimitry  and  J.  D. 
Bruns  of  New  Orleans ;  William  B.  Egan,  F.  C.  Blanchard  and  F.  J. 
Alcocke  of  Caddo  parish ;  D.  C.  Montan  and  J.  M.  Williams  of  East 
Baton  Rouge  parish.  The  society  at  that  time  was  removed  to  New 
Orleans  and  quartered  in  the  rooms  afterwards  occupied  by  the 
state  library.  It  now  has  its  domicile  in  the  historic  room  at 
the  eabildo,  where  occurred  the  transfer  of  Louisiana  to  the  United 
States  in  1803.  Among  the  notable  ceremonies  conducted  under 
the  auspices  of  the  society  may  be  mentioned  those  on  the  occasion 
of  President  McKiuley's  visit  to  New  Orleans  in  May,  1901,  and 
the  celebration  of  the  centennial  of  the  acquisition  of  Louisiana  in 
Dec.,  190.3.  Since  the  year  1900  many  important  documents  relating 
to  the  liistory  of  Louisiana  have  been  copied  in  France  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  society. 


LOUISIANA  509 

The  presidents  of  the  society  since  1860  have  been  Charles  Gay- 
arre,  William  W.  Howe  and  Alcee  Portier.  The  last  named  was 
elected  in  Feb.,  1894,  and,  by  repeated  reeleetions,  held  the  otSee 
continuously  until  liis  death.  Miss  Grace  King  and  Prof.  J.  R. 
Ficklen  have  rendered  valuable  services  as  secretaries.  Charles 
T.  Soniat,  Casper  Cusachs,  Prof.  Arthur  T.  Prescott,  W.  O.  Hart, 
Charles  G.  Gill,  Pierce  Butler,  and  others,  have  been  active  in  pro- 
moting: the  interests  of  the  society. 

Hobart,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  northern  part  of  Ascension  parish 
about  6  miles  uortlieast  of  Bullion,  the  nearest  railroad  station,  and 
some  15  miles  north  of  Donaldsonville,  the  parish  seat. 

Hobson,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  central  part  of  Union  parish,  is  about 
8  miles  soutlieast  of  Farmerville,  the  parish  seat  and  most  con- 
venient  railroad   station. 

Hodge,  a  village  in  the  western  part  of  Jackson  parish,  is  at  the 
junction  of  the  Chicago,  Rock  Island  &  Pacific,  the  Tremont  & 
Gulf,  the  North  Louisiana  &  Gulf  railroads,  about  12  miles  south- 
west of  Vernon,  the  parish  seat.  It  has  a  money  order  postoffice, 
express  office  and  telegraph  station,  and  is  the  shipping  and  supply 
town  for  that  part  of  the  parish.     Population  200. 

Hohen  Solms,  a  village  in  the  western  part  of  Ascension  parish, 
is  situated  on  tlie  west  bank  of  tlie  Mississippi  river,  aboiit  4  miles 
north  of  jMcCall,  the  nearest  railroad  station,  and  6  miles  northwest 
of  Donaldsonville,  the  parish  seat.  It  has  a  money  order  postoffice, 
telegraph  and  teleplione  facilities,  and  a  population  of  120. 

Holidays. — By  the  act  of  the  state  legislature,  approved  by  the 
governor  on  June  3,  1904,  the  following  days  were  declared  to  be 
legal  holidays:  Sunday  of  each  week;  Jan.  1,  New  Year's  day; 
Jan.  8,  the  anniversary  of  the  battle  of  New  Orleans ;  ]\Iardi  Gras 
day,  in  the  parish  of  Orleans;  Feb.  22,  George  Washington's  birth- 
day; Good  Friday;  June  3,  the  birthday  of  Jefferson  Davis,  known 
as  Confederate  day ;  July  4,  the  anniversary  of  American  indepen- 
dence; the  first  ]\Ionday  in  September  (Labor  day),  in  the  parish 
of  Orleans  only;  Nov.  1,  All  Saints'  day;  general  election  day; 
Thanksgiving  day  as  fixed  by  tbe  proclamation  of  the  president 
and  governor ;  Dec.  25,  Christmas  day ;  and  every  Saturday  after- 
noon in  cities  of  15,000  population  and  over.  The  act  further  pro- 
vided that  when  Jan.  1  or  8,  Feb.  22,  June  3,  July  4,  Nov.  1,  or  Dec. 
25  falls  on  Sunday  the  next  day  shall  be  a  legal  holiday. 

HoUoway,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  northeastern  part  of  Rapides  par- 
ish, is  about  15  miles  northeast  of  Alexandria,  the  parish  seat,  and 
6  miles  north  of  Kees,  the  nearest  railroad  station. 

Holly,  a  post-village  in  the  central  part  of  De  Soto  parish,  is  a 
station  on  the  Kansas  City  Southern  R.  R.,  about  7  miles  north  of 
Mansfield,  the  parish  seat.  It  has  an  express  office  and  telegraph 
station,  and  is  the  shipping  and  supply  point  of  a  large  farming 
district.    Population  200. 

HoUygrove,  a  post-hamlet  of  Franklin  parish,  is  situated  on  a 
confluent  of  the  Black  river  about  15  miles  south  of  Winnsboro, 


510  LOUISIANA 

the  parish  seat,  and  2  miles  west  of  Peek,  the  nearest  railroad  sta- 
tion.    Population  100. 

Holmesville,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  southern  part  of  Union  parish, 
is  ahout  (J  miles  south  of  Farmerville,  tlie  parish  seat  and  nearest 
railroad  town. 

Holsey,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  eastern  part  of  Claiborne  parish,  is 
about  10  miles  northeast  of  Homer,  the  parish  seat  and  most  con- 
venient railroad  town. 

Holt,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  western  part  of  Natchitoches  parish, 
is  some  7  miles  west  of  Natchitoches,  the  parish  seat  and  nearest 
railroad  town. 

Helton,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  eastern  part  of  Tangipahoa  parish, 
is  about  10  miles  east  of  Amite,  the  parish  seat  and  most  convenient 
railroad  town. 

Holiun,  a  post -village  of  Caldwell  parish,  is  situated  in  the  south- 
ern part  of  Black  creek,  about  5  miles  east  of  Kelly,  the  nearest 
railroad  station,  and  8  miles  south  of  Columbia,  the  parish  seat. 

Holy  Cross  College. — This  institution,  located  at  Dauphine  and 
Keynes  streets.  New  Orleans,  was  opened  in  1879,  under  the  name 
of  "St.  Isidore's  college,"  and  was  chartered  by  an  act  of  the  gen- 
eral assembly  of  the  state  of  Louisiana,  June  20,  1890.  It  is  con- 
ducted by  the  members  of  the  "Congregation  of  the  Holy  Cross," 
a  community  composed  of  priests  and  brothers  who  devote  them- 
selves to  the  education  of  young  men  and  boys,  preparing  them  for 
the  learned  professions  and  for  commercial  pursuits.  New  and  more 
commodious  buildings  for  the  college  were  begun  in  1895,  and  on 
Sept.  8,  1896,  the  main  building  of  the  new  college  was  solemnly 
blessed  bj'  the  ^lost  Rev.  Francis  Janssens,  D.D.,  archbishop  of 
New  Orleans,  the  name  of  the  institution  being  at  that  time  changed 
to  "Holy  Cross  college"  as  being  more  in  keeping  with  the  oi-iginal 
charter  of  the  congregation.  The  buildings  are  situated  on  rising 
ground  overlooking  the  Mississippi,  and  though  centrally  located 
within  the  city,  are  retired,  and  unsurpassed  for  health.  The  new 
main  building  is  a  fine  structure,  complete  in  all  its  appointments, 
while  the  beautiful  and  spacious  grounds  are  shaded  by  fragrant 
magnolia  and  other  trees,  open  to  the  refreshing  breezes  wafted 
from  the  river.  The  institution  aims  to  give  its  students  both  a 
thorough  and  a  practical  education,  and  its  regular  courses  com- 
prise classical,  literary  and  commercial  studies.  The  program  of 
studies  has  been  carefully  graded,  the  various  departments  are  in 
charge  of  experienced  teachers,  and  great  care  is  exercised  at  the 
college  to  train  both  the  moral  and  mental  faculties  of  the  pupils 
and  to  mould  their  characters,  a  labor  to  which  the  members  of  the 
Congregation  of  the  Holy  Cross  have  dedicated  their  lives. 

Home  Institute. — This  well  known  educational  institute  of  New 
Orleans  is  an  English  and.plassical  school  for  young  ladies  and  chil- 
dren, and  lias  had  a  highly  prosperous  career.  Originallv  founded 
as  a  primary  scliool  by  :Miss  Sophie  B.  Wright,  in  Jan..  1882.  it 
met  with  such  generous  support  as  to  warrant  the  establishment 
of  a  high  grade  curriculum,  and  in  1889  the  institute  was  char- 


LOUISIANA  511 

tered  under  the  la«-s  of  the  state,  with  power  to  award  diplomas 
and  to  confer  degrees.  The  school  aims  not  only  to  educate  the 
brain,  but  also  to  mould  character,  and  thus  attain  the  highest 
possible  womanly  development.  In  addition  to  the  regular  course, 
equivalent  to  the  best  high  school  grades,  embracing  work  in  Latin, 
French,  German  and  Spanish,  a  thorough  art  course  is  offered.  This 
course,  includes  a  practical  study  of  free  hand  drawing,  painting 
and  modeling,  with  lectures  on  composition  and  perspective  and 
artistic  anatomy.  Another  important  feature  of  the  school  is  the 
normal  course,  where  advanced  work  is  offered  for  those  who  de- 
sire to  teach.  There  is  also  a  thorough  business  coiirse,  including 
bookkeeping,  stenography  and  typewriting.  Gymnastic  exercises 
are  an  important  daily  requirement  for  all  the  students  from  which 
only  a  physician's  certificate  serves  as  an  excuse.  The  school  draws 
its  pupils  from  a  wide  area,  including  most  of  the  Southern  states, 
Mexico,  Central  America  and  Cuba.  An  important  factor  in  the 
success  of  the  school  is  the  personal  contact,  influence  and  associa- 
tion maintained  between  the  teaching  force  and  the  student  body. 

Homeplace,  a  village  of  Plaquemines  parish,  is  situated  in  the 
central  part  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Mississippi  river,  about  10 
miles  below  Pointe  a  la  Hache,  and  is  a  station  on  the  New  Orleans, 
Fort  Jackson  &  Grand  Isle  R.  R.  It  has  a  money  order  postoffice 
and  is  the  shipping  and  supply  town  for  a  fruit  area  of  considerable 
extent.     Population  100. 

Homer,  the  capital  and  principal  town  of  Claiborne  parish,  is 
located  in  the  central  part  of  the  parish  on  the  main  line  of  the 
Louisiana  &  Northwest  R.  R.,  and  it  is  the  eastern  terminus  of  the 
Shreveport  &  Northeastern  R.  R.,  hence  it  is  provided  with  ample 
transportation  and  shipping  facilities.  It  was  made  the  parish  seat 
in  1849,  after  the  courthouse  at  Athens  was  destroyed  by  fire,  and 
was  incorporated  in  1850.  In  1910  the  population  was  1,855.  Being 
situated  in  the  center  of  a  cotton  growing  district,  it  has  a  large 
compress,  a  cotton  seed  oil  mill,  and  ships  large  quantities  of  cot- 
ton and  oil  every  year.  It  also  has  a  bank,  two  newspapers,  large 
lumbering  interests,  a  number  of  good  mercantile  establishments, 
express  and  telegraph  offices,  and  a  money  order  postoffice  from 
which  several  rural  routes  supply  mail  to  the  surrounding  country. 

Hoods  Mills,  a  post-hamlet  of  Jackson  parish,  is  situated  in  the 
eastern  part  about  4  miles  northeast  of  Womack,  the  nearest  rail- 
road station,  and  12  miles  southeast  of  Vernon,  the  parish  seat. 

Hope  (R.  R.  name  Fryeburg)  a  post-hamlet  and  station  in  the 
northwestern  part  of  Bienville  parish,  is  on  the  Louisiana  &  Arkan- 
sas R.  R.,  12  miles  west  of  Arcadia,  the  parish  seat.  Population 
200. 

Hopedale,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  central  part  of  St.  Bernard  parish, 
is  5  miles  soiitheast  of  Shell  Beach,  the  nearest  railroad  station,  in 
a  rich  truck  farming  district  that  supplies  the  adjacent  market  of 
New  Orleans  with  vegetables  and  fruits. 

Hope  Villa,  a  village  of  Ascension  parish,  is  situated  on  the 
Bayou  Manchac  near  the  northern  boundary  of  the  parish,  about 


512  LOUISIANA 

6  miles  northeast  of  Kleinpcter,  the  nearest  railroad  station.     It 
has  a  money  order  postoffice  and  a  population  of  200. 

Hornbeck,  a  town  in  the  northwestern  part  of  Vernon  parish, 
is  a  station  on  the  Kansas  City  Southern  R.  R.,  15  miles  northwest 
of  Leesville,  the  parish  seat.  Originally  this  town  was  nothing  hnt 
a  sawmill  site,  hut  as  the  timher  was  cut,  the  ad.iaeent  country  de- 
veloped into  a  rich  agricultural  district  and  as  Hornbeek  was  the 
terminus  of  a  division  of  the  railroad,  it  grew  to  be  a  village  of  some 
importance.  Some  200  or  300  bales  of  cotton  and  several  hundred 
car  loads  of  lumber  are  handled  each  year.  It  has  a  money  order 
postoffice,  express  office,  telegraph  station,  a  number  of  mercantile 
establishments,  and  furnishes  supplies  to  the  noi'thwestern  part  of 
the  parish.     Population  459. 

Horticulture. — Literally,  the  word  horticulture  means  the  art  of 
cultivating  or  managing  gardens.  In  its  broader  sense  it  includes 
the  cultivation  of  all  sorts  of  fruits,  flowers,  vegetables  and  nursery 
stock.  Horticulture,  therefore,  embraces  as  divisions,  pomology, 
or  fruit  culture ;  floriculture,  or  the  raising  of  flowers  and  decora- 
tive plants ;  gardening,  or  the  cultivation  of  vegetables,  and  nursery 
culture,  or  the  production  of  fruit-bearing  plants.  It  is  only  within 
comparatively  recent  yeai-s  that  scientific  attention  and  concerted 
action  liave  been  given  to  hoticulture  in  Louisiana.  On  March 
21,  1874,  the  Louisiana  legislature  passed  an  act  incorporating  the 
Fruit  Growers'  association  of  the  Gulf  States,  with  a  capital  stock 
of  $10,000 — which  might  be  increased  to  $20,000 — and  the  member- 
ship fee  was  fixed  at  $10.  By  the  act  of  March  12,  1878,  the  legis- 
lature appropriated  the  siim  of  $500  to  the  association  "to  promote 
the  development  of  the  horticultural  and  pomological  resources  of 
Louisiana,  and  to  aid  in  defraying  the  expenses  of  public  exhibi- 
tions of  products."  Through  the  labors  of  this  association,  and 
more  recently  of  the  Louisiana  horticultural  society,  it  has  been 
shown  that  the  soil  of  the  state  has  a  capacity  for  the  production 
of  a  large  variety  of  fruits. 

The  wild  blackberries  and  dewberries  of  Louisiana  grow  as  large 
and  have  as  fine  a  flavor  as  the  cultivated  berries  of  the  North. 
Strawberries  can  be  raised  with  profit  anywhere  in  the  state,  and 
as  berries  of  all  kinds  ripen  several  weeks  in  advance  of  those 
grown  in  the  Northern  states  they  always  command  a  good  price 
in  the  markets.  Instances  are  reported  where  the  value  of  the 
straw])erry  crop  has  reached  $175  an  acre,  and  it  is  a  poor  crop 
that  does  not  bring  the  producer  $100  an  acre. 

Of  tlu^  larger  fruits,  apples  of  various  kinds  grow  well,  but  some 
of  thcTn  do  not  have  the  flavor  of  the  same  varieties  produced  in 
higher  altitudes.  For  this  reason  the  production  of  apples  is  con- 
fined to  home  consumption.  Still  there  are  in  the  state  some  fruit 
growers  who  contend  that  the  fault  is  not  in  the  soil  nor  climate, 
but  in  the  selection  of  varieties,  the  methods  of  planting  trees,  and 
the  care  bestowed  mi  orchards.  They  argue  that  with  proper  at- 
tention to  these  points  the  apple  can  be  made  a  commercial  suc- 
cess, and  the  results  attained  by  some  of  them  seem  to  justify  their 


LOUISIANA  513 

coBclusions.  A  bulletin  of  the  state  board  of  agriculture  and  immi- 
gration mentions  the  Red  June,  Shannon,  Black  Twig,  Astrachan, 
Yates  and  some  other  varieties  as  adapted  to  the  soil  and  climate 
of  Louisiana. 

Peach  culture,  especially  in  the  northern  and  northwestern  parts 
the  state  and  east  of  the  Mississippi  river,  has  been  demonstrated 
to  be  a  profitable  undertaking.  Dr.  C.  P.  Munday  of  Keithville,  a 
prominent  member  of  the  horticultural  society,  says:  "Peaches 
grow  here  to  unrivaled  perfection.  "With  well  selected  location, 
planted  to  commercial  varieties,  given  attention  and  not  neglect, 
with  transportation  facilities  arranged  for,  and  lastly  care  in  mar- 
keting, there  is  no  question  as  to  the  success  of  commercial  peach 
growing  in  north  Louisiana.  The  case  has  been  proven.  For  home 
and  local  market  uses  no  farmer  can  'have  excuse  for  being  without 
a  peach  orchard — even  one  good  tree  will  pay."  Experiments  with 
the  different  varieties,  early  and  late,  have  demonstrated  that  the 
fruit  growers  of  Louisiana  can  market  peaches  from  the  middle  of 
May  to  October.  A  report  from  one  of  the  test  farms  says:  "There 
is  a  market  difference  between  the  varieties  of  the  several  races  or 
types  of  peaches  in  their  ability  to  withstand  frost.  Those  of  the 
Chinese  type,  such  as  the  Waddell,  Greensboro  and  others  with 
large  petals,  are  not  near  so  readily  destroyed  by  frost  as  those  of 
the  Crawford  type,  or  those  with  small  flowers.  And  in  general 
the  Chinese  type  is  much  better  adapted  to  this  section  than  the 
Persian,  particularly  those  varieties  of  the  Crawford  type,  which 
are  straggling,  open  growers  and  inclined  to  be  shy  bearers."  The 
nectarine  (Amygdalus  persica),  a  smooth-skinned  variety  of  the 
peach,  flourishes  in  several  sections  of  the  state  and  is  cultivated 
for  its  delicious  flavor. 

With  regard  to  pears,  a  report  of  the  state  board  of  agriculture 
and  immigration  says:  "The  only  pears  grown  with  profit  are  the 
varieties  of  the  Oriental  or  sand  pears.  Of  these  we  have  the  Le 
Conte,  Garber,  Golden  Russet,  Smith  and  Kieffer.  The  prevalence 
of  blight  prevents  the  culture  of  the  European  pears,  hence  little 
is  done  with  them,  but  the  sand  pears  offer  by  far  the  greatest  re- 
sistance to  this  troublesome  disease,  and  although  often  fatal  to 
them,  with  proper  care  little  damage  will  result." 

Several  varieties  of  plums  do  well.  Specimens  of  the  Japanese 
persimmon  sent  north  sold  for  75  cents  a  dozen,  and  in  some  in- 
stances even  higher.  As  this  is  a  large,  showy  fruit,  of  excellent 
flavor,  and  stands  shipping  well,  more  attention  is  paid  to  it  every 
year  and  it  promises  to  become  one  of  the  popular  horticultural 
products  of  the  state.  In  the  western  part,  near  the  Texas  line, 
particularly  in  the  parishes  of  Sabine,  Vernon  and  Calcasieu,  grapes 
of  good  quality  are  grown,  the  principal  varieties  being  the  Con- 
cord, Champion,  Moore's  Early,  Niagara  and  Eaton.  Figs  thrive 
well  in  all  parts  of  the  state  and  seldom  fail  to  yield  a  full  crop. 
In  the  southern  parishes  oranges  are  the  principal  fruit.  (See  Figs 
and  Oranges.)  Quinces,  pomegranates,  melons,  chestnuts — in  fact 
1—33 


514  LOUISIANA 

all  kinds  of  fruits  aud  uuts  that  can  be  grown  anywhere  in  the 
same  latitude — eau  he  raised  in  Louisiana. 

A  nurseryman  of  Keithville  says  tliat  more  fruit  trees  were  sold 
in  the  state  during  the  month  of  March,  1908,  than  in  the  entire 
year  of  1907,  which  is  evidence  that  Louisiana  will  soon  be  prepared 
to  take  a  higher  place  among  the  fruit  growing  states  of  the  Union. 
The  state  has  given  encouragement  to  liorticiilture  in  various  ways, 
not  the  least  important  of  which  was  the  appointment  of  a  state 
entomologist  for  tlie  purpose  of  stiidying  the  insects  that  prey  upon 
the  growing  crops,  trees  and  vines  and  recommending  methods  for 
their  destruction.  By  the  act  of  July  11,  1894,  the  introduction  into 
the  state  of  fruit  trees,  shrubs,  slips,  cuttings,  etc.,  affected  by  in- 
fectious diseases  was  prohibited.  Since  the  passage  of  that  act  all 
such  plants  must  be  examined  by  the  state  entomologist  at  the 
state  agricultural  experiment  station.  The  penalty  for  violation  of 
the  law  is  a  fine  of  from  $5  to  $100,  at  the  .iudgment  of  the  court, 
to  which  may  be  added  imprisonment  in  jail  from  one  day  to  three 
mouths.  All  money  collected  from  fines  under  this  law  goes  to  the 
agricultural  experiment  station. 

A  law  also  provides  that  all  nurserymen  in  the  state  shall  hold 
certificates  from  the  state  entomologist,  showing  that  the  nursery 
stock  they  offer  for  sale  is  in  a  healthy  condition.  Wilmon  Newell, 
the  state  entomologist,  in  an  address  to  the  annual  meeting  of  the 
horticultiu-al  society  in  Jan.,  1906,  said:  "During  the  past  year 
we  inspected  aud  granted  certificates  to  28  nurseries  iu  Louisiana, 
aud  the  fruit  grower  who  now  purchases  stock  fi-om  the  Louisiana 
nurseries  holding  the  certificate  of  the  commission  does  so  with  the 
knowledge  that  he  is  getting  stock  as  healthy  as  stock  can  be,  so 
far  as  seriously  injurious  insects  and  diseases  are  concerned.  In 
the  course  of  this  inspection  work  the  San  Jose  scale  Avas  found 
in  13  nurseries,  or  upon  the  premises,  and  this  has  been  extermi- 
nated by  the  nurserymen,  under  our  direction.  The  commission,  in 
its  first  year  of  nursery  inspection,  has  prevented  the  dissemination 
of  sufficient  San  Jose  scale  to  infest  thousands  of  orchard  trees,  for 
once  the  scale  gets  into  an  orchard,  upon  even  one  or  two  infested 
trees  from  the  mu-sery,  it  spreads  rapidly  to  the  balance  of  the  or- 
chard. ,*  *  *  Right,  here  we  have  the  explanation  of  why  so 
many  peach  orchards  have  'failed'  in  north  and  west  Louisiana. 
This  pest  has  been  introduced  with  the  young  nursery  stock  when 
the  orchard  was  planted,  and  the  fruit  growers,  failing  to  recognize 
this  minute,  yet  terribly  destructive  enemy,  have  seen  their  orchards 
die  out  at  the  time  they  should  commence  producing  profitable 
crops.  *  *  *  -Wp  j,^.p  j^,j  longer  going  to  allow  this  enemy  to 
cripple  our  fruit  industry  in  Louisiana,  and  prevent  its  attaining 
the  commercial  importance  that  it  should.  The  crop  pest  commis- 
sion is  seeing  to  it  that  the  fruit  growers  get  none  but  healthy  trees 
and  is  ever  ready  to  furnish  information  to  all  fruit  growers  re- 
garding methods  for  controlling  the  pest  in  orchards." 

A  recent  writer,  in  eommentiug  on  the  state's  natural  advantages 
for  floriculture,  says:  "Louisiana's  climate  favors  the  growth  of  a 


LOUISIANA  ^  515 

great  variety  of  native  flowers,  as  well  as  the  propagation  of  deli- 
cate plants  of  the  cultivated  type.  Roses  bloom  in  the  open  through- 
out the  winter,  and  cape  jasmines,  japonicas,  hibiscus  and  poinset- 
tias  are  common  to  every  yard.  Tea  olives  and  magnolias  perfume 
the  air  with  their  fragraJnce,  and  chrysanthemums,  geraniums  and 
plumbagos  give  brilliancy  to  the  garden  verdure.  Palms  of  end- 
less variety  ornament  the  private  premises  and  public  parks,  vying 
in  beauty  with  the  moss-decked  live  oak  shade  trees.  The  attrac- 
tions of  the  landscape  are  further  enhanced  by  a  green  carpet  of 
the  ever-present  Bermuda  grass,  which  makes  a  perfect  turf."  In 
the  meetings  of  the  horticultural  society  flowers  command  a  good 
share  of  the  discussions,  some  of  the  papers  read  before  the  society 
bearing  such  titles  as  "How  to  Grow  Flowers  in  North  Louisiana," 
"Roses  and  Cut  Flowers,"  "Growing  Flowers  for  Profit,"  and  "The 
Importance  of  Floriculture  Exhibits  at  Fairs."  (See  also  Agricul- 
ture.) 

Hortman,  a  village  and  station  in  the  central  part  of  Webster 
parish,  is  on  the  Louisiana  &  j\a-kansas  R.  R.,  10  miles  north- 
west of  Minden,  the  parish  seat.  It  has  a  money  order  postoffice, 
press  office  and  telegraph  station,  and  is  the  supply  and  shipping 
point  for  a  large  farming  district. 

Hosston,  a  post-village  in  the  northeastern  part  of  Caddo  parish, 
is  a  station  on  the  Texas  &  Pacific  R.  R.,  about  30  miles  northwest 
of  Shreveport,  the  parish  seat.  It  has  an  express  office  and  tele- 
graph station.    Population  150. 

Houltonville,  a  post-hamlet  of  St.  Tammany  parish,  is  situated  on 
the  Ponchatalawa  creek,  5  miles  southwest  of  Covington,  the  parish 
seat   and  nearest  railroad  station. 

Houma,  the  seat  of  justice  of  Terrebonne  parish,  is  located  on 
Bayou  Terrebonne,  in  the  northern  part  of  the  parish,  and  is  the 
terminus  of  a  branch  of  the  Southern  Pacific  railroad,  which  con- 
nects with  the  main  line  at  Scliriever.  The  town  was  made  the 
parish  seat  in  1834.  It  is  in  the  center  of  a  large  sugar  producing 
district,  and  large  quantities  of  that  commodity  are  shipped  from 
th3  city  every  year.  Next  to  sugar  the  principal  articles  of  export 
are  oysters  and  canned  shrimp.  In  addition  to  the  sugar  and  oyster 
industries,  Houma  has  a  bank,  an  ice  factory,  a  fine  public  market, 
two  newspapers,  several  fine  mercantile  establishments,  and  large 
lumber  interests.  The  chief  public  buildings  are  the  court-house, 
a  high  school,  the  market  house  and  an  opera  house,  the  last  named 
having  been  built  by  public  subscription  at  a  cost  of  $8,000.  Pub- 
lic and  private  schools  aff'ord  excellent  educational  facilities,  and 
the  principal  religious  denominations  are  represented  by  suitable 
houses  of  worship.    Tlie  population  in  1910  was  5,024. 

Howard  Association. — During  the  yellow  fever  epidemic  of  1837, 
this  association  was  organized  by  a  number  of  young  men  of  New 
Orleans,  the  object  as  stated  being  "to  relieve  the  sick  and  desti- 
tute by  some  systematic  effort."  The  original  association  numbered 
29  active  members,  and  the  first  officers  were  as  follows :  Virgil 
Boulleraet,  president;  D.  I.  Ricardo,  secretary;  G.  Kursheedt,  Lreas- 


516  LOUISIANA 

urer;  G.  W.  Shaw,  H.  W.  Palfrey  and  J.  0.  Harris,  finance  commit- 
tee. All  members  were  to  serve  without  pay  and  in  a  short  time  the 
association  had  about  150  names  enrolled.  Most  of  these  were  young 
men,  stiU  in  their  minority,  the  president  being  only  17  years  of 
age  at  the  time  of  liis  election.  In  18i2  the  association  was  granted 
a  perpetual  charter  by  the  legislature  of  Louisiana.  By  this  char- 
ter the  active  membership  was  limited  to  30  persons,  but  the  asso- 
ciation was  given  power  to  add  temporary  assistants  during  epi- 
demics. The  organization  was  made  so  complete  and  its  arrange- 
ments so  perfect,  that  within  one  hour  after  the  annomicement  of 
an  epidemic  the  city  could  be  supplied  with  temporary  hospitals, 
emergency  physicians,  nurses,  etc.  Early  in  the  yellow  fever  epi- 
demic of  1S53  the  association  opened  two  convalescent  hospitals 
and  three  orphan  asylums.  In  the  latter  241  little  ones,  left  totally 
destitiite  bj'  the  death  of  their  parents,  were  cared  for  until  the 
worst  was  past,  and  after  the  epidemic  the  Howards  fovmd  homes 
for  these  orphans  where  possible,  by  having  them  adopted  by  wor- 
thy families.  The  others  were  placed  in  regular  orphan  asylums, 
the  association  gi\'ing  to  such  institutions  the  sum  of  .$100  with 
each  child  thus  admitted.  The  association  also  paid  attention  to 
the  character  of  the  food  supply  sent  into  the  city  during  the  epi- 
demic, the  enforcement  of  sanitary  measures,  the  distribution  of 
disinfectants,  etc.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  from  1837  to  1854  not 
a  member  of  the  association  died  of  yellow  fever  or  cholera,  though 
they  were  everywhere,  facing  every  danger  in  the  discharge  of  their 
duties.  To  them  the  palace  and  the  hovel  were  alike.  No  place 
was  too  squalid;  none  too  pestilential  for  them  to  enter,  bringing 
relief  to  those  stricken  with  disease,  thus  winning  the  everlasting 
gratitude  of  hundreds  of  sufferers. 

But  it  was  in  the  great  epidemic  of  1878  that  the  Howards  dis- 
tinguished themselves  by  their  prompt  and  efficient  action.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  epidemic  the  membership  was  increased  to  125, 
and  within  a  week  they  had  over  1,000  destitute  cases  under  their 
care.  All  through  the  lower  Mississippi  valley  the  association  was 
the  chief  channel  of  aid.  On  Aug.  16  it  issued  a  call  to  the  people 
of  the  country  for  assistance.  The  response  was  immediate  and 
generous  from  all  parts  of  the  nation,  the  past  record  of  the  asso- 
ciation having  inspired  confidence  in  its  methods  and  the  trust- 
worthiness of  its  members  as  individuals.  One  writer  of  that  day 
referred  to  the  association  as  "a  time-honored  body  of  good  Samar- 
itans." From  Aug.  17  to  Oct.  26  the  Howards  eared  for  over  21,- 
000  cases  in  the  city  of  New  Orleans  and  the  immediate  vicinity. 
Impartial  reports  from  other  toAvns  and  cities  in  Louisiana  added 
nearly  12,000  more,  and  up  the  IMississippi  as  far  as  ^lemphis,  Tenn., 
they  willing  extended  a  helping  hand  wherever  it  was  possible.  In 
addition  to  the  aid  given  the  sick,  over  60,000  persons,  mostly 
Avomen  and  eliildren,  were  supplied  witli  the  necessaries  of  life  out 
of  the  bounty  contributed  to  tlie  association.  The  contributions  in 
money  amounted  to  nearly  $400,000,  and  there  were  liberal  dona- 
tions  of  clothing,  medicines,  provisions,   wines,   etc.,   sent  to   the 


LOUISIANA  517 

Howards  for  distribution.  These  supplies  were  transported  free 
by  the  railroads,  steamboats  and  express  companies  to  all  points 
where  the  quarantines  did  not  interfere.  Of  the  money  received 
the  Howards  turned  over  $20,000  to  the  Peabody  subsistence  asso- 
ciation, which  undertook  the  care  of  the  convalescents.  In  the  dis- 
pensation of  charity  the  association  is  wholly  unsectarian,  relieving 
all  worthy  applicants  without  regard  to  color,  creed  or  nationality. 
Of  the  cases  eared  for  in  1878  aboiit  one-fourth  were  negroes,  and 
among  the  others  were  people  from  almost  every  nation  of  Europe, 
Mexico,  Central  America,  Canada,  South  America  and  China.  Of 
all  the  relief  associations  of  the  United  States,  whether  organized 
for  general  or  specific  purposes,  none  has  been  more  effective  in 
carrying  out  its  designs,  nor  more  deserving  of  public  confidence 
and  esteem  than  the  Howard  Association  of  New  Orleans.  (See 
also  Yellow  Fever.) 

Howard  Memorial  Library. — (See  Libraries.) 

Hudson,  a  post-village  and  station  in  the  northern  part  of  Winn 
parish,  is  on  the  Tremont  &  Gulf  R.  R.,  about  9  miles  north  of  Winn- 
field,  the  parish  seat. 

Hughes  Spur,  a  post-village  in  the  northwestern  part  of  Bossier 
parish,  is  on  the  St.  Louis  Southwestern  R.  R.,  about  6  miles  north  of 
Benton. 

Humbert,  Gen.  Jean  Robert  Marie,  a  distinguished  soldier,  was 
born  at  Bouvroy,  France,  in  1775,  and  was  said  to  have  been  one  of 
the  handsomest  men  in  France.  He  joined  the  army  as  a  volunteer 
in  1791,  served  in  Vendee,  and  rose  to  the  rank  of  brigadier-general. 
In  1798  he  commanded  an  expedition  to  Ireland  and  landed  at  Kil- 
lola,  where  he  was  overwhelmed  and  taken  prisoner.  After  his  release 
he  took  part  in  the  St.  Domingo  expedition,  which  also  resulted  in 
failure.  About  this  time  he  lost  the  favor  of  Napoleon  and  came  to 
America.  For  several  years  he  taught  school  in  New  Orleans  and 
when  the  War  of  1812  came  on  he  offered  his  services  in  defense  of 
his  adopted  city  and  state.  When  Gen.  Morgan  was  repulsed  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Mississippi,  Gen.  Jackson  ordered  Humbert  to  cro.ss 
the  river  and  recover  the  lost  ground.  In  giving  this  order  Jackson 
said:  "I  expect  you,  general,  to  repulse  the  enemy,  cost  what  it 
may. ' '  To  this  Humbert  replied :  "I  will ;  you  may  rely  on  it. ' '  In 
the  haste  of  the  moment,  Humbert  neglected  to  have  the  order  reduced 
to  writing,  and  when  he  reached  Morgan's  lines  there  was  so7ne  con- 
fusion, owing  to  a  disinclination  of  some  of  the  American  officers  to 
serve  under  a  foreigner.  Col.  Shaumburgh  says  that  Humbert  grew 
"displeased  and  went  off  to  Gov.  Claiborne."  In  1816  Gen.  Humbert 
led  an  army  of  1,000  men  into  Mexico  to  fight  for  the  independence 
of  that  country,  but,  notwithstanding  his  bravery  and  skill  as  a  com- 
manding officer,  the  expedition  met  with  defeat,  and  the  following 
year  he  returned  to  New  Orleans,  where  he  continued  to  reside  until 
his  death  in  1823. 

Humphreys,  a  village  in  the  northern  part  of  Terrebonne  parish, 
is  situated  on  the  Black  bayou  about  10  miles  west  of  Houma,  the  pai-- 


518  LOUISIANA 

ish  st'at  and  most  convenient  railroad  town.    It  has  a  money  order 
postoffiee  and  is  a  trading  center  for  a  large  agricultural  district. 

Hunt,  Carleton,  soldier,  educator  and  la'^wer,  -was  born  in  New 
Orleans.  La.,  Jan.  1,  1836.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  college  in  1856 ; 
received  the  degree  of  M.  A.  from  the  same  institution  in  1859,  and 
the  honorary  degree  of  LL.  B.  from  the  law  department  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Louisiana  in  1858.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  of  Louisi- 
ana the  same  year;  was  elected  a  delegate  to  the  convention  of  the 
Constitutional  Union  party  which  met  at  Baton  Rouge.  La.,  in  1860. 
and  in  April.  1861.  he  enlisted  in  the  Confederate  army  as  lieutenant 
in  the  Louisiana  regiment  of  artillery.  At  the  close  of  the  war  he  was 
appointed  administrator  of  the  University  of  Louisiana  and  a  member 
of  the  committee  to  examine  applicants  for  admission  to  the  bar  of  the 
state.  In  1869  he  was  appointed  profes-sor  of  admiralty  and  inter- 
national law  in  the  University  of  Louisiana,  and  was  later  dean  of  tlie 
faculty  for  10  years.  He  became  doctor  of  la^vs  in  the  same  university 
in  1880 :  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1882  as  a  Democrat. 

Hunt,  Randell,  a  prominent  lawyer  of  Louisiana  in  the  ante- 
bellum days,  was  a  native  of  South  Carolina,  a  son  of  Thomas  and 
Louisa  (Gaillard)  Hunt,  and  a  brother  of  WilUara  H.  Hunt,  who 
was  secretary  of  the  navy  in  President  Garfield's  cabinet.  One  of  his 
maternal  uncles,  John  Gaillard,  was  for  30  yeai-s  a  U.  S.  senator  from 
South  Carolina,  and  another,  Theodore  Gaillard,  was  one  of  the  early 
judges  of  the  U.  S.  circuit  court  and  later  a  U.  S.  district  .iudge  in 
Louisiana.  He  served  with  distinction  in  the  Louisiana  legislature, 
and  was  recognized  as  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  "Whig  party  until 
that  organization  was  dissolved,  when  he  became  an  ardent  advocate 
of  State  Rights.  In  1860-61  he  was  an  enthusiastic  supporter  of  the 
doctrine  of  secession.  A  little  volume  entitled  "Sketches,  by  a  Member 
of  the  New  Orleans  Bar,"  published  by  Ferguson  &  Crosby  of  New 
Orleans,  in  1847,  pays  Jlr.  Hunt  this  tribute:  "He  is  apparently 
some  40  years  of  age.  His  countenance  is  frank  and  open:  without 
being  handsome,  it  is  yet  prepossessing.  He  is  an  accomplished 
man  of  the  world,  and  very  much  of  a  gentleman." 

Hunt,  Theodore  G.,  lawyer  and  member  of  Congress,  was  native 
of  South  Carolina,  and  a  .son  of  Thomas  and  Louisa  (Gaillard)  Hunt. 
He  recived  a  libei-al  education ;  studied  law,  commenced  practice  in 
New  Orleans,  and  was  elected  a  representative  from  Louisiana  to  the 
33d  Congress  as  a  Whig. 

Hunt,  William  Henry,  secretary  of  the  navy,  was  born  in  Charles- 
ton. S,  C.,  in  1824.  He  was  a  son  of  Thomas  and  Louisa  (Gaillard) 
Hunt  and  a  grandson  of  Robert  Hunt,  who  was  twice  governor  of 
the  Bahama  islands  and  a  member  of  the  king's  council  at  Nassau, 
in  the  island  of  New  Providence,  when  these  colonies  were  possessions 
of  the  British.  Thomas  Hunt  was  a  planter  and  well  known  la\^-J'er  of 
South  Carolina,  and  a  member  of  the  state  legislature.  WillianiHunt 
received  a  good  preparatory  education  and  entered  Yale  college  in 
1839,  but  remained  only  2  yeai-s.  when  his  family  moved  to  Louisiana 
and  he  went  to  New  Orleans.  In  1855  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar  and 
for  30  yeare  practiced  his  profession  in  New  Orleans.    At  one  time 


LOUISIANA  519 

he  was  professor  in  the  New  Orleans  law  school.  During  the  Civil  war 
he  remained  a  stanch  Union  man  and  in  1876  governor  Kellogg  ap- 
pointed him  attorney-general  of  Louisiana  to  till  a  vacancy.  The  same 
year  the  Republican  party  nominated  him  for  the  office  and  claimed 
that  he  had  been  elected,  but  the  Democratic  state  administration 
was  recognized  by  President  Hayes.  Mr.  Hunt  went  to  Washington 
in  1877  to  present  the  Republican  side  of  the  case  to  the  president, 
and  after  returning  to  New  Orleans  he  continued  to  practice  law 
Until  he  was  appointed  judge  of  the  V.  S.  court  of  claims  in  May, 
1878.  When  Justice  Strong  resigned  from  the  bench  of  the  U.  S. 
supreme  court  in  1880  a  movement  was  made  by  the  lawyers  of  Louisi- 
ana to  have  the  president  appoint  Mr.  Hunt  to  fill  the  vacancy.  In  the 
last  month  of  his  administration  (Feb.,  1881)  President  Hayes  offered 
him  the  judgeship  of  the  U.  S.  district  court  for  the  5th  district,  but 
he  declined  the  office.  When  president  Garfield  formed  his  new  cab- 
inet on  March  5,  1881,  Mr.  Hunt  became  secretary  of  the  navy.  Upon 
the  reorganization  of  the  cabinet  by  president  Arthur  in  April,  1882, 
he  retired  in  favor  of  William  E.  Chandler,  and  the  .same  year  Avas 
appointed  minister  to  Russia.  He  died  in  St.  Petersburg,  Feb.  27, 
1884. 

Hunter,  a  post-village  in  the  southwestern  part  of  De  Soto  parish, 
is  about  3  miles  east  of  Sabine  river  and  10  miles  southwest  of  Mans- 
field, the  parish  seat.   Logan.sport  is  the  nearest  railroad  station. 

Hurricanes. — In  the  early  days  of  Louisiana  hurricanes  were 
more  frequent  and  also  more  violent  along  the  gulf  coast  than  they 
have  been  in  more  recent  years.  In  the  article  on  Bienville  mention  is 
made  of  a  storm  that  choked  up  the  entrance  to  Mobile  harbor  with 
sand  in  the  summer  of  1717  and  led  to  the  removal  of  colonial  head- 
quarters to  Biloxi.  La  Harpe,  in  his  Historical  Journal,  speaks  of  a 
violent  hurricane  that  began  on  the  morning  of  Sept.  11,  1722,  and 
continued  for  three  days,  destroying  a  number  of  houses  at  Fort 
Louis,  Biloxi  and  New  Orleans,  several  vessels,  and  doing  great  dam- 
age to  the  crops.  At  New  Orleans  the  church,  the  ho.spital  and  30 
houses  were  demolished.  The  effect  of  this  storm  was  to  discourage 
man,y  of  the  colonists  and  they  determined  to  leave  New  Orleans,  but 
were  finally  persuaded  by  Bienville  to  remain  and  aid  in  rebuilding  the 
town.  The  dissatisfaction  growing  out  of  the  conditions  which  fol- 
lowed was  partially  responsible  for  the  conspiracy  against  Bienville 
that  led  to  his  being  compelled  to  go  to  France  in  1724  to  answer 
■charges.  On  Palm  Sunday,  1737,  New  Orleans  and  vicinity  were 
swept  by  a  terrific  hail-storm,  the  hailstones  being  of  unusual  size. 
In  1745  a  tornado  pas.sed  over  the  lower  part  of  Louisiana,  doing 
great  damage  to  the  crops,  especially  the  rice  crop,  which  was  almost 
completely  destroyed.  A  famine  was  threatened  as  a  result,  but  the 
settlements  farther  up  the  river  came  to  the  rescue  with  supplies  and 
actual  suffering  was  averted.  Another  historic  storm  occurred  in  the 
winter  of  1772-3,  in  which  an  English  schooner  was  driven  bodily 
over  Cat  island  by  the  force  of  the  wind  and  waves.  The  hurricane  of 
Aug.  18,  1779,  destroyed  several  buildings  in  New  Orleans  and  on  the 
neighboring  plantations,  wrecked  the  fleet  of  vessels  that  Gov.  Galvez 


520  LOUISIANA 

Avas  fitting  otit  for  the  conquest  of  West  Florida,  killed  a  large  num- 
ber of  cattle  and  a  few  people,  and  inflicted  serious  damage  to  the 
growing  crops.  During  the  two  following  years  the  fleets  of  Galvez 
were  greatly  damaged  by  storms  on  the  gulf,  but  which  did  compara- 
tively little  injury  on  the  land.  In  the  19th  century  several  violent 
storms  visited  Louisiana,  the  most  noted  of  which  was  that  known  as 
the  "Last  Island  Storm"  on  Aug.  9,  1856.  Last  island  was  a  slender 
crescent  of  land  about  25  miles  long  and  averaging  less  than  a  mile  in 
width.  It  lay  to  the  west  of  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  and  had  for 
years  been  the  summer  residence  of  planters  from  the  Attakapas  and 
Lafourche  districts.  The  storm  arose  during  the  night  and  by  day- 
light every  boat  on  the  island  had  been  broken  to  pieces  anvl  every 
building  blown  down.  The  rain  descended  in  a  deluge,  the  wind  in- 
creased, and  on  the  afternoon  of  the  9th  the  island  was  literally 
washed  away.  Of  the  300  or  more  persons  on  the  island  at  the  time 
over  two-thu'ds  of  them  were  never  seen  again.  The  remainder  saved 
themselves  by  cliuging  to  pieces  of  wreckage  and  were  washed  ashore. 
On  Sept.  7, 1893.  the  town  of  Lockport  in  Lafourche  parish  was  struck 
by  a  cyclone,  which  killed  8  people  and  injured  a  number  of  others. 
The  town  was  nearly  a  complete  wreck  after  the  storm  had  passed. 
On  Oct.  1,  of  the  same  year,  a  hun-ieaae  was  encountered  by  vessels 
from  25  to  50  miles  out  in  the  gulf,  coming  from  the  southwest.  It 
moved  so  rapidly  that  in  a  few  hours  it  struck  the  city  of  New  Or- 
leans. From  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  westward  as  far  as  Bayou 
Grand  Caillou  the  country  M'as  devastated.  At  7  o'clock  in  the  evening 
the  storm  struck  the  oyster  settlements  at  Bayou  Cook  and  the  Che- 
niere  islands.  Every  house  was  blown  to  atoms  and  about  800  lives 
were  lost.  At  Grand  island  was  a  summer  resort  directly  in  the  path 
of  the  storm,  but  it  escaped  with  slight  injury  when  compared  to 
other  localities,  though  several  houses  were  blown  down  and  a  few 
lives  lost.  The  total  loss  of  life  was  estimated  at  2,500.  Prompt  as- 
sistance was  sent  to  the  survivoi-s  from  New  Orleans  and  other  places. 
A  complete  record  of  hiu-ricaues  since  the  first  settlement  of  Louisi- 
ana would  doubtless  disclose  others  of  a  violent  character,  but  those 
above  mentioned  were  the  ones  that  wrought  the  most  damage  and 
have  been  deemed  worthy  of  more  than  passing  notice  by  historians. 

Husser,  a  village  in  the  eastern  part  of  Tangipahoa  parish,  is  sit- 
uated on  Chappepeela  creek,  about  4  miles  east  of  Jessica,  the  nearest 
railroad  station,  and  12  miles  southeast  of  Amite,  the  parish,  seat.  It 
has  a  money  order  postofiice  and  a  population  of  100. 

Hutchins,  Thomas,  geographer,  was  born  at  Monmouth,  N.  J., 
in  the  year  1730,  and  at  the  age  of  16  years  became  an  ensign  in  the 
British  army.  In  1763  he  was  at  Fort  Pitt,  and  the  following  year 
was  assistant  engineer  in  the  expedition  of  Gen.  Henry  Bouquet  in 
Ohio.  He  then  went  to  Louisiana,  where  he  remained  for  some  years, 
and  was  with  the  army  in  "West  Florida,  receiving  a  commis.sion  as 
captain.  At  the  beginning  of  the  Revolutionary  war  he  was  in  London 
and  refused  to  take  up  arms  against  the  American  colonies.  In  1779 
he  was  suspected  of  carrying  on  a  secret  correspondence  with  Ben- 
jamin Franklin,  then  in  Prance,  was  arrested  and  kept  in  prison  for 


LOUISIANA  521 

six  weeks,  at  the  end  of  which  time  he  was  discharged.  He  then  left 
England,  and  after  a  short  stay  in  France,  crossed  the  Atlantic  to 
Charleston,  S.  C,  where  he  joined  the  Continental  forces  under  Gen. 
Nathaniel  Greene,  with  whom  he  sei'ved  until  the  clos  of  the  war,  re- 
ceiving the  title  of  "Geographer-General."  In  1784  he  published  his 
"Historical  Narrative  and  Topogi'aphical  Description  of  Louisiana 
and  West  Florida,"  and  held  the  title  of  geographer  of  the  United 
States  until  his  death  at  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  April  28,  1789. 

Hyams,  a  post-village  and  station  of  Natchitoches  parish,  is  about 
5  miles  northwest  of  the  city  of  Natchitoches  on  the  Texas  &  Paeifie 
R.  R. 

Hydropolis,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  central  part  of  Avoyelles  parish, 
is  about  3  miles  southwest  of  Marksville,  the  parish  seat,  and  2  miles 
west  of  CocoviUe,  nearest  railroad  station.   Population  300. 

Hyman,  William  Bryan,  lawyer  and  .iurist,  was  born  at  Williams- 
ton,  Martin  county,  N.  C,  April  30,  1814,  a  son  of  Samuel  and  Ann 
Gray  (Bryan)  Hyman.  He  received  a  classical  education  at  the  Col- 
lege of  North  Carolina;  studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1839.  From  North  Carolina  he  moved  to  Louisiana,  settled  at  Alex- 
andria in  Rapides  parish,  where  he  soon  acquired  an  extensive  pratiee 
and  became  noted  throughout  the  state  as  a  lawyer.  Gov.  J.  Madison 
Wells  appointed  him  chief  justice  of  the  supreme  court  on  April  1, 
1865,  and  he  held  jurisdiction  over  that  part  of  the  state  within  the 
Federal  lines.  Justice  Merrick  holding  under  Gov.  Allen  within  the 
Confederate  lines.  When  the  new  state  constitution  was  adopted  in 
1868  Judge  Hyman  left  the  bench.  In  1871  he  was  appointed  judge  of 
Jefferson  parish,  where  he  served  until  April,  1880,  when  the  constitu- 
tion of  1879  went  into  effect,  abolishing  the  system  of  parisli  judges. 
Judge  Hyman  married  Hermenegilda,  daughter  of  Andres  Gonzales 
of  Alexandria,  La.,  June  7, 1847.  He  died  at  Camp  Parapet,  Jefferson 
parish.  La.,  Aug.  9,  1884. 

I 

latt,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  northern  part  of  Grant  parish,  is  about 
3  miles  southwest  of  Williana,  the  nearest  railroad  station,  and  14 
miles  northeast  of  Colfax,  the  parish  seat. 

Iberia  Parish  was  formed  out  of  the  southern  part  of  St.  Martin 
and  the  northern  part  of  St.  Mary  parishes;  its  history  is  that  of 
the  Attakapas  district,  as  its  early  settlement  dates  back  as  far  as 
St.  Landry's  or  St.  Martin's.  The  first  settlers  in  the  district  were 
about  500  French  sent  out  by  Bouligny  in  1778  and  were  followed 
by  Spaniards,  among  whom  were  the  Miguez,  Dominique  and 
Romero  families.  Next  came  the  Acadians,  descendants  of  the 
French,  who  had  long  before  settled  in  Acadia,  or  Nova'Scotia,  and 
exiled  by  the  English  had  sought  refuge  in  Louisiana.  Among  these 
were  the  Breaux,  Broussards,  Deeuirs  and  Moutons,  names  which 
became  famous  in  the  affairs  of  the  state  in  later  years.  Many  of 
the  early  settlers  came  direct  from  France.    Among  them  were  such 


522  LOUISIANA 

families  as  the  DeBlanes,  Gonsoiilins,  Oliviers,  St.  Clairs  and 
Declouets,  and  descendants  of  these  old  families  are  still  to  be 
found  in  the  parish.  Their  settlement  was  for  years  the  great  at- 
traction to  French  emigrants.  Diiriug  the  French  regime  DeBlane, 
the  ancestor  of  the  American  family  of  that  name,  was  commandant 
of  western  Louisiana.  As  early  as  1788  the  colony  of  Iberia  num- 
bered 190  people,  the  majority  of  whom  were  Spanish,  but  there 
were  the  French  Acadiaus  and  many  French  who  came  to  America 
under  St.  Denis  and  Benard  de  la  Harpe.  Few  American  settlers 
came  until  after  the  battle  of  New  Orleans,  as  that  event  opened 
up  this  rich  district  to  settlement  from  other  states.  One  of  the 
first  of  these  was  John  Weeks,  a  wealthy  gentleman,  from  Virginia, 
who  brought  a  number  of  slaves  and  became  a  sugar  planter.  Other 
prominent  Americans  were  the  Bakers,  Smiths  and  Youngs.  A  few 
Irish  came  about  the  same  time,  among  them  Alexander  Porter, 
who  became  a  prominent  figure  in  the  state,  serving  as  justice  of 
the  supreme   court   and  U.   S.   senator   from   Louisiana. 

Iberia  parish  is  located  in  the  extreme  southern  part  of  the  state, 
its  southern  border  being  on  the  gulf  coast.  It  was  established  by 
an  act  of  the  legislature  on  Oct.  30,  1868,  the  original  act  defining 
its  boundaries  as  they  are  today.  It  is  irregular  in  its  geographical 
outline  and  is  bounded  as  follows :  on  the  north  by  the  parishes  of 
St.  ^Martin  and  Iberville :  on  the  east  by  Assumption  parish ;  on  the 
south  by  St.  Marj-'s  parish  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico ;  and  on  the  west 
by  the  parishes  of  Vermilion  and  Lafayette.  It  has  an  area  of  583 
square  miles.  After  the  organization  of  the  i^arish  New  Iberia 
was  made  the  parish  seat.  Tlie  first  courthouse — a  temporary  biiild- 
ing— was  burned  in  1870,  and  the  present  structure  was  built  in 
1884.  The  formation  of  the  parish  is  varied,  consisting  of  coast 
marsh,  alluvial  land,  wooded  swamp,  and  rolling  uplands  breaking 
into  blutf  land.  Much  of  the  eastern  part  of  the  parish  is  cypress 
swamp.  The  tillable  land  lies  south  and  west  of  the  Southern  Pa- 
cific R.  R.  and  the  Bayou  Teche  from  the  parish  line  below  Jean- 
erette  to  New  Iberia,  this  region  being  called  "Prairie  au  Large." 
It  has  an  average  width  of  6  miles,  a  little  wider  above  between 
the  railroad  and  Lake  Peigneur.  All  the  land  is  tillable  between 
Lake  Peigneur  and  Lake  Tasse.  as  is  the  land  in  the  great  bend 
of  the  Teche,  which  is  as  rich  as  any  land  in  the  state.  "Prairie 
au  Large"  is  fine  rolling  prairie,  with  natural  drainage,  and  like 
that  south  of  Lake  Peigneur,  is  fine  grazing  land.  The  Teche  is  lined 
with  plantations  nearly  the  entire  distance  from  its  entrance  into 
the  parish  east  of  Lake  Tasse  to  tlie  line  where  it  leaves  the  parish 
below  .Teanerette.  The  banks  of  the  bayou  are  from  15  to  25  feet 
high,  sloping  gently  to  the  water,  and  before  the  war  large  sugar 
plantations  were  held  here  by  wealthy  planters,  who  built  many 
beautiful  residences  along  the  stream.  *The  land  lying  along  Grand 
Lake  is  almost  all  cypress  swamp,  and  bordering  the  swamp  is  a 
growth  of  gum.  oak,  ash  and  other  timber.  Around  the  great  bend 
of  the  bayou,  called  Fausse  Pointe.  the  alluvial  land  is  several  miles 
wide.    On  the  west  side  of  the  Teehe  there  is  little  timber,  when 


LOUISIANA  523 

compared  to  the  abundance  on  the  eastern  side.  Grand  Cote  island 
is  about  2  miles  in  diameter,  with  an  area  of  some  2,000  acres,  part 
of  which  is  in  timber,  part  in  pasture,  and  the  remainder  under  cul- 
tivation. Avery's,  Salt,  or  Petit  Anse  island,  as  it  has  a  variety  of 
names,  is  2i/^  miles  long  by  1  mile  wide  and  is  a  sort  of  geological 
puzzle.  It  is  composed  of  hills,  valleys,  woodlands,  open  fields  and 
pastures,  and  surroiinded  on  all  sides  by  sea  marsh,  which  at  a  dis- 
tance has  the  appearance  of  dry,  level  prairie.  On  this  island  are 
large  deposits  of  pure  rock-salt.  (See  Salt.)  Orange  island,  which 
received  its  name  from  the  orange  groves  there,  is  varied  in  forma- 
tion, some  parts  being  quite  rugged.  These  islands  form  the  most 
attractive  natural  features  of  the  parish.  The  principal  streams  are 
the  Bayou  Teche,  which  runs  through  the  center  of  the  parish, 
Petit  Anse  bayou  and  Coulee  du  Portage.  Lake  Peigneur,  one  of 
the  finest  sheets  of  water  in  the  Attakapas  country,  lies  9  miles 
west  of  New  Iberia,  and  Lake  Tasse  is  2  miles  from  that  town. 
Fish  of  various  kinds  may  be  caught  in  these  lakes  at  all  seasons 
of  the  year.  On  the  east,  Lake  Fausse  Pointe  lies  almost  entirely 
within  the  eastern  boundaries  of  the  parish.  The  natural  water 
supply  is  abundant,  the  creeks  affording  ample  supply  for  stock, 
though  cistern  water  has  to  be  used  for  domestic  purposes.  The 
principal  production  is  sugar,  the  alhivial  soil  along  the  Teche 
yielding  large  crops.  In  recent  years  rice  has  been  introduced,  and 
its  ciilture  has  proved  such  a  success  that  it  is  a  rapidly  developing 
industry.  Corn,  hay,  potatoes,  peas  and  garden  vegetables  are  all 
grown  extensively  and  with  good  profits.  The  rich  soil  and  mild 
climate,  for  frost  is  rarely  known  here,  combine  to  make  orange 
and  lemon  culture  a  source  of  profit.  Under  state  protection  the 
oyster  industry  has  grown  rapidly.  Both  oysters  and  shrimp  are 
found  in  large  quantities  along  Vermilion  bay,  and  salt  and  fresh 
water  crabs  are  caught  in  the  bayous  and  streams  of  this  favored 
region.  Iberia  has  quite  extensive  manufacturing  interests,  such 
as  soap  and  oil  factories,  sawmills,  a  sash,  door  and  blind  factory, 
brickyards,  ice  factories,  etc.  The  Southern  Pacific  R.  R.  traverses 
the  northern  part  of  the  parish  from  southeast  to  northwest,  nearly 
parallel  to  the  Bayou  Teche,  and  a  branch  road  runs  from  New 
Iberia  to  a  salt  mine  in  the  southern  part  of  the  parish,  furnishing 
excellent  transportation  facilities.  New  Iberia,  the  parish  seat,  in 
the  northern  part,  and  Jeanerette,  near  the  eastern  boundary,  are 
the  two  most  important  towns.  Other  towns  and  villages  are  Avery 
Island,  Delcambre,  Loreauville,  Oliver  and  Patoutville.  The  par- 
ish has  rural  schools  for  both  white  and  colored  children,  and  the 
scliools  of  New  ll)eria  and  Jeanerette  are  of  the  best. 

The  following  statistics  are  taken  from  the  U.  S.  census  for 
1910:  Number  of  farms,  1,704;  acreage,  171,061;  acres  improved, 
121,436 ;  value  of  land  and  improvements  exclusive  of  buildings, 
$6,445,444;  value  of  farm  buildings,  $1,250,870;  value  of  live  stock, 
$1,049,747;  total  value  of  crops,  .$2,266,789.     Population,  31,262. 

Iberville,  a  village  in  tlie  parish  of  the  same  name,  is  in  the  north- 
eastern part,  aboiit  8  miles  east  of  Plaquemiue,  the  parish  seat.     It 


524  LOUISIANA 

is  a  station  on  the  Yazoo  &  Mississippi  Valley  R.  K.,  has  a  money 
order  posloffice,  a  telegraph  otfiee,  and  does  some  shipping. 

Iberville  Parish,  one  of  the  oldest  parishes  in  the  state,  received 
its  name  in  honor  of  Iberville,  the  founder  of  Louisiana.  The  first 
settlements  were  made  at  an  early  date  by  the  French  and  Spanish. 
The  records  date  back  to  1770.  but  a  census  which  O'Reilly  had 
taken  in  1769  shows  that  Iberville  had  a  population  of  376  at  that 
time.  The  largest  colony  was  known  as  St.  Gabriel,  on  the  east  side 
of  the  Mississippi  river.  The  old  church  of  St.  Gabriel  was  organized 
and  maintained  during  the  early  days  of  the  settlement.  Louis 
Dutise  was  commandant  and  judge  of  the  "District  of  Iberville," 
in  1770,  and  documents  bearing  his  signature  are  preserved  in  the 
archives  of  the  parish.  In  1781,  N.  De  Verbois  succeeded  him  as 
commandant  and  governed  for  a  number  of  years.  During  the 
decade  following  1765,  the  population  of  the  colony  was  increased 
by  some  immigrants  from  the  Canar.v  islands  and  the  Acadians 
(q.  v.),  who  located  on  the  "Iber-iille  coast."  The  trade  of  the 
colony  was  of  considerable  vahie  at  this  time  and  attracted  English 
traders,  who  carried  on  an  illicit  trade  with  the  French.  By  1788 
this  vicinity  had  a  population  of  286  people.  Among  those  who 
resided  in  the  Iberville  district  between  1770  and  1785  were  the 
following:  Pierre  Cassadin,  Thomas  de  Acasta,  Pierre  Bobin.  Fer- 
main  Blanchard,  Jacques,  Jean  and  Franyois  Landry,  Joseph  Le 
Blanc,  Pierre  Brosscaux,  Jean  Durand,  Fernando  Roderigues,  Jean 
Thibodeaux,  IManuel  Robazo,  and  the  Sehlatres,  nearlj^  all  of  whom 
have  descendants  living  in  the  parish  today.  The  parish  was  first 
established  as  "Iberville  county"  by  act  of  the  territorial  legisla- 
ture in  1804,  and  when  the  Territory  of  Orleans  was  divided  into 
19  parishes,  in  Jan.,  1807,  the  parish  of  Iberville  was  made  to  in- 
eliule  Iberville  county  and  the  settlement  of  Galveztown.  The  seat 
of  justice  was  first  located  at  Point  Pleasant,  about  8  miles  below 
Plaquemine  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Mississippi  river,  but  was 
changed  to  Plaquemine  in  1842. 

Iberville  parish  is  located  in  the  so\ithern  part  of  the  state,  is 
irregular  in  outline,  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  parishes  of  Pointe 
Coupee,  East  and  West  Baton  Rouge;  on  the  east  by  Ascension  par- 
ish :  on  the  south  by  the  parishes  of  Assumption  and  Iberia :  and  on 
the  west  by  St.  Martin  and  St.  Landry.  The  Mississippi  river  flows 
through  the  eastern  portion,  the  Atchafalaya  river  flows  through  the 
southwestern  portion,  and  the  central  part  is  drained  by  the  Grand 
river.  Bayous  Goula,  Plaquemine,  ]Maringoiiin,  Grosse  Tete,  Man- 
chac  and  numerous  other  small  streams.  It  has  an  area  of  643 
square  miles,  all  of  alluvial  formation  and  wooded  swamp.  The 
"coast  of  Iberville,"  as  the  land  along  the  banks  of  the  Mississippi 
is  called,  is  remarkable  for  its  highly  improved  condition  and  the 
great  extent  of  its  plantations.  During  antebellum  days  many 
grand  old  residences,  surrounded  by  parks  of  live  oak  and  pecan 
trees,  were  built  in  this  section  of  the  state.  The  swamp  lands  are 
nearly  all  heavily  wooded  with  cypress,  oak  and  other  valuable 
timber,  and  lumbering  is  an  important  industry.   It  is  claimed  that 


LOUISIANA  525 

more  cypress  shingles  are  maBiifactured  in  and  shipped  from  Iber- 
ville than  any  other  parish  in  the  state.  The  principal  agricultural 
product  is  sugar,  but  rice,  cotton  and  corn  are  raised.  The  mild 
climate  and  rich  soil  are  adapted  to  the  growth  of  fruit  trees,  sev- 
eral varieties  of  which  do  especially  well,  and  pecans  are  exported 
in  large  quantities.  There  is  practically  no  government  land  left 
in  the  parish  and  tillable  land  is  worth  from  $10.00  to  $50.00  an 
acre.  Transportation  facilities  are  good.  The  Mississippi  river 
offers  cheap  shipping  by  water  on  the  east;  the  Texas  &  Pacific 
R.  R.  passes  through  the  parish  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Missis- 
sippi river ;  and  the  Yazoo  &  Mississippi  Valley  R.  R.  runs  through 
the  northeastern  portion,  and  a  branch  of  the  Southern  Pacific  sys- 
tem crosses  the  northern  part.  Outlets  are  thus  furnished  in  every 
direction  :^or  the  products  of  the  parish.  From  early  settlement 
to  the  present  time  the  Catholic  religion  has  predominated  among 
the  white  population  though  most  of  the  Protestant  denominations 
are  represented.  The  parish  has  done  much  for  public  education. 
There  are  rural  schools  for  both  white  and  black,  and  the  high 
schools  of  such  towns  as  Plaquemine,  Bayou  Goula  and  White 
Castle  provide  free  higher  education.  Plaquemine,  White  Castle 
and  Bayou  Goula  are  the  most  prominent  towns.  Others  are  Cres- 
cent, Dorcyville,  Grosse  Tete,  Island,  Maringouin,  Rosedale,  St. 
Gabriel,  Seymourville,  Sunshine  and  Indianvillage. 

The  following  statistics  are  taken  from  the  U.  S.  census  for 
1910 :  Number  of  farms,  609 ;  acreage,  104,728 ;  acres  improved, 
64,422 ;  value  of  land  and  improvements  exclusive  of  farm  build- 
ings. $4,367,960;  value  of  farm  buildings,  $1,140,885;  value  of  live 
stock,  $824,040;  total  value  of  crops,  $1,931,827.  Population,  30,- 
954. 

Iberville,  Pierre  Le  Moyne,  Sieur  de,  called  by  his  admirers  "The 
Cid  of  New  France,"  was  born  at  Villemarie,  Montreal,  Canada, 
July  16,  1661,  the  third  of  14  children — 11  sons  and  3  daughters — 
born  to  Charles  and  Catherine  (Primot)  Le  Moyne.  Nearly  all 
the  sons  served  with  distinction  at  some  period  or  another  in  the 
army  or  navy  of  France.  Pierre  (d 'Iberville)  played  a  brilliant 
part  in  the  war  between  France  and  England  which  was  concluded 
by  the  treaty  of  Ryswick  on  Sept.  20,  1697,  and  soon  afterward  he 
was  honored  by  being  made  a  Knight  of  St.  Louis.  The  conclusion 
of  the  war  gave  Louis  XIV  the  opportunity  to  establish  a  colony  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi — an  opportunity  that  had  been  neg- 
lected since  the  death  of  La  Salle  more  than  ten  years  before. 
Accordingly,  a  fleet  of  four  vessels,  under  command  of  Iberville, 
who  bore  the  title  of  governor-general,  set  sail  from  Brest,  Oct.  24, 
1698.  The  ships  were  the  Badine  and  the  Marin,  each  carrying 
30  guns  and  200  men,  the  former  commanded  by  Iberville  in  person 
and  the  latter  by  the  Chevalier  de  Surgeres;  the  Precieux,  com- 
manded by  J.  F.  Vasseur;  and  the  Biscayenne,  under  command  of 
F.  Guyon.  On  board  the  two  smaller  vessels  were  about  200  col- 
onists, a  company  of  marines,  and  a  stock  of  tools,  provisions,  etc. 
Among  the  colonists  were  a  number  of  women  and  children,  chiefly 


526  LOUISIANA 

families  of  ex-soldiers,  who  had  been  given  liberal  inducements  to 
join  the  expedition.  Lawrence  de  Graaf.  a  noted  biiecaneer,  had 
been  secured  by  Iberville  as  pilot.  By  order  of  the  king,  the  fleet 
■vvas  joined  at  St.  Domingo  by  the  man-of-war  Frangois,  52  guns, 
commanded  by  the  JIarquis  de  Chateaumorant,  and  several  trans- 
ports with  provisions  and  troops. 

England  and  Spain  were  both  casting  longing  eyes  upon  the 
broad  valley  of  the  Mississippi,  and  the  latter  nation  had  already 
established  a  colony  at  Pensaeola.  When  Iberville's  fleet  dropped 
anchor  ofl'  Santa  Rosa  on  Jan.  25,  1699,  the  Spaniards  at  Pensaeola 
refused  to  permit  the  French  to  land,  and  Iberville  sailed  on  west- 
ward "to  Mobile  bay.  After  touching  at  Massacre  and  Chande- 
leur  islands,  the  fleet  passed  between  Cat  and  Ship  Islands  and 
came  to  anchor  about  the  middle  of  February  in  Biloxi  bay,  on  the 
northeast  shore  of  which  Iberville  subsequently  decided  to  locate 
his  colony.  But  that  decision  was  not  reached  until  after  an  at- 
tempt had  been  made  to  find  the  ^Mississippi.  Learning  from  the 
natives  of  a  large  river,  some  distance  to  the  southwest,  Iberville 
determined  to  visit  it,  believing  it  to  be  the  ilississippi.  On  Feb. 
27,  with  2  rowboats,  several  bark  canoes  and  53  men.  among  whom 
were  Sauvolle  and  Bienville,  he  set  out  for  the  mouth  of  the  river. 
In  his  account  of  the  expedition  he  says:  "We  entered  this  river 
on  the  night  of  the  2nd  of  ilarch.  I  found  it  obstructed  by  rafts 
of  petrified  wood  of  a  siifificient  hardness  to  resist  the  action  of  the 
sea.  *  *  «  Oil  the  3d,  the  winds  prevented  me  from  making 
soundings  between  the  rafts  and  the  three  outlets,  which  extend 
some  three  leagues  before  entering  the  sea."  The  3d  was  Shrove 
Tuesday,  and  to  a  point  12  leagues  from  the  mouth  of  the  river 
Iberville  gave  the  name  of  "Mardi  Gras. "  As  he  passed  xip  the 
river  he  encamped  on  the  site  of  New  Orleans  and  on  the  14th 
reached  the  village  of  the  Bayagoula  Indians.  At  this  point  in  his 
narrative  he  says:  "Seeing  myself  so  far  up  the  river  without 
positive  proof  that  this  was  the  Mississippi,  and  that  it  might  be 
said  in  F'rauce  that  I  was  deceived,  not  having  met  with  any  of 
those  tribes  mentioned  in  the  narratives,  I  concluded  that  I  ought 
to  visit  tile  Houmas  on  the  east  side  of  the  river,  among  whom  I 
knew  I\I.  de  Tonti  had  been;  and  believing,  moreover,  that  in  course 
of  at  least  30  leagues  I  must  meet  with  that  branch  of  the  river 
spoken  of  in  the  narratives,  do^vn  which  I  could  send  a  chaloupe 
and  canoe  for  the  purpose  of  exploration,  and  ascertain  which  of 
the  two  rivers  would  be  most  suitable  for  settlements.  I  was  ap- 
prehensive that  the  Indians  only  desired  to  conceal  from  me  that 
branch  in  order  to  get  me  to  remain  upon  theirs,  as  they  hoped  to 
reap  some  advantage  thereby.  I  renewed  my  journey  in  company 
with  the  chief  of  the  Bayagoulas,  who  oft'ered  to  go  with  me  with 
8  of  his  men,  and  arrived  at  the  village  of  the  Houmas,  distant  35 
leagues. ' ' 

The  Houma  village  was  about  opposite  the  mouth  of  the  Red 
river.  While  there  Iberville  learned  of  a  letter  Tonti  had  left  with 
the  chief  of  the  Quinipissas  of  .Mongoulaehas,  and  ordered  Sauvolle 


LOUISIANA  527 

and  Bienville  to  return  and  get  the  letter,  which  Avas  done.  It  was 
found  to  be  addressed  to  La  Salle  and  contained  an  account  of 
Tonti's  voyage  down  the  river  to  meet  that  explorer  in  1686.  On 
March  23,  Iberville  turned  back  down  the  river,  entered  Bayou 
Manchae  the  next  day,  passed  through  and  named  Lakes  Maurepas 
and  Poutehartrain,  and  reached  Ship  island  ahead  of  Bienville  and 
Sauvolle.  On  April  12  he  explored  and  named  Bay  St.  Louis.  By 
May  1  the  fort  and  cabins  were  completed,  the  fort  was  armed 
with  12  cannon  and  stocked  with  ammunition,  and  three  days  later 
Iberville  sailed  for  Prance,  leaving  Sauvolle  in  charge  of  the  colony. 
He  retui-ned  on  Dec.  8,  bringing  supplies  and  reinforcements,  and 
learned  of  the  attempt  of  the  English  to  plant  a  colony  somewhere 
on  the  Mississippi.  (See  English  Turn.)  To  prevent  a  repetition 
of  the  visit,  he  proceeded  at  once  to  the  Mississippi  and  5-t  miles 
from  the  mouth  built  a  fort,  which  some  writers  have  called  Fort 
Maurepas  and  otliers  Fort  Iberville.  This  fort  he  placed  in  charge 
of  his  brother,  Bienville,  after  which  he  ascended  the  river  to  the 
village  of  the  Natchez  Indians,  with  whom  he  concluded  a  treaty 
on  March  5,  1700.  In  May  of  that  year  he  again  returned  to  France 
and  did  not  come  again  to  Biloxi  until  Dec.  18,  1701,  when  he  ar- 
rived with  two  ships,  the  Renommee,  under  his  personal  command, 
and  the  Palmier,  commanded  by  his  brother  Joseph  (Sieur  de 
Serigny).  During  his  absence  Sauvolle  had  died  and  the  colony 
had  become  reduced  to  150  members,  all  of  whom  were  in  great 
distress. 

This  condition  of  affairs  Avas  due  in  a  great  measure  to  the 
erroneous  impressions  that  prevailed  among  the  Europeans  regard- 
ing America.  Rumors  of  fabulous  wealth  were  current  and  they 
were  believed  by  many  men  noted  for  their  intelligence  and  sa- 
gacity, as  the  following  extract  from  the  instructions  to  Iberville 
will  show:  "One  of  the  great  objects  proposed  to  the  king,  when 
he  was  urged  to  discover  the  mouth  of  the  Micisipi,  was  to  obtain 
wool  from  the  cattle  of  that  country;  and  for  this  i")urpose  these 
animals  must  be  tamed  and  parked  and  calves  sent  to  France.  Al- 
though the  pearls  sent  to  his  Majesty  are  not  fine,  either  in  water 
or  shape,  they  must  nevertheless  be  carefully  nought,  as  others  may 
be  found;  and  his  Majesty  desires  M.  d 'Iberville  to  bring  all  he 
can,  ascertain  where  the  fishery  is  carried  on,  and  see  it  in  opera- 
tion." The  "cattle"  referred  to  were  doubtless  the  wild  buffaloes, 
from  the  hair  of  which  some  of  the  Indian  tribes  fashioned  rude 
garments,  but  after  a  lapse  of  200  years  no  white  man  has  ever 
succeeded  in  using  it  as  a  textile  fabric.  Among  the  colonists  were 
many  who  preferred  adventure  to  agriculture,  and  when  the  head 
of  the  colony  was  instructed  to  hunt  for  pearl  fisheries  it  is  little 
wonder  that  this  class  spent  the  time  in  seeking  for  gold,  jewels  or 
valuable  furs  among  the  natives,  rather  than  to  perform  the  rude 
labor  necessary  on  the  part  of  him  who  settles  a  new  country. 

In  May,  1702,  England  declared  war  against  France  and  Spain, 
and  Louis  XIV  ordered  the  headquarters  of  the  governor  of  Lou- 
isiana to  be  removed  to  Mobile  bay.    Leaving  Bienville  to  carry  out 


528  LOUISIANA 

this  order,  Iberville  bade  farewell  to  the  colony  and  sailed  for 
France.  It  was  his  intention  to  return  to  Louisiana,  but  he  was 
ordered  to  duty  in  the  French  navy.  The  colony  was  neglected  for 
a  time,  but  he  tinally  managed  to  send  his  brother,  Chateauguay, 
■vvith  a  ship-load  of  supplies  to  its  relief.  In  the  spring  of  1706  he 
left  France  for  -Mobile,  but  died  at  Havana  of  yellow  fever  on  the 
9th  of  July. 

Ida,  a  village  in  the  northern  part  of  Caddo  parish,  is  a  station 
on  the  Texas  &  Pacific  R.  R.,  about  a  mile  south  of  the  Arkansas 
boiindary.  It  has  a  money  order  postoffice,  express  office,  telegraph 
station  and  a  good  retail  trade.     Population,  300. 

Immigration,  Bureau  of. — By  the  act  of  March  17,  1866,  the  legis- 
lature of  Loui.siana  extended  to  the  world  the  first  of  a  series  of 
official  invitations  to  come  and  share  the  bountiful  blessings  which 
nature  has  so  generously  showered  upon  this  portion  of  the  Western 
Hemisphere.  This  act  provided  for  a  department  of  government, 
to  be  known  as  the  "bureaii  of  immigration,"  the  chief  of  which 
was  to  be  appointed  by  the  governor,  and  was  to  receive  an  annual 
salary  of  $3,500.  The  bureau  was  authorized  to  maintain  "one  or 
more  agents"  in  foreign  countries  for  the  purpose  of  advertising 
the  many  physical  merits  and  resources  of  the  state,  and  to  attend 
to  the  matter  of  transporting,  at  the  very  lowest  possible  rate,  all 
those  who  might  desire  to  immigrate  to  Louisiana.  Said  agent  was 
required  to  obtain  all  the  information  possible  concerning  those 
aboiit  to  sail  for  the  New  World,  and  this  information  was  to  be 
forwarded  to  the  chief  of  the  bureaii  at  Baton  Rouge.  Five  days  ' 
after  the  enactment  of  this  act  the  legislature  passed  a  law  looking 
to  the  protection  of  the  immigrants.  Among  other  things  it  pro- 
vided that  all  immigrant  boarding  houses  and  all  transportation 
agents  dealing  exclusively  with  the  above  class  of  people  should  be 
licensed.  It  further  provided  that  all  government  ofifieials,  both 
state  and  municipal,  no  matter  whether  or  not  they  were  employes 
of  the  immigrant  bureau,  must  refrain  from  dealing  with  or  solicit- 
ing immigrants  for  their  own  private  gain,  and  the  issuance  of 
boarding  house  licenses  to  keepers  of  saloons  and  cofi^ee  houses  was 
forbidden.  On  liar.  8,  1869,  the  bureau  was  reorganized  by  legis- 
lative enactment,  in  that  6  commissioners — each  to  serve  for  a  term 
of  six  years — were  to  have  charge  of  immigration  matters.  Among 
other  things  it  further  provided  that  an  employment  bureau,  for 
the  benefit  of  immigrants  seeking  work,  should  be  established  at 
New  Orleans. 

Up  to  the  year  1880,  immigration  and  agriciiltural  matters  of  the 
state  had  been  supervised  by  two  distinct  governmental  bodies — 
the  "bureau  of  immigration"  and  the  "bureau  of  agriculture." 
On  Mar.  23,  1880,  these  two  departments  were  combined  under  the 
title  of  the  "commission  of  agriculture  and  immigration,"  which 
was  to  be  composed  of  three  members,  viz. :  the  governor,  the  sec- 
retary of  state,  and  a  commissioner  to  be  appointed  by  the  go%'- 
ernor  by  and  with  the  consent  of  the  state  senate.  Among  other 
things  the  act  provided  for  a  system  of  land  registration,  by  means 


LOUISIANA  529 

of  which  a  general  description  of  all  salable  lands,  whether  private 
or  public,  were  recorded  and  retained  in  the  principal  office  of  the 
bureau  at  New  Orleans,  where  all  such  registers  were  subject  to 
free  examination  by  all  immigrants.  Act  No.  54,  passed  by  the 
legislature  of  1884,  again  placed  agricultural  and  immigration 
matters  under  separate  departments  of  government.  The  "bureau 
of  immigration"  was  to  be  composed  of  a  commissioner,  to  be  ap- 
pointed by  the  governor  by  and  with  the  consent  of  the  senate,  the 
governor  himself,  the  presidents  of  the  cotton  and  sugar  exchanges, 
and  the  maritime  association  of  New  Orleans.  The  "bureau  of  ag- 
riculture" was  to  be  composed  of  a  commissioner,  to  be  appointed 
by  the  governor  by  and  with  the  consent  of  the  senate,  the  pro- 
fessor of  agricultural  chemistry  of  the  state  university,  and  the 
president  of  the  latter  institution.  Under  these  two  commissions 
the  governmental  affairs  of  immigration  and  agriculture  were  sepa- 
rately conducted  up  to  the  year  1894,  when  the  two  departments 
were  again  united  by  legislative  enactment,  which  provided  for  the 
establishment  of  a  commission  to  be  composed  of  a  "commissioner 
of  agriculture  and  immigration,"  the  governor  of  the  state,  and  the 
vice-president  of  the  state  university.  The  tirst  was  to  be  ap- 
pointed by  the  governor,  was  to  receive  an  annual  salary  of  $2,500, 
and  was  to  hold  office  for  a  term  of  4  years.  The  other  two  officials 
were  to  be  ex-officio  members  of  the  commission,  and  the  chief  bur- 
den of  executive  matters  was  to  rest  on  the  shoulders  of  the  com- 
missioner. The  bureau  thus  remained  up  to  the  time  of  the  con- 
vening of  the  constitutional  convention  of  1898,  which  decided  to 
change  the  composition  of  this  bureau  by  providing  in  Article  307 
of  the  constitution  that  the  "State  board  of  agriculture  and  Immi- 
gration" should  be  composed  of  one  member  from  each  congres- 
sional district  of  the  state,  to  be  appointed  by  the  governor  for  a 
term  of  6  years  (two  members  to  retire  every  2  years),  tlie  regular 
commissioner  of  agriculture  and  immigration  provided  for  by  the 
act  of  1894,  the  governor  of  the  state,  the  president  of  the  state  uni- 
versity, the  director  of  the  state  experiment  stations,  and  the  vice- 
president  of  the  board  of  supervisors  of  -the  state  university.  The 
next  article  of  this  constitution  (308)  well  expresses  the  general 
sentiment  of  the  state  at  that  time  in  regard  to  immigration  as 
follows:  "The  paramount  importance  of  our  agricultural  interests 
and  the  necessity  of  peopling  with  a  desirable  population  the  vacant 
unoccupied  areas  of  oiu-  fertile  lands,  require  an  enlargement  of 
the  duties  and  an  expansion  of  the  scope  of  the  work  of  this  board 
for  which  the  general  assembly  shall  enact  such  laws  as  may  be 
necessary  to  carry  out  the  provisions  of  this  article."  In  response 
to  this  the  legislature  of  1904  provided  that  when  in  the  opinion 
of  the  state  commissioner  of  agriculture  and  immigration  it  shall 
be  expedient  to  render  the  police  jury  of  any  parish  state  financial 
aid  for  the  piirpose  of  advertising  the  merits  of  the  climate  and 
natural  resources  of  such  parish  lie  may  do  so  to  the  extent  of  .$500 
per  annum.  Another  act  of  tiie  same  legislature  made  the  office  of 
commissioner  of  agriculture  and  immigration  elective,  and  he  is 
1—34 


530  LOUISIANA 

now  chosen  by  the  voters  of  the  state  at  the  regular  state  election. 
He  still  holds  for  a  term  of  4  years  and  receives  his  annual  salary 
of  $2,500,  as  under  the  old  law.  The  other  members  of  the  State 
board  of  Agriculture  and  Immigration,  provided  for  by  the  consti- 
tution, are  still  chosen  by  appointment.  Charles  Schuler  was  the 
first  citizen  of  the  state  to  be  elected  to  the  commissionership  men- 
tioned above,  having  been  chosen  for  that  office  in  April,  1906. 
His  administration  of  the  office  was  a  very  successful  one,  as  he  was 
admirably  equipped  for  the  position.  A  short  time  ago  he  published 
a  comprehensive  article  on  the  opportunities  awaiting  the  sturdy 
working  man  in  this  state,  from  which  the  following  pithy  extracts 
are  taken:  "There  is  no  section  of  the  United  States  that  is  de- 
veloping more  rapidly  or  presents  greater  opportunities  for  invest- 
ments or  more  inducements  to  a  sturdy  class  of  farmers  than  the 
Southern  states,  comprised  of  the  Carolinas,  Florida,  Tennessee, 
Mississippi,  Arkansas,  Louisiana  and  Texas.  *  *  »  Louisiana 
is  not  opposed  to  the  right  kind  of  immigrants  so  they  come  with 
the  intention  of  becoming  citizens  and  settlers.  The  relation  of 
Louisiana  to  the  question  of  immigration  is  different  from  other 
states  of  the  Union.  There  is  no  congestion  in  here  nor  is  there 
likely  to  be  for  generations  to  come,  as  there  are  plenty  of  unde- 
veloped lands  and  work  for  all  who  decide  to  cast  their  lot  with 
us."  In  issuing  the  Farmers'  Institute  Bulletin  No.  11  to  the  pub- 
lic, Mr.  Schuler  also  submitted  a  letter  to  Gov.  Blanchard,  which 
contains .  the  following  concerning  immigration :  '  'My  trip  to 
Europe  in  the  interest  of  immigration  was  one  of  hard,  faithful 
work,  from  which  I,  however,  derived  the  satisfaction  of  estab- 
lishing important  business  connections  with  a  number  of  very  reli- 
able and  experienced  men,  who  now  represent  the  state  of  Louisi- 
ana in  Em-ope,  and  are  engaged  in  distributing  literatm-e  trans- 
lated into  foreign  languages  concerning  the  resources,  opportuni- 
ties and  advantages  of  coming  to  a  state  offering  the  very  best  in- 
ducements." The  department  of  agriculture  and  immigration  is 
behind  a  good  roads  movement  now  receiving  attention  all  over 
the  state,  and  as  a  result  Louisiana  is  rapidly  acquiring  a  system 
of  smooth,  substantial  and  durable  highways. 

Independence,  a  village  located  in  the  western  part  of  Tangipa- 
hoa parish,  is  on  the  Illinois  Central  E.  R.,  6  miles  south  of  Amite, 
the  parish  seat.  It  has  a  money  order  postoffice,  express  office,  tel- 
egraph station,  telephone  facilities  and  a  bank.  It  is  in  the  great 
garden  and  fruit  raising  district  that  furnishes  the  northern  mar- 
kets with  early  vegetables  and  fruits,  and  is  a  considerable  busi- 
ness town.    Population,  1,004. 

Indian  Bayou,  a  post-hamlet  of  Vermilion  parish,  is  situated  on 
the  Queue  de  Tortue,  in  the  northwest  corner  of  the  parish.  Rayne, 
on  the  Southern  Pacific,  8  miles  north,  is  the  nearest  railroad  sta- 
tion. 

Indianmound,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  northeastern  part  of  East 
Baton  Rouge  parish,  is  near  the  Amite  river,  about  6  miles  south- 


LOUISIANA  531 

est  of  Milltown,  the  nearest  railroad  station,  and  15  miles  north- 
east of  Baton  Rouge,  the  parish  seat. 

Indians. — The  early  annals  of  Louisiana  during  the  French  and 
Spanish  dominations  abound  in  references  to  various  Indian  ti'ibes. 
"Wherever  the  French  penetrated  in  their  work  of  exploration  and 
colonization  these  primitive  peoples  were  found  in  possession  of 
the  soil,  and  it  is  the  purpose  of  this  article  to  give  some  account 
of  those  tribes  and  confederacies,  whose  history  is  most  closely 
interwoven  with  that  of  Louisiana.  The  domain  of  French  and 
even  Spanish  Louisiana  embraced  the  major  portion  of  the  great 
Mississippi  valley,  and  the  limits  of  this  article  preclude  more  than 
a  passing  reference  to  the  more  distant  tribes,  far  removed  from  the 
center  of  French  and  Spanish  influence  at  New  Orleans.  The  sci- 
ences of  ethnology  and  archaaology  have  now  pretty  well  estab- 
lished the  essential  ethnic  unity  of  the  whole  race  of  Indians  of  the 
Western  Hemisphere,  from  Alaska  to  Patagonia,  so  that  the  Indians 
of  Loiiisiana  will  be  found  to  differ  from  the  others  of  their  race  in 
no  fundamental  particulars.  True,  when  first  encountered  by  the 
whites,  they  were  living  in  varioixs  stages  of  progress,  but  gener- 
ally speaking  these  southern  Indians,  when  the  whites  first  knew 
them,  were  still  a  people  of  stone  culture,  like  their  fellows  all  over 
the  continent.  If  there  were  instances  of  arrested  development, 
due  perhaps  to  a  variety  of  causes  such  as  wars,  disease,  climate, 
etc.,  the  variations  were  similar  to  those  met  with  among  all  races 
in  the  progress  of  their  development.  Uneven  progress  marks  the 
onward  march  of  every  race  and  people.  As  everywhere,  the  south- 
em  Indians  were  village  dwellers  and  their  main  dependence  for 
the  means  of  livelihood  was  upon  some  primitive  form  of  agi-icul- 
ture,  hunting  and  fishing.  Numerous  tribes  east  of  the  Mississippi 
such  as  the  Natchez,  Choctaw  and  Creek,  had  long  attained  to  a 
fixed  habitat,  and  chiefly  because  of  this  were  further  advanced  in 
agriculture  than  were  many  of  their  brethren  west  of  the  great 
river.  The  religion  of  the  southern  Indian  was  zoothenism,  their 
gods  being  deified  men  and  animals.  The  heavenly  bodies  were 
also  personified  as  men  or  animals  and  were  worshiped  as  such. 
Each  tribe  and  nation  differed  in  its  form  and  ceremonial  of  wor- 
ship, each  had  its  own  peculiar  superstitions  and  forms  of  religious 
observance,  but  none  of  the  tribes  had  advanced  to  the  monothe- 
istic conception,  and  the  idea  of  a  single  "Great  Spirit"  was  con- 
veyed to  them  by  the  European.  Many  of  their  religious  cere- 
monials were  quite  elaborate  and  occurred  at  stated  times,  such  as 
the  famous  green  corn  rites  of  the  Natchez,  Creek  and  Choctaw. 
In  the  matter  of  government  the  confederacy  represented  their 
highest  development,  while  most  of  the  tribes  had  the  clanship  or- 
ganization and  reckoned  their  descent  in  the  female  line.  The 
southern  Indians,  in  common  with  others  of  their  race,  lacked  do- 
mestic animals,  beasts  of  burden,  fire-places  or  chimneys,  inside 
stairs  and  wheeled  vehicles  of  any  description.  Some  effort  was 
made  by  many  of  the  early  chroniclers  to  weave  a  web  of  romance 
and  former  glory  about  some  of  the  tribes  and  attribute  to  them 


r,;i2  LOUISIANA 

a  degree  of  poAver  and  civilization  nn\yarrantcd  by  the  facts.  Espe- 
cially was  this  tnie  of  the  vauislied  nation  of  the  Natchez — a  re- 
markable people  in  many  ways,  lint  one  that  eouforraed  neverthe- 
less in  all  essential  particnlars  to  the  foregoing  general  statements. 

When  the  French  first  arrived  in  Louisiana  in  1699,  the  more  im- 
portant tribal  groups  or  linguistic  stocks  found  within  the  limits 
of  the  present  state  and  in  the  regions  contiguous  thereto  were  the 
following :  Adaizan,  in  western  Louisiana :  Attachapan.  in  south- 
ern Louisiana  ;  Caddoan,  the  southern  group  thereof  dwelling  along 
the  lower  Ked  river  and  its  tributaries  in  Louisiana,  Arkansas  and 
Eastern  Texas;  ^Muskhogean,  embracing  tlie  Choctaw,  Chickasaw, 
Creek  and  numerous  lesser  tribes,  dwelling  for  the  most  part  in 
eastern  Louisiana,  JMississippi,  Alabama,  Georgia,  Florida  and 
Tennessee ;  Chitimachan,  in  .southern  Louisiana ;  Natchesan,  in 
western  Mississippi  and  northern  Louisiana,  a  small  remnant  now 
in  Oklahoma;  Sioiiau,  occupying  for  the  most  part  the  region 
extending  from  northern  Louisiana  to  the  province  of  Saskatche- 
wan, and  with  numerous  scattered  tribes  in  Wisconsin,  North  and 
South  Carolina,  Virginia,  and  along  the  Mississippi  Sound;  Toni- 
kan,  in  eastern  Louisiana  and  western  JMississippi.  The  above  dis- 
tribution and  classification  of  these  tribal  groups  on  the  basis  of 
language  has  been  foimd  to  be  the  most  scientitie  and  accurate  by 
modern  scholars,  having  been  adopted  by  such  eminent  investi- 
gators as  Gallatin,  Halbert,  Powell,  Dellanbaugh  and  others,  and 
is  the  arrangement  adopted  by  the  U.  S.  bureau  of  ethnology,  which 
has  succeeded  in  distinguishing  at  least  65  of  these  separate  stock 
languages  in  North  America.  The  subdivisions  of  these  stocks  were 
not  always  contiguously  distributed,  and  certain  tribes  will  be  found 
widely  separated  from  tlie  main  liody  of  their  kindred.  For  in- 
stance, within  the  horizon  of  the  JMuskhogean  stock,  were  found  at 
the  coming  of  the  whites,  many  small  tribes  speaking  languages 
entirely  alien  and  distinct,  such  as  tlie  Chitimachas.  Biloxis,  Pasca- 
goulas,  Taensas  and  Natchez.  Says  Brinton:  "AVe  may  reason- 
ably suppose  them  to  have  been  the  debris  of  the  ancient  popula- 
tion who  held  the  land  before  the  Muskokis  had  descended  upon  it 
from  the  north  and  M-est." 

Such  various  and  different  titles  were  sometimes  applied  by  the 
early  French,  Spanish  and  English  writers  to  the  same  tribe,  it  has 
not  always  been  possible  to  identify  these  tribes  with  any  of  the 
list  as  classified  by  modern  scholarship.  As  a  rule  only  the'  modern 
spelling  has  been  adopted  in  the  present  instance,  with  an  occa- 
sional reference  to  some  of  the  earlier  designations  for  the  purpose 
of  identification. 

Of  the  various  tribes  forming  the  so-called  Muskhogean  stock  the 
following  is  believed  to  be  a  nearly  complete  list :  Alibamu,  Apa- 
lachi,  Bayagoula,  Chatot,  Chickasaw,  Choctaw,  Coosa,  Coshatta, 
Creek,  Hitcliitee.  Huma.  Koasati,  JMobile,  Muskoki,  Tunglas,  Sem- 
inole, Yamacraw  and  Yamasi.  Only  a  portion  of  these,  by  reason 
of  their  geographical  location,  are  germane  to  this  article!  Speak- 
ing in  general  terms  of  the  Muskhogean  (also  termed  the  ]\Iasko- 


LOUISIANA  533 

kian  or  Miiskokiau,  and  the  Clioctaw-Muskhogean)  linguistic  fam- 
ily of  tribes,  it  may  be  said  to  have  occupied  for  many  centuries 
prior  to  the  coming  of  the  white  races  all  that  vast  area  of  land 
extending  from  the  Savannah  river  and  the  Atlantic  west  to  the 
Mississippi  river,  in  a  few  instances,  some  of  the  region  beyond 
that  great  barrier,  and  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  north  to  the  Tenn- 
essee river,  with  the  excej^tion  of  certain  small  areas  in  the  pos- 
session of  the  Yuchi,  Natchez  and  some  small  settlements  of  Shawni, 
(7th  An.  Rep.,  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  p.  94,  J.  W.  Powell).  A.  S. 
Gatschet's  Creek  Migration  Legend  of  1884  says:  "Among  the 
various  nationalities  of  the  Gulf  territories  the  Maskoki  family  of 
tribes  occupied  a  central  and  commanding  position.  Not  only  the 
large  extent  of  territory  held  by  them,  but  also  their  numbers,  their 
prowess  in  war,  and  a  certain  degree  of  mental  culture  and  self 
esteem,  made  of  the  Maskoki  one  of  the  most  important  groups 
in  Indian  history.  Prom  their  ethnologic  condition  of  later  times, 
we  infer  that  these  tribes  have  extended  for  many  centuries  back 
in  time  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Mississippi,  and  beyond  tliat  river, 
and  from  the  Appalachian  ridge  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico."  He  de- 
clares that  they  caused  much  trouble  to  the  English  and  French 
colonies,  and  some  of  the  tribes  constantly  wavered  in  their  alle- 
giance between  the  English  and  French  cause.  The  American  gov- 
ernment, after  the  end  of  the  Revolutionary  war,  overcame  their 
opposition  easily,  when  necessary  (Seminoles  excepted),  as  the 
various  tribes  were  never  able  to  unite  successfully.  The  two  main 
branches  of  the  stock,  the  Creek  and  Choctaw  Indians,  were  con- 
stantly at  war,  the  circumstantial  proof  of  whicli  is  embodied  in 
their  folklore.  From  the  main  people  the  Choctaws  settled  in  the 
middle  portions  of  the  present  state  of  Mississippi,  and  by  process 
of  segmentation  tlie  Chickasaws  and  several  smaller  tribes  became 
separated  from  the  parent  tribe.  The  strongest  evidence  for  a  com- 
munity of  origin  of  the  Maskoki  tribes  is  furnLshed  by  the  fact  that 
their  dialects  belong  to  one  linguistic  family.  The  English  came  to 
speak  of  them  as  Creeks,  because  tlie  early  English  traders  in  enter- 
ing their  country  from  Charleston  or  Savannah  were  compelled  to 
cross  a  large  number  of  creeks  and  streams.  Gatschet  also  says,  "In 
the  southern  part  of  the  Choctaw  territory  several  tribes  represented 
to  be  of  Choctaw  lineage  appear  as  distinct  from  the  main  branch, 
and  are  always  mentioned  separately.  The  French  colonists  called 
them  Mobilians,  Tohomes,  Pascagoulas,  Biloxis,  Mougoulachas, 
Bayagoulas,  and  Iloumas  (Oumas).  All  have  disappeared  except  the 
Biloxis,  of  whom  scattered  remnants  live  in  the  forests  of  Louisiana, 
south  of  Red  river."  (H.  S.  Halljcrt  has  located  siirvivors  of  both 
the  Biloxi  and  Pascagoula  tribes.)     , 

The  Choctaw  nation,  one  of  the  great  branches  of  the  Muskho- 
gean  stock,  as  before  stated,  lived  farthest  west  in  the  central  part 
of  the  present  state  of  Mississippi.  They  were  the  most  powerful 
tribe  with  whom  the  French  came  in  contact  and  early  writers  state 
that  they  could  muster  10,000  warriors.  The  English  trader,  James 
Adair,  estimated  their  numbers  after  the  cession  of  West  Florida 


534  LOUISIANA 

to  the  English  at  less  than  4,500  warriors.  All  writers  unite  in  say- 
ing that  the  Choetaws  were  gathered  on  their  eastern  frontier  into 
compact  villages  for  purposes  of  defense,  but  lived  widely  separated 
within  the  interior  of  their  country.  Adair  wrote  in  1775:  "The 
Choctaw  country  lies  in  about  33  and  34  deg.  north  latitude.  Ac- 
cording to  the  course  of  the  Indian  path,  their  western  lower  towns 
are  situated  200  computed  miles  to  the  northward  of  New  Orleans; 
the  upper  ones,  150  miles  to  the  southward  of  the  Chickasaw  nation, 
150  miles  to  the  west  of  the  late  dangerous  French  Alabama  garri- 
son in  the  Muskhogee  country  (Fort  Toulouse),  and  150  to  the  north 
of  Mobile,  which  is  the  first  settlement  and  only  town,  except  New 
Orleans,  that  the  French  had  in  "West  Florida.  Their  country  is 
pretty  much  in  the  form  of  an  oblong  square.  The  barrier  towns, 
which  are  next  to  the  Muskhogee  and  Chickasaw  countries,  are  com- 
pactly settled  for  social  defense,  according  to  the  general  method  of 
other  savage  nations ;  but  the  rest,  both  in  the  center,  and  toward 
the  Mississippi,  are  onlj''  scattered  plantations,  as  best  suits  a  sepa- 
rate easy  Avay  of  living. ' ' 

Koosah  (Coosa)  was  the  largest  town  in  the  nation,  and  was  dis- 
tant from  Mobile  about  180  miles,  "at  a  small  distance  from  the 
river  which  glides  by  that  Ioav  and  unhealthy  old  capital."  (Adair). 
The  same  author  also  speaks  of  a  remote,  but  considerable  town, 
called  "Yowanne,"  that  lay  40  miles  below  the  7  southernmost 
towns  of  the  nation,  towards  Mobile,  which  was  distant  120  miles. 
"As  it  is  a  remote  barrier,  it  is  greatly  harassed  by  the  Muskhogee, 
when  at  war  with  them."  When  Adair  wrote,  tlie  town  was  ruled 
by  the  Mingo  Humma  Echeto,  the  Great  Red  Chieftan,  and  was  de- 
fended by  a  palisaded  fort.  The  Choctaw  were  alwaj's  somewhat 
uncertain  in  their  allegiance,  but  as  a  rule  were  friendly  to  the 
French  and  hostile  to  the  English.  By  reason  of  their  strength  they 
were  much  courted  by  the  French,  Spanish  and  English  governors, 
Adair,  who  was  doubtless  prejudiced  against  them,  has  character- 
ized this  people  as  "of  a  base,  ungrateful  and  thievish  disposition — 
fickle  and  treacherous — ready-witted,  and  endued  with  a  surprising 
flow  of  smooth  artful  language  on  every  sub.iect  within  the  reach 
of  their  ideas;  in  each  of  these  qualities,  they  far  exceed  any  society 

of  people  I  ever  saw Except  the  intense  love  they  bear  to 

their  native  country,  and  their  xiUev  contempt  of  any  kind  of  danger 
in  defense  of  it,  I  know  of  no  other  virtue  they  possess."  He  fur- 
ther declares  that  "having  no  rivers  in  their  country  (though  it 
abounds  with  springs  and  creeks),  few  of  them  can  swim  like  other 
Indians,  which  often  proves  hurtful  to  them  wlien  high  freshets 
come  on  M-hile  they  are  out  at  war."  They  "flatten  their  foreheads 
with  a  bap:  of  sand,  which  with  great  care  they  keep  fastened  on 
the  skull  of  the  infant,  while  it  is  in  its  tender  and  imperfect  state. 
Thus  they  quite  deform  the  face,  and  give  themselves  an  appear- ' 
ance  which  is  disagreeable  to  any  but  those  of  their  own  likeness." 
The  Choetaws,  by  reason  of  the  genial  nature  of  the  climate  where 
they  lived  and  the  fertile  plains  and  gently  sloping  lulls  of  their 
native  land,  excelled  most  North  American  tribes  in  their  devotion 


LOUISIANA  535 

to  agricultural  pursuits.  They  cultivated  extensive  fields  of  maize, 
beans,  squashes  and  tobacco,  and  placed  but  limited  dependence  on 
the  chase..  Choctaw  tradition  asserts  that  after  their  creation,  they 
subsisted  for  a  long  time  on  the  spontaneous  productions  of  the  earth 
until  they  discovered  maize  a  few  miles  distant  from  their  saci-ed 
mound,  Nanih  Waiya.  One  version  of  the  corn-finding  myth  is  thus 
given  by  Halbert:  "A  long  time  ago  it  thus  happened.  In  the  very 
beginning  a  crow  got  a  single  grain  of  corn  from  across  the  great 
water  (Gulf  of  Mexico),  brought  it  to  this  country  and  gave  it  to 
an  orphan  child,  who  was  playing  in  the  yard.  The  child  named 
it  tauohi  (corn).  He  planted  it  in  the  yard.  "When  the  corn  was 
growing  up,  the  child's  elders  merely  had  it  swept  around.  But  the 
child,  wishing  to  have  his  own  way,  hoed  it,  hilled  it  up,  and  laid  it 
by.  When  this  single  grain  of  corn  grew  up  and  matured,  it  made 
two  ears  of  corn.  And  in  this  way  the  ancestors  of  the  Choctaws  dis- 
covered corn."  Scholars  unite  in  assigning  a  common  origin 
to  the  Choctaws  and  Chickasaws,  based  on  language;  tradition,  reli- 
gion and  customs.  The  numerous  versions  of  their  famous  migration 
legend  all  agree  in  certain  general  facts,  such  as  the  migration  of 
their  ancestors  from  the  west  and  the  northwest,  the  prophet  and  his 
saerod  pole,  and  the  final  settlement  at  Nanih  Waiya,  their 
great  sacred  mound,  in  the  southern  part  of  Winston  coiinty,  Miss. 
Another  legend  also  describes  Nanih  Waiya,  the  Bending  Mount,  as 
the  place  where  they  separated  from  their  Irinsmen,  the  Chickasaws. 

The  botanist,  William  Bartram,  wrote  of  the  Muskhogee  (Creek) 
that  "some  of  their  most  favorite  songs  and  dances  they  have  from 
their  enemies  the  Choctaws;  for  it  seems  that  these  people  are  very 
eminent  for  poetry  and  music ;  every  town  among  them  strives  to 
excel  each  other  in  composing  new  songs  for  dances;  and  by  a  cus- 
tom amongst  them,  they  must  have  at  least  one  new  song  for  exhibi- 
tion, at  every  annual  busk."  (Bartram 's  Travels,  p.  516,  London, 
1792.) 

Among  the  Choctaw,  as  well  as  the  other  Muskhogean  tribes,  and, 
indeed,  among  the  North  American  Indians  generally,  the  gentile  or 
clan.ship  sj'stem  prevailed.  These  gentes  or  family  groups  were  based 
upon  3  principal  conceptions,  says  Morgan,  viz:  "the  bond  of  kin, 
a  pure  lineage  through  descent  in  the  female  line,  and  non-intermar- 
riage in  the  gens."  According  to  G-allatin  there  were  2  great  divisions 
among  the  Choctaws,  each  of  which  were  subdivided  into  4  clans; 
and  no  man  could  marry  into  any  of  the  4  clans  belonging  to  his  divi- 
sion. In  the  case  of  the  Cherokee,  Creek  and  Natchez  tribes,  the  re- 
striction upon  marriage  did  not  extend  beyond  the  clan  to  which  the 
man  belonged.  "According  to  ancient  custom,  if  an  offense  was  com- 
mitted by  one  against  another  member  of  the  elan,  the  compensation 
to  be  made  on  account  of  the  injury  was  regulated  in  an  amicable 
way  by  the  other  members  of  his  clan.  Murder  was  rarely  expiated 
in  any  other  way  than  by  the  death  of  the  murderer ;  but  the  nearest 
male  relative  of  the  deceased  was  the  executioner,  acting  xmder  au- 
thority of  the  clan,  and  there  was  no  further  retaliation."  Each  clan 
could  elect  or  depose  its  sachem  or  chief,  could  adopt  strangers  into 


536  LOUISIANA 

*he  gens,  maintained  common  religious  rites  and  a  common  burial 
place,  and  had  its  own  membei-s  of  the  same  gens  having  the  same 
totem,  and  his  or  her  name  usually  indicating  this  totem  (Dellen- 
baugh).  After  the  Federal  government  assumed  jurisdiction  over 
the  various  Indian  tribes  subsequent  to  the  Revolutionary  war.  the 
Choetaws  were  induced  to  cede  gradually  all  their  lands  east  of  the 
Mississippi  to  the  government  by  a  series  of  treaties  extending  down 
to  1832.  and  to  remove  to  lands  specially  appropriated  to  their  use 
in  the  Indian  Ten-itory.  In  1836  their  numbers  were  estimated  by 
the  war  depai-tment  at  18,500.  They  have  prospered  in  their  new 
home,  and  like  the  Cherokee  and  Chickasaw  tribes  have  become  a 
highly  civilized  people. 

The  Chickasaw  nation,  one  of  the  important  branches  of  the  Musk- 
hogean  family,  was  doubtless  descended  from  the  same  primitive 
stock  as  the  Choctaw  nation,  but  had  separated  therefrom  long  be- 
fore the  coming  of  the  whites.  Their  country  ad.ioined  that  of  the 
Choetaws  on  the  north.  Thi"oughout  the  colonial  period  they  were 
known  as  a  brave  and  warlike  tribe,  possessed  of  an  inveterate  hatred 
for  the  French,  but  firm  and  faithful  allies  of  tjie  English.  \  Their 
country  reached  neaidy  to  the  Ohio  on  the  north,  to  the  Mississippi 
on  the  west,  and  was  bounded  on  the  east  by  a  line  drawn  from  the 
bend  in  the  Cumberland  river  to  the  Mu.scle  shoals  of  the  Tennessee, 
extending  south  into  the  present  state  of  Mississippi  to  the  land  of 
the  Choetaws.  This  region,  as  happy  as  any  beneath  the  sun.  was 
intensely  loved  by  the  Chickasaws.  and  they  ever  fought  to  maintain 
their  hold  upon  it  with  an  intrepidity  and  daring  which  gained  them 
a  reputation  of  being  the  ablest  warriors  in  the  south.  It  was  their 
boast  that  they  never  suffered  a  decisive  defeat  at  the  hands  of  the 
whites.  The  colony  of  Louisiana  was  forced  to  carry  on  war  against 
this  tribe  for  several  years  at  the  close  of  Bienville's  administration, 
as  the  remnant  of  the  hostile  Natchez  had  sought  and  received  an 
a.sylum  among  the  Chicka.saws.  (See  Indian  Wars.) 

Tribal  tradition  asserted  that  they  were  once  a  very  numerous 
people,  and  had  10.000  men  fit  for  war  when  the^'  fii-st  came  from  the 
west,  which  was  possibly  true  when  they  formed  one  nation  with  the 
Choetaws.  They  were  never  a  numeroiis  people  within  the  memory 
of  the  whites.  Says  Adair:  "The  Chickasaws.  in  1720.  had  four 
large  contiguous  settlements,  which  lay  nearl.y  in  the  form  of  three 
parts  of  a  square,  only  that  the  eastern  side  was  five  miles  shoi'ter 
than  the  western,  with  the  open  part  toward  the  Choetaws.  One  was 
called  Yaneka.  about  a  mile  wide,  and  six  miles  long,  at  the  distance 
of  twelve  miles  from  their  present  towns.  Another  was  ten  com- 
puted miles  long,  at  the  like  distance  fi-om  their  present  settlements, 
and  from  one  to  two  miles  broad.  The  toTsnis  were  called  Shatara, 
Chookheerefo,  Hykehah.  Tufkawawillao  and  Phalacheho.  The  other 
square  was  single,  began  three  miles  from  their  present  place  of  resi- 
dence, and  ran  four  miles  in  length,  and  from  one  mile  in  breadth. 
This  was  called  Chookka  Phahaah,  or  'the  long  house.'  It  was  more 
populous  than  their  whole  nation  contains  at  present.  The  remains  of 
this  once  fonnidable  people  make  up  the  northern  angle  of  that  broken 


LOUISIANA  537 

square.  They  now  (1775)  consist  of  scarcely  450  warriors,  and  are 
settled  three  miles  Avestward  from  the  deep  creek,  in  a  clear  tract  of 
rich  land,  about  three  miles  square,  running  afterward  about  five 
miles  toward  the  northwest,  where  the  old  fields  are  usually  a  mile 
broad.  The  superior  number  of  their  enemies  forced  them  to  take  into 
this  narrow  circle,  for  social  defense ;  and  to  build  their  towns  on 
commanding  ground,  at  such  convenient  distance  from  one  another, 
as  to  have  their  enemies,  when  attacked,  between  two  fires."  The 
gentile  s,ystem  with  descent  in  the  female  line  prevailed  among  the 
Chickasaws  as  among  the  other  Muskhogean  tribes,  and  each  town 
was  wont  to  elect  its  chief  for  life  from  a  certain  gens.  The  head  man 
of  the  Chickasaws  was  called  "Mingo,"  and  sometimes  king,  who 
ruled  with  the  aid  of  a  council.  Every  man  of  due  age  and  authority 
was  admitted  to  this  council,  where  affairs  common  to  the  whole  nation 
were  transacted.  This  council  also  appointed  the  "war  chief,"  who 
obtained  and  held  his  post  simply  on  the  ground  of  merit  and  never 
on  account  of  birth.  In  the  various  treaties  made  with  the  tribe  by  the 
United  States  from  the  treaty  of  Hopewell  in  1786,  to  that  of  Pontoe 
in  1832,  the  signature  of  the  mingo  or  king  is  almost  invariably  affixed 
to  the  formal  instrument,  as  the  assent  of  the  head  chief  appears  to 
have  been  necessary  to  bind  the  nation.  During  the  decade  1830-40 
the  Chickasaws,  like  the  Choctaws,  ceded  their  last  remaining  lands 
east  of  the  Mississippi  to  the  United  States,  and  moved  to  a  region  set 
apart  for  them  within  the  Indian  Territory.  In  1837  the  treaty  of 
Doaksville  was  concluded  between  the  Chickasaws  and  Choctaws, 
wherein  the  latter,  already  settled  in  the  west,  agreed  to  allow  the 
Chickasaws  the  privilege  of  forming  a  district  within  their  limits;  to 
have  an  equal  representation  in  the  general  council;  and  to  be  placed 
on  an  equal  footing,  except  as  to  the  right  of  disposing  of  the  lands 
occupied  by  them,  or  of  participating  in  the  Choctaw  annuities;  the 
Chickasaws,  however,  to  be  allowed  to  manage  their  own  funds.  At 
this  time  a  census  of  the  war  department  gave  their  numbers  at  5,500. 
They  have  since  increased  considerably  in  numbers,  and  have  become 
quite  highly  civilized,  like  the  Choctaw,  Cherokee  and  Creek  nations. 
The  Creek  or  Muskhogee  nation,  (French,  Kaouitas),  whose  geo- 
graphical position  was  between  the  English  of  Carolina,  tlie  French 
of  Louisiana,  and  the  Spaniards  of  Florida,  and  whose  lands  bor- 
dered on  those  of  the  Choctaws,  Chickasaws  and  Cherokees,  attained 
a  political  importance  .second  to  no  tribe  north  of  the  Gulf  of  Mex- 
ico. Says  Bancroft:  "The  ridge  that  divided  the  Tombeebee  from 
the  Alabama,  was  the  line  that  separated  the  Choctas  from  the 
groups  of  tribes  which  were  soon  united  in  the  confederacy  of  the 
Creeks  or  Jluskhogees.  Their  territory,  including  all  Florida, 
reached,  on  the  north,  to  the  Cherokees;  on  the  northeast  and 
east,  to  the  country  on  the  Savannah  and  Atlantic.  Along  the 
sea,  their  northern  limits  seems  to  have  extended  almost  to  Cape 
Fear;  at  least  the  tribes  with  which  the  settlers  of  Charleston  first 
waged  war,  are  enumerated  by  one  writer  as  branches  of  the  Musk- 
hogees.  Their  popxilation,  spread  over  a  fourfold  wider  territory, 
did  not  exceed  that  of  the  Choctas  in  number.     Their  towns  were 


538  ■  LOUISIANA 

situated  on  the  banks  of  beautiful  creeks,  in  which  their  country 
abounded;  the  waters  of  their  bold  rivers,  from  the  Coosa  to  the 
Chattahoochee,  descended  rapidly,  with  a  clear  current,  through 
healthful  and  fertile  regions ;  they  were  careful  in  their  agricul- 
ture, and,  before  going  to  war,  assisted  their  women  to  plant 

They  readily  gave  shelter  to  fugitives  from  other  tribes,  and  their 
speech  became  so  modified,  that,  with  radical  resemblances,  it  has 
the  widest  departure  from  its  kindred  dialects."  Closely  allied 
with  the  Creeks  in  language  and  customs  were  the  Taraasi  tribe 
dwelling  aroiind  Port  Royal  bay,  S.  C,  and  the  Seminole  tribe  of 
Florida,  the  latter  of  whom  were  "wild  men"  lost  from  their  con- 
federacy, and  who  had  abandoned  agriculture  for  the  chase.  Ac- 
cording to  Briuton  the  Creeks  were  tall  and  slender,  while  the 
Chiekasaws  were  short  and  heaw.  They  were  united  into  more 
than  20  gentes,  and  everywhere  descent  was  in  the  female  line. 
When  first  met  with  by  De  Soto  they  were  tilling  extensive  fields, 
and  were  living  "in  permanent  towns  with  well-constructed 
wooden  edifices,  many  of  which  were  situated  on  high  mounds  of 
artificial  construction,  and  using  for  weapons  and  vitensils  stone 
implements  of  great  beauty  and  workmanship."  Brinton  has  pub- 
lished tlieir  famous  national  legend,  which  he  obtained  from  the 
hierogh-phics  painted  on  a  skin  by  their  chief  Chekilli  in  1731. 
"The  religious  rites  of  the  Creeks."  says  Brinton.  "were  so  elaborate 
that  they  attracted  early  attention,  and  we  have  quite  full  accounts  of 
them.  They  were  connected  with  the  worship  of  the  principle  of  fertil- 
ity, the  chief  celebration,  called  the  busk  (puskita,  fast),  being 
solemnized  when  the  young  corn  became  edible.  In  connection  with 
this  was  the  use  of  the  'black  drink.'  a  decoction  of  the  Iris  versicolor, 
and  the  maintenance  of  the  perpetual  fire.  Their  chief  divinity  was 
referred  to  as  the  'master  of  breath.'  or  of  life,  and  there  was  a  devel- 
oped s^nnbolism  of  colors,  white  representing  peaceful  and  pleasant 
ideas;  red.  those  of  war  and  danger."  The  Creek  nation  ranked  high 
in  military  prowess  as  well  as  in  political  sagacity,  a  fact  which 
they  siiificiently  demonstrated  in  the  Creek  war  of  1813-14,  when  for 
nearly  10  months  their  powerful  Confederacy  was  able  to  ofi'er  a  suc- 
cessful resistance  to  trained  American  soldiers,  their  defeat  being 
finally  brought  about  only  by  overwhelming  mimbers,  and  their 
country  overrun  and  devastated  from  three  directions,  the  force  from 
the  north  being  led  by  Gen,  Jackson  in  person.  The  origin  of  their 
famous  political  confederacy  is  unknown,  but  it  existed  in  remote 
tunes  before  the  coming  of  the  white  race,  and  embraced  numerous 
subjugated  tribes,  as  well  as  fugitive  tribes  that  had  applied  to  the 
Creek  nation  for  protection.  The  western  members  of  the  confederacy 
were  the  Alibamu.  who  claimed  to  the  banks  of  the  Tombigbee.  The 
coiuiti-y  of  the  Upper  Creeks  lay  along  the  Coosa  and  Tallapoosa 
rivers,  and  that  of  the  Lower  Creeks  along  the  Chattahoochee,  At 
the  time  of  the  Creek  war  of  1813-14  the  na^tion  appears  to  have  had 
about  50  towns  and  some  10,000  members,  including  the  women  and 
children. 
During  the  later  colonial  era,  both  the  Spanish  and  the  Americans 


LOUISIANA  539 

iiiade~  strenuous  efforts  to  establish  friendly  relations  with  the  Creek 
nation  by  treaty,  and  numerous  treaties  were  entered  into  with  them 
by  both  governments.  In  1805  the  United  States  obtained  the  cession 
of  a  "horse  path"  through  the  Creek  territory,  and  when  in  1811 
this  horse  path  developed  into  the  much  used  "Federal  road,"  cut 
from  a  point  on  the  Chattahoochee  river  to  Mims'  ferry  on  the  Ala- 
bama, over  which  a  stream  of  emigration  from  the  Atlantic  seaboard 
to  the  western  settlements  was  constantly  pouring,  the  Creek  people 
became  much  aroused.  This  constant  encroachment  of  the  whites  was 
one  of  the  principal  causes  of  the  war.  The  nation  sustained  its  final 
great  defeat  at  Horseshoe  bend.  Tallapoosa  river,  March  27,  1814,  at 
the  hands  of  Jackson  and  his  Cherokee  allies.  In  August  of  the  same 
year  the  defeated  nation  entered  into  a  treaty  of  peace  with  Jackson, 
whereby  they  surrendered  to  the  United  States  all  their  lands  except 
the  part  east  of  the  Coosa  river  and  of  a  line  drawn  southeasterly 
from  Fort  Jackson  (the  old  French  Fort  Toulouse).  The  Creeks  were 
forbidden  all  communication  with  British  or  Spanish  posts;  and  the 
United  States  were  given  the  right  to  establish  military  posts,  roads 
and  free  navigation  of  waters  within  the  territory  guaranteed  the 
Indians.  The  formidable  power  of  the  Creek  confederacy  was  forever 
broken  by  the  war,  and  the  nation  now  constitutes  one  of  the  civilized 
tribes  embraced  within  the  recent  Indian  Territory. 

The  foregoing  relates  to  the  three  main  branches  of  the  Musk- 
hogean  stock,  the  Choctaw,  Chickasaw  and  Creek,  and  the  remainder 
of  this  article  will  be  given  to  a  discussion  of  some  of  the  inferior 
tribes.  The  Alibamu  (Alabama,  Alibamon)  Indians,  whose  language 
identifies  them  with  the  Muskhogean  stock,  came  into  close  and 
friendl.v  relation  with  the  French  during  colonial  days.  Their  original 
habitat  appears  to  have  been  on  the  Yazoo,  but  on  the  arrival  of  the 
French  in  Louisiana  the  tribe  was  living  upon  the  river  that  bears 
its  name  and  constituted  the  nearest  portion  of  the  Creek  confederacy 
to  the  Mobile  settlement.  In  1702,  1704  and  1708,  the  French  were 
compelled  to  send  expeditions  against  them,  and  in  1714,  Fort  Tou- 
louse (q.  v.),  usually  referred  to  as  "Aux  Alibamons,"  was  built  in 
their  teiTitory.  As  a  result  of  these  energetic  measures,  the  Alibamu 
became  docile  allies  of  the  French  ever  after.  A  few  members  of  the 
tribe  are  still  extant  in  Louisiana,  Texas  and  near  a  town  of  their 
name  in  Oklahoma. 

The  Bayagoulas,  an  extinct  Muskhogean  tribe,  in  1700  lived  with 
the  Mugulashas  in  a  village  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Mississippi,  about 
64  miles  above  the  mouth  and  30  leagues  below  the  Houraa  town. 
Iberville  described  their  village  as  consisting  of  2  temples  and  107 
cabins.  They  then  numbered  from  200  to  250  men,  probably  includ- 
ing the  Mugulashas.  Not  long  after  as  the  result  of  a  dispute  between 
the  chiefs  of  the  2  tribes,  the  Bayagoiilas  almost  extenninated  the 
Mugulashas.  but  were  themselves  nearly  wiped  out  by  the  Tonika  tribe 
in  1706,  when  they  gave  that  treacherous  tribe  an  asylum  in  their 
midst.  Smallpox  later  worked  havoc  among  the  remnant  of  the  tribe 
and  none  were  left  in  1721. 

The  Chatot  (Chahta,  Chata),  identified  by  some  authorities  with  the 


540  LOUISIANA 

Muskhogeau  family,  Avere  a  tribe  or  baud  which  the  French  settled 
south  of  Fort  St.  Louis,  Mobile  Bay,  in  1709.  Bienville  found  it 
necessary  to  change  the  location  of  the  first  Mobile  settleiiu-nt  and 
"selected  a  place  where  the  nation  of  the  Chatots  were  residing,  and 
gave  them  in  exchange  for  it  a  piece  of  territory  fronting  on  Dog 
river.  2  leagues  farther  down  (Penicaut,  1709,  in  Frencli  Hist.  Coll. 
La.  I,  103,  1869).  Says  Halbert:  "The  Chatos  once  lived  on  the 
coast,  and  their  ethnic  afiinity  is  unknown.  Choctaw  tradition  asserts 
that  they  were  absorbed  by  the  Six  To^vns  Choctaws.  Their  name 
survives  in  a  creek  near  Mobile,  which  the  Choctaws  call  by  their 
name. ' ' 

Coshatta — A  Muskhogeau  tribe  living  near  the  Alabamii  when  the 
French  arrived,  became  much  attached  to  the  French,  and  a  large 
part  of  them,  after  the  French  power  gave  way  in  1763,  migi*ated 
into  Loiusiana  and  settled  on  the  Red  river. 

Hitchitee — A  subtribe  of  the  Creek  nation. 

Chozetta — In  Gatschet's  opinion  the  people  of  this  tribe  were 
Choctaws.  Ibendlle  in  1699  mentions  their  village  on  the  Pasc^goula 
river.  Halbert  also  locates  them  on  that  river  together  with  the  tribe 
of  tlie  !Mactoby,  and  thinks  they  may  liave  been  absorbed  by  either 
the  Pascagoula  or  Biloxi. 

Houma  (Ouma) — A  Choctaw  tribe  living  during  the  early  French 
period  7  leagues  above  Red  river  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Mississippi. 
In  1699  their  settlement  contained  140  cabins  and  350  families.  A  red 
pole  (Fr.  Baton  Rouge)  marked  the  boundary  between  them  and  the 
Bayagoula  on  the  south.  In  1706  the  Tonika  Indians  fled  to  them 
from  the  Chickasaws,  but  later  rose  against  them  and  killed  more 
than  half  their  number,  after  which  the  rest  of  the  Houmas  estab- 
lished themselves  near  the  site  of  New  Orleans.  They  afterwards 
settled  along  the  Bayou  Lafourche  and  near  the  present  town  of 
Houma,  which  was  named  for  them.  At  the  time  of  the  cession  of 
Louisiana  to  the  United  States,  they  were  reduced  by  sickness  and 
war  to  less  than  100  warriors.    The  tribe  is  now  extinct. 

Mugulasha — A  former  tribe  related  to  the  Choctaws,  lived  with 
the  Bayagoulas  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Mississippi,  64  miles  from 
the  mouth.  They  spoke  the  Bayagoula  language  and  have  been  identi- 
fied with  the  Quinipissa  of  La  Salle  and  Tonti.  They  M-ere  extermi- 
nated by  the  Bayagoulas  in  1700. 

Mobile — A  Muskhogeau  tribe  whose  early  home  was  probably  ilau- 
vila,  or  Mavila,  supposed  to  have  been  at  or  near  Choctaw  bluff  on 
the  Alabama  river,  where  De  Soto,  in  1540,  met  with  fierce  opposition 
on  the  part  of  the  natives.  Mauvila  was  then  under  the  control  of 
Tascalusa,  probably  an  Alibamu  chief.  The  Mobilian  tribe  doubtless 
took  part  in  the  fight,  but  later  moved  south,  as  the  French  found 
them  on  Mobile  bay  in  1700.  They  early  became  attached  to  the 
French  interests  and  were  allowed,  together  with  the  Tahome  tribe, 
to  settle  for  protection  in  1708  near  Fort  St.  Louis,  ilobile  bay.  They 
are  lost  to  history  as  a  tribe  since  about  the  middle  of  the  ISth  cen- 
tury. Tiie  so-called  Mobilian  trade  language  was  a  corrupted  Choctaw 
jargon  used  for  purposes  of  intertribal  communication  among  all  the 


LOUISIANA  541 

tribes  from  Florida  to  Louisiana  and  northwest  on  the  Mississippi 
river  nearly  to  the  Ohio. 

The  Biloxi  tribe  called  themselves  in  their  native  tongue  Taueks 
haya  (first  people).  They  were  a  small  Siouan  tribe  formerly  living 
in  southern  Mississippi  and  are  now  nearly  or  quite  extinct.  They 
were  once  supposed  to  belong  to  the  Musbhogean  stock  until  Gatschet 
visited  the  survivors  in  Louisiana  in  1886  and  found  that  many  of 
their  words  were  Siouan  in  character.  Iberville  found  the  Biloxi 
in  1699  about  Biloxi  bay  on  the  Gulf  coast,,  in  conjunction  with  2 
other  small  tribes,  the  Pascagoula  and  Mactohy  all  numbering  only 
aboiit  20  cabins.  The  Biloxi  removed  to  the  coast  of  Biloxi  bay  in 
1702  and  appear  to  have  migrated  west  of  the  Mississippi  into  Louisi- 
ana about  the  close  of  the  French  domination.  Writers  occasionally 
speak  of  meeting  with  a  few  families  of  the  tribe  during  the  last  cen- 
tury dAvelling  on  the  Red  river  and  in  Avoyelles  parish.  Gatschet 
found  some  of  them  in  the  latter  region  in  1886  and  said  there  were 
also  a  few  among  the  Choctaws  and  Caddoes.  In  1892  J.  Owen  Dorsey 
foimd  about  a  dozen  of  the  tribe  near  Lecompte,  Rapides  parish.  La., 
but  none  remained  at  Avoyelles.  Their  dwellings  resembled  those  of 
the  northern  tribes  of  the  Siouan  family. 

Maetoby — A  tribe  now  extinct,  was  found  by  Iberville  in  1699  liv- 
ing on  the  Pascagoula  river  with  the  Chozetta.  It  was  probably  ab- 
sorbed by  the  Pascagoula  or  the  Biloxi. 

Chitimacha  (Choctaw:  Chiti  "cooking  pot,"  masha  "they  possess," 
i.  e.,  "they  have  cooking  vessels") — A  tribe,  forming  the  Chiti- 
machan  linguistic  family,  whose  earliest  known  home  was  the  shores 
of  Grand  lake,  formerly  Lake  of  the  Shetimasha,  and  the  banks 
of  Grand  river.  La.  Some  16  or  18  of  the  tribe  were  still  living 
on  Grand  river  in  1881,  but  the  majority,  about  35,  lived  on  the 
south  side  of  Bayou  Teche,  near  the  little  village  of  Charenton,  St. 
Mary  parish,  about  10  miles  from  the  gulf.  The  remnant  of  the  tribe 
still  lives  in  the  same  district,  but  the  present  population  is  not 
known.  The  tribe  called  itself  by  a  name  which  signified  "men  al- 
together red,"  and  was  applied  after  the  advent  of  the  French.  It 
was  one  of  this  tribe  who  murdered  the  French  missionary  St.  Cosme, 
near  the  present  city  of  Donaldsonville  early  in  the  18th  century.  In 
the  war  which  ensued  Bienville  made  them  sue  for  peace,  which  was 
granted  when  they  brought  him  the  head  of  the  murderer.  Even  then 
they  were  not  a  numerous  people,  though  Le  Page  du  Pratz  says  they 
arrived  for  the  peace  ceremony  in  many  pirogues.  Two  of  their  for- 
mer villages  were  on  the  site  of  Donaldsonville  and  at  the  mouth  of 
Bayou  Lafourche.  The  little  Chetimachan  vlillage  on  the  lovely 
meandering  Teche,  with  its  handful  of  lonely  survivors  of  a  people 
almost  forgotten,  is  sufficiently  interesting  to  attract  the  occasional 
visitor.  The  men  have  been  described  as  large  and  well  formed,  with 
the  usual  high  cheekbones  and  keen  dark  eyes  of  their  race.  Contrary 
to  the  usual  rule,  the  women  are  quite  handsome  and  are  esteemed 
the  equals  of  the  men,  one  of  their  number  having  recently  suc- 
ceeded to  command  of  the  tribe  after  the  death  of  the  chief.  They 
speak  the  Creole  patois  in  addressing  the  white  stranger,  but  among 


542  LOUISIANA 

themselves  thej'  still  make  use  of  their  owti  tongue,  which  is  sui 
generis,  and  has  heen  likened,  with  its  frequent  labials  and  sibilants, 
to  the  twittering  of  birds.  The  women  are  especially  skilled  in  the 
making  of  baskets,  in  which  they  display  a  remarkable  ingenuity  of 
design  and  workmanship  and  make  use  of  imperishable  dyes,  weaving 
the  fine  reed  cane  into  the  most  curious  and  unique  patterns,  no  two 
alike. 

Attakapa  ( Choctaw :  hatak  ' '  man, ' '  apa  "  eats, "  hence  ' '  cannibal. ' ' ) 
— A  name  applied  by  the  Choctaws  and  their  congeners  to  diffei-ent 
tribes  inhabiting  southwestern  Louisiana  and  soiithern  and  southeast- 
ern Texas.  A  tribe  forming  the  Attakapan  linguistic  family,  a  rem- 
nant of  which  early  in  the  19th  century  occupied  as  its  chief  habitat 
the  Middle  or  Prien  lake  in  Calcasieu  parish.  La.  The  Attakapa 
country  formerly  extended  to  the  coast  in  southwestern  Louisiana  and 
the  primitive  domain  of  this  people  was  outlined  in  the  popular  name 
of  the  old  Attakapa  or  Tuckapa  country,  still  in  use,  which  com- 
prised St.  Landry,  St.  Mary,  Iberia,  St.  Martin,  Fayette,  Vermilion, 
and  later  Calcasieu  and  Vernon  parishes — in  fact  all  the  coiuitry 
between  Red,  Sabine  and  Vermilion  rivers  and  the  gulf.  Accord- 
ing to  Charlevoix  in  1731  some  of  this  tribe  assisted  St.  Denis 
against  the  Natchez.  Penicaut  charges  them  with  an  act  of  can- 
nibalism in  1703,  but  later  visitors  among  them  found  them  friendly 
enough.  There  is  evidence  that  the  tribe  numbered  more  than 
360  persons  in  1784.  The  men  were  skillful  hunters  of  the  buf- 
falo, and  the  women  alone  were  charged  with  the  labors  of  the 
household  and  field.  In  1885  Gatschet  visited  their  old  habitat, 
but  was  only  able  to  discover  1  man  and  2  women  at  Lake 
Charles,  and  another  woman  10  miles  to  the  south.  These  with  5 
others  scattered  in  western  Texas  are  believed  to  be  the  only  survivors 
at  the  present  time.  , 

Adai  (Adaize  or  Atai) — A  small  tribe  forming  the  Adaizan  lin- 
guistic family  and  belonging  to  the  Caddo  confederacy,  called  Atayos 
by  Cabega  de  Vaea  in  1529,  and  Natao  by  Iberville  in  1699.  La 
Harpe  spoke  of  them  in  1719  as  a  very  useful  tribe  to  the  French 
tradei-s  and  explorers,  particxilarly  when  making  portages.  Their 
villages  were  then  from  the  Red  to  and  beyond  the  Sabine  river, 
and  the  trail  connecting  them  became  the  noted  "contraband  trail" 
over  which  traders  and  travelers  journeyed  between  the  French  and 
Spanish  provinces,  while  one  village  was  a  station  on  the  road  between 
the  French  fort  at  Natchitoches  and  the  Spanish  post  at  San  Antonio. 
They  early  succumbed  to  the  white  influence  and  were  nearly  extinct 
ia  1798.  The  Spanish  military  post  of  Presidio  de  los  Adayes  was 
established  among  them  about  1740,  and  they  were  afterwards  in- 
corporated in  the  Nacogdoches  Indian  district.  In  1805  Sibley  re- 
ported a  small  settlement  of  these  Indians  on  Lake  Macdon,  near  an 
affluent  of  the  Red  river.  This  renmant  had  never  left  their  ancient 
home.  The  tribe  "spoke  a  vocalic  language,  differing  from  any  other, 
though  including  a  number  of  Caddo  words,  which  was  owing  to  their 
having  been  a  member  of  the  Caddo  confederacy."    (Briiiton.  The 


LOUISIANA   .  543 

American  Race,  p.  91).     Tlie  tribe  was  eventually  merged  in  that  of 
the  Caddo. 

Caddo — The  name  of  a  leading  tribe  of  the  Caddo  confederacy, 
and  applied  by  early  writers  to  include  the  confederacy.  This  con- 
federacy belonged  to  the  southern  group  of  the  Caddoan  or  Pani  lin- 
guistic family.  Their  own  name  is  Hasinai,  "our  own  folk."  Ac- 
cording to  tribal  traditions  the  lower  Red  river  was  the  early  home  of 
the  Caddo,  from  which  they  spread  to  the  northwest.  Several  lakes 
and  streams  connected  with  the  Red  river,  as  well  as  Caddo  parish 
and  some  of  the  towns  occupying  ancient  village  sites,  bear  Caddo 
names.  Cabega  de  Vaca  in  1535-36,  and  De  Soto  in  1540^41  met  with 
some  of  the  Caddo  confederacy,  but  they  were  not  known  until  met 
by  La  Salle  and  his  followers  in  1687.  At  that  time  the  Caddo  vil- 
lages were  scattered  along  the  Red  river  and  its  tributaries  in  what 
is  now  Louisiana,  Arkansas,  and  eastern  Texas.  Only  a  small  rem- 
nant of  the  Caddo  tribe  surA'ives,  and  miich  of  their  confederate  or- 
ganization is  lost  to  memory.  Gatsehet  in  1882  procured  from  a  Caddo 
Indian  the  names  of  12  divisions;  Iberville  obtained  from  a  Tansa 
Indian  guide  a  list  of  8  divisions;  and  Linares  in  1716  gave  the  names 
of  11.  Each  division  of  the  confederacy  was  subdivided,  and  each 
subtribe  had  its  totem,  village,  hereditary  chieftan,  priests  and  cere- 
monies, and  its  part  in  ceremonies  common  to  the  confederacy.  From 
the  earliest  records  and  from  traditions  the  Caddoan  tribes  seem  to 
have  been  cultivators  of  the  soil  as  well  as  hunters,  and  practiced  the 
arts  of  pottery  making,  weaving,  skin-dressing,  etc.  The  southern 
tribes  tatooed  their  faces,  and  this  group  of  tribes  also  erected  the 
conical  straw  house.  The  Caddoan  tribes  appear  to  have  moved  east- 
ward from  the  southwest  and  their  advance  guard  was  probably  the 
Caddo  proper,  who,  when  first  met  by  the  whites,  had  so  long  dwelt  in 
the  region  of  the  Red  river.  With  the  acquisition  of  Louisiana  by  the 
United  States  immigration  rapidly  increased,  and  the  Caddoes  were 
pushed  from  their  old  haunts.  Under  their  first  treaty  in  1835  they 
ceded  all  theiir  land  and  agreed  to  move  at  their  own  expense  beyond 
the  boundaries  of  the  United  States  never  to  return  as  a  tribe.  The 
Louisiana  tribes  thus  forced  to  leave  their  old  homes  moved  southwest 
among  their  kindred  in  Te.xas.  The  remnant  of  the  tribe  in  1902,  each 
man,  woman,  and  child,  received  an  allotment  of  land  under  the  sev- 
eralty act  of  1887,  by  which  they  became  citizens  of  the  United  States 
and  subject  to  the  laws  of  Oklahoma.  In  1904  they  numbered  535  souls. 
The  following  is  a  list  of  the  tribes  formerly  constituting  the  Caddoan 
or  Pani  stock:  Aliche,  Anadakka,  Arikaree  (Arikara),  Assinai 
(Cenis),  Caddo,  Hneeos,  Innies,  Kichai,  Natchitoches,  Nataco,  Paw- 
nee (Pani),  Riccaree,  Skidi,  Tappas,  Tawakonie,  Texas  (?),  Towaka- 
rehu,  Washita,  Wichita  and  Yatasses.  But  little  is  known  of  some  of 
these  tribes  as  they  were  small  and  unimportant.  The  Arikara  appear 
to  have  sepai-ated  from  their  brethem  at  a  comparatively  recent  date 
and  moved  north  to  a  habitat  on  the  middle  Missouri ;  the  Anadakka 
(Nataco)  dwelt  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Sabine  river;  the  Assinai 
(Cenis)  in  Central  Texas;  the  Innies  (Texas)  on  the  upper  Sabine 
and  branches;  the  Natchitoches  dwelt  on  upper  Red  river  and  early 


544  LOUISIANA 

became  firm  allies  of  the  French.  The  strong  frontier  post  Fort  Nat- 
chitoches (q.  V.)  -was  established  near  them,  and  their  name  is  per- 
petuated in  the  pi-esent  town.  The  Hueeos  dwelt  on  the  iipper  Brazos 
river;  the  Pawnee  (Pani)  -was  once  a  large  and  important  tribe 
located  chiefly  west  of  the  Slissouri,  in  the  present  state  of  Nebraska, 
and  was  divided  into  4  sub-tribes  or  bands;  Grand  Pawnee  (French, 
Pawnee  Noii-s).  PawTiee  Loup  (Panimaha,  Skidi),  Tapage  and  Re- 
publican. The  Pa^vnees  -wei-e  bitter  enemies  of  the  Siouan  tribes  and 
the  Illinois,  but  maintained  friendly  relations  Avith  both  the  French 
and  the  Spanish.  A  highly  profitable  fur  trade  was  can*ied  on  from 
the  St.  Louis  post  with  the  Pawnees,  who  were  great  hunters  of  the 
beaver,  buffalo  and  otter.  The  Wichita  tribe  (also  occasionally  desig- 
nated as  Pawnee  Picts  or  White  Pawnee)  dwelt  on  the  north  bank  of 
the  Red  river  at  a  considerable  distance  southwest  of  the  Grand  Paw- 
nee, or  Pawnee  proper.  The  Yatasses  had  their  habitat  on  Stony 
creek,  an  affluent  of  Red  river. 

Speaking  of  the  Siouan  or  Dagotan  linguistic  stock.  Brintou  says: 
"The  western  water-.shed  of  the  Mississippi  river  was  largely  in  the 
possession  of  the  Dakota  or  Sioux  stock.  Its  various  tribes  extended 
in  an  unbroken  line  from  the  Arkansas  river  on  the  south  to  the 
Saskatchewan  on  the  north,  populating  the  whole  of  the  Missouri  val- 
ley as  far  up  as  the  Yellowstone.  Their  principal  tribes  in  the  south 
were  the  Quapaws.  Kansas  and  Osages;  in  the  central  region  the 
Poncas.  Omahas  and  Mandans;  to  the  north  were  the  Sioux.  Assini- 
boins  and  Crows:  while  about  Green  Bay  on  Lake  ilichigau  lived  the 
Winuebagos.  ...  In  the  extreme  south,  almost  on  the  gulf  coast 
of  Louisiana,  lived  some  small  bands  of  Dakotas.  known  as  Biloxis, 
OpeloiLsas.  Pascagoulas,  etc.  They  were  long  supposed  to  speak  an 
independent  tongue,  and  only  of  late  years  has  their  proper  position 
been  defined."  (The  American  Race.  pp.  98-99).  During  the  colonial 
period  the  Louisiana  colony  maintained  friendly  trade  relations  with 
a  number  of  important  Siouan  tribes,  particularly  the  Osage.  Mis- 
souri. Kansas.  Omaha,  and  Oto. 

The  Tonika  (Tunica)  tribe  of  Indians,  when  the  French  first  ar- 
rived in  Louisiana,  had  some  of  their  settlements  on  the  Yazoo  river. 
Another  village  was  located  on  the  Mississippi  a  few  miles  below  the 
mouth  of  Red  river,  and  one  was  in  Tunica  county.  Miss.,  which  takes 
its  name  from  the  tribe.  Early  French  annals  make  frequent  men- 
tion of  this  tribe.  They  were  at  enmity  with  the  Chickasaws  and  in 
1706  were  forced  to  seek  an  asyhun  farther  south  a.mong  the  Baya- 
goulas  and  Ilouinas.  They  poorly  repaid  this  hospitality  soon  after 
by  rising  against  their  protectore  and  nearly  exterminating  them. 
The  tribe  was  always  much  attached  to  the  French,  and  it  was  a  de- 
tachment of  these  Indians  which  ambushed  Maj.  Loftus  at  Davion's 
blutf  on  the  Mississippi  in  1764,  when  that  ofScer  with  some  400  troops 
sought  to  ascend  the  Mi.ssissippi  to  take  possession  of  the  Illinois  post. 
Says  Halbert:  "In  1817.  the  entire  Tunica  tribe  emigrated  to  Louisi- 
ana, one  section  now  living  near  Marksville,  and  another  near  Lake 
Charles  City.    Their  language  has  no  affinitv  vrith  anv  other  Indian 


LOUISIANA  ■  545 

tongue.  Their  tribal  name,  Tunica,  signifies  in  their  language  'the 
people.'  " 

The  French  also  frequently  refer  to  a  number  of  small  tribes  living 
on  the  Yazoo  i-iver  in  colonial  times.  Nothing  is  known  concerning 
the  language  of  these  tribes,  except  that  it  was  quite  distinct  from  the 
Cihoetaw.  Of  these  tribes  the  Yazoos  (Yasous)  lived  nearest  the 
mouth.  Halbert  inclines  to  the  belief  that  the  word  Yazoo  signifies 
"leaf,"  and  that  it  is  a  Uchee  word,  as  Yazoo  has  no  significance  in 
the  Choctaw  tongue  and  there  is  evidence  that  the  Uchee  lived  in  Mis- 
sissippi in  prehistoric  times.  The  Yazoos  followed  the  example  of  the 
Natchez  and  murdered  the  French  in  their  midst  early  in  1730.  In  the 
latter  part  of  the  18th  century  the  tribe  was  living  in  about  100  cabins. 
At  this  time  other  small  tribes  on  the  Yazoo  were  as  follows:  The 
Of ogoulas,  or  ' '  dog  people, ' '  living  in  some  60  cabins ;  the  Coroas, 
living  in  40  cabins;  and  the  Tapouehas,  living  in  20.  The  Ibetoupas 
were  also  neighbors  of  the  Tapouohas,  but  nothing  is  kno\Mi  of 
their  number.  These  tribes  were  incorporated  with  the  Chickasaw 
nation  in  1836,  as  was  the  once  important  tribe  of  the  Chakchuma, 
which  spoke  the  Choctaw  language,  and  in  their  later  days  lived  on 
the  Yazoo,  between  the  Chickasaws  and  Choctaws.  It  is  recorded  that 
the  Ibetoupa,  Chakchuma  and  Tapoucha  tribes  were  united  in  one 
village  on  the  upper  Yazoo  by  1798. 

Natchez — This  famous  tribe  of  Indians  is  now  practically  extinct, 
but  is  historically  important,  not  so  much  on  accoiint  of  its  numbers 
or  of  any  peculiarity  attaching  to  its  manners  and  customs,  but  be- 
cause of  the  dangerous  uprising  of  the  tribe  against  the  French  in 
1729,  which  placed  the  whole  colony  in  jeopard}^  and  gave  rise  to  a 
long  series  of  expensive  campaigns  against  this  tribe  and  their  allies, 
the  Chickasaws.  (See  Indian  Wars  and  Natchez  Massacre.)  Natchez 
tradition  asserts  that  they  were  once  a  very  numerous  people  number- 
ing many  thousands  of  warriors,  but  history  discloses  them  as  a  com- 
paratively small  tribe  occupying  a  region  of  moderate  extent  on  the 
Mississippi  in  the  near  vdeinity  of  the  present  city  of  Natchez.  Their 
4  or  5  villages  lay  along  St.  Catharine's  creek,  a  short  distance  back 
from  the  river.  Father  Charlevoix  visited  the  tribe  in  1721  and  states 
that  they  did  not  differ  from  the  other  Indians  of  Louisiana  or 
Canada  in  external  appearance.  He  estimated  the  mnnber  of  their 
■warriors  at  2,000,  but  probably  five  or  six  'hundred  would  be  nearer 
the  mark,  judging  from  the  details  of  their  wars  with  the  French  a 
few  years  later.  The  tribe  spoke  a  language  which  had  no  etymological 
affinity  with  any  other.  Gayarre  has  given  the  world  an  excellent  ac- 
count of  the  tribe  in  his  History  of  Louisiana  to  which  the  reader  is 
referred.  Says  Gallatin :  "It  is  among  the  Natchez  alone  that  we  find, 
connected  together,  a  highly  privileged  class,  a  despotic  government, 
and  something  like  a  regular  form  of  religious  worship.  They  were 
divided  into  four  classes  or  elans,  on  the  same  principle  and  under 
the  same  regulations  as  those  of  the  other  southern  tribes.  They 
worshipped  the  sun,  from  whom  the  sovereign  and  the  privileged 
classes  pretended  to  be  descended,  and  they  preserved  a  perpetual 
sacred  fire  rn  an  edifice  devoted  to  that  purpose.  The  hereditary  dig- 
1—35 


546  LOUISIANA 

iiity  of  chief,  or  Great  Suu,  descended  as  usual  by  the  female  line,  and 
he  as  well  as  all  the  other  membei-s  of  his  elan,  whether  male  or  female, 
could  marry  only  persons  of  an  inferior  clan.  Hence  the  barbarous 
custom  of  sacrificing  at  their  funerals  the  consorts  of  the  Great  Sun 
and  of  his  mother.  Her  influence  was  powerful,  and  his  authority  ap- 
parently despotic,  though  checked  by  her  and  by  some  select  coun- 
sellors of  his  own  clan."  The  plebeian  or  common  people  among  the 
Natchez  were  called  "Stinkards"  (raiche-(iuipy),  and  were  in  a  high 
degree  submissive  to  the  suns,  nobles  and  men  of  rank,  constituting  the 
membership  of  the  higher  clans.  This  element  also  spoke  a  common 
or  vulgar  dialect  of  their  own,  which  had  no  affinity  with  that  spoken 
by  the  nobles  and  by  the  women.  The  dwelling  or  hut  of  the  Great 
Suu  stood  near  the  center  of  the  main  village  on  an  artificial  mound  or 
platform.  This  practice  of  erecting  their  dwellings  on  artificially 
elevated  sites  was  (|uite  common  among  the  Mississippi  valley  Indians, 
and  throughout  the  south  generally.  Their  temples  were  like"\vise  so 
disposed.  Says  the  early  chronicler  Le  Page  du  Pi-atz,  who  lived  for 
8  years  near  the  Natchez:  "As  I  was  an  intimate  friend  of  the  sov- 
ereign of  the  Natchez  he  showed  me  their  temple,  which  is  about  30 
feet  square,  and  stands  on  an  artificial  mound  about  8  feet  high,  by 
the  side  of  a  small  river."  Gayarre  in  his  account  of  the  Natchez 
speaks  in  high  terms  of  their  extensive  knowledge  of  the  healing  art, 
and  says :  "It  certainly  speaks  much  in  favor  of  their  powei's  of  obser- 
vation, of  investigation,  and  of  discrimination,  that  the.y  should  have 
arrived  at  discovering  more  than  three  hundred  medical  plants,  of 
which  the  king's  commissary,  De  la  Chaise,  sent  a  collection  to  France 
with  a  memoir  i;\Titten  on  the  subject  by  Le  Page  du  Pratz, " 

The  Taensa  tribe  of  Indians  was  a  branch  of  the  Natchez,  but  had 
their  habitat  on  the  west  side  of  the  ]\Iississippi. 

Indian  Treaties. — Throughout  the  colonial  period  of  Louisiana 
the  French.  Spanish  and  English  found  it  both  neces.sary  and  wise 
to  enter  into  more  or  less  formal  agreements  with  the  sevei'al  Indian 
tribes  and  nations  that  surrounded  them.  In  the  very  infancy  of  the 
colony.  Bienville  made  a  point  of  entering  into  treaty  relations  with 
the  tribes  he  visited,  and  with  the  various  deputations  of  chiefs  and 
warrioi-s  who  came  to  visit  the  settlements  at  Mobile  and  Biloxi.  His 
policy  was  followed  by  all  his  successors  in  office,  and  peace  and  the 
lasting  friendship  of  many  of  the  tribes  were  thus  secured.  The 
Fi-ench  were  i)articularly  successful  in  gaining  and  holding  the  good 
will  of  the  Indians  of  French  Louisiana,  except  in  the  ease  of  the 
Natchez.  Chickasaws,  and  a  few  of  the  minor  tribes.  Indeed,  so  at- 
tached to  the  French  were  many  of  these  lesser  tribes  that,  when  they 
witnessed  the  withdrawal  of  the  French  flag  at  the  beginning  of  the 
Spanish  domination,  they  abandoned  their  ancient  homes  and  lands 
and  came  to  New  Orleans,  They  were  commended  for  their  fidelity 
and  were  permitted  to  settle  on  new  lands  west  of  the  ]\Iississippi. 
Even  a  niunber  of  the  great  Choctaw  nation  adopted  this  course,  being 
unwilling  to  transfer  their  allegiance  to  the  English  government  at 
Pensaeola.  While  France,  Spain  and  England  were  contending 
for  the  mastery  of  tlie  Mississippi  valley  in  the  last  half  of  the  18th 


LOUISIANA  547 

century,  the  good  will  of  the  Indians  was  sought  by  all  those  nations, 
and  the  various  tribes  became  ianportant  pawns  in  the  great  game  of 
war  and  strategy,  one  tribe  being  played  off  against  another.  The  chief 
objects  of  most  of  the  early  treaties  were  the  establishment  of  tribal 
boundaries,  the  promotion  of  trade  relations,  furnishing  of  supplies, 
to  fix  terms  of  peace,  questions  of  allegiance,  etc.,  with  an  occasional 
cession  of  land. 

During  the  period  of  the  French  and  Spanish  dominations  in 
Louisiana,  when  the  white  settlements  were  few  in  numlier  and  widely 
scattered,  the  pressure  of  the  white  population  upon  the  domain  of 
the  natives  was  little  felt,  and  the  question  of  land  acquisition  was 
one  of  slight  importance.  As  a  rule,  both  the  French  and  Spanish 
were  content  to  leave  the  Indians  where  they  found  them,  the  treaties 
with  the  various  tribes  having  in  view  the  establishment  of  favorable 
trade  relations  and  the  formation  of  offensive  or  defensive  alliances, 
rather  than  the  acquisition  of  any  considerable  tracts  of  Indian  lands. 
Indeed,  many  of  the  early  treaties  formally  guaranteed  to  the  Indians 
the  peaceful  en.ioyment  and  occupancy  of  their  hunting  grounds.  It 
was  the  established  policy  of  the  British  government,  after  the  peace 
of  1763,  to  prohibit  the  whites  from  settling  on  Indian  lands.  After 
the  Revolution,  the  same  course  was  pursued  by  the  United  States 
for  several  years,  during  which  it  was  the  uniform  polic.v  of  the 
Federal  government  to  treat  the  tribes  as  qnasi-nationalities,  devoid 
of  sovereignty  but  having  an  absolute  right  to  the  soil  and  its  usu- 
fruct, with  power  to  cede  this  right,  to  make  peace  and  to  regulate  the 
boundaTies  of  the  districts  ceded  and  the  hunting-gi'ounds  retained. 
Under  this  policy  numerous  Indian  treaties  were  concluded,  the  ma.jor- 
ity  of  which,  in  conformity  with  the  paternal  attitude  assumed  by  the 
government  toward  the  tribes,  provided  for  a  s.ystem  of  annuities 
whereby  the  Indians  were  given  the  means  of  subsistence  in  return  for 
the  relinquishments  of  thei'r  lands,  and  they  were  encouraged  to  adopt 
civilized  modes  of  life. 

The  LTnited  States  had  scarcely  acquired  the  province  of  Louisi- 
ana when  steps  were  taken  looking  to  a  removal  of  some  of  the  tribes 
east  of  the  Mississippi  to  lands  west  of  the  river.  The  act  of  1804,  which 
divided  the  province  into  two  territories,  also  provided  for  the  removal 
of  such  Indians  as  could  be  induced  to  make  the  change.  The  plan 
was  to  give,  acre  for  acre,  lands  beyond  the  Mississippi  in  exchange 
for  their  old  domain  on  the  east  side.  The  policy  met  with  stubborn 
resistance  from  most  of  the  tribes,  but  the  government  gradually 
effected  its  purpose,  and  this  period  witnessed  the  conclusion  of  most 
of  the  important  treaties  of  cession  and  removal.  As  the  Indians 
ceded  their  lands  east  of  the  river  fo'r  purposes  of  settlement  and 
their  hunting  grounds  there  became  more  restricted  in  area,  they 
were  forced  to  accept  the  terms  offered  by  the  government  and  remove 
to  other  lands  provided  for  them  in  the  "West.  Some  of  the  smaller 
tribes  earl.y  complied  with  the  government's  request  and  were  guided 
to  their  homes  in  their  new  domain. 

Unfortunately,  the  law  of  1804  contained  no  provision  for  the  ex- 
penses incident  to  carrying  out  the  treaties  and  effecting  the  removal 


548  LOUISIANA 

of  those  tribes  which  ceded  their  lands  east  of  the  Jlississippi.  After 
1816  this  defect  was  remedied  by  a  law  which  authorized  the  presi- 
dent of  the  United  States  "to  negotiate  treaties  with  the  Indian 
tribes,  which  treaties  shall  have  for  their  object  an  exchange  of  ter- 
ritory owned  by  any  tribe  residing  east  of  the  Mississippi  for  other 
lands  west  of  that  river,"  and  made  an  appropriation  to  carry  out 
the  provisions  of  the  act.  Nmuerous  treaties  immediately  followed. 
Before  this,  however,  President  Jetfereou,  in  an  open  letter  of  Jan. 
9,  1809,  granted  to  such  of  the  Cherokees  as  might  desire  to  do  so,  per- 
mission to  remove  to  the  Arkansas  river,  in  what  is  now  the  State  of 
Oklahoma.  Several  small  bands  of  the  Cherokees,  Choctaws,  Chick- 
asaws,  and  other  tribes  accepted  the  offer.  In  1816  the  western  boun- 
dary of  the  territories  of  ilissouri  and  Ai-kansas  were  established, 
beyond  which  the  soil  was  reserved  for  the  use  of  the  Indians,  and  the 
following  year  a  large  body  of  Cherokees  foiTnallj'  made  the  exchange, 
receiving  a  large  tract  of  land  between  the  White  and  Arkansas  rivers. 

The  plan  of  concentrating  the  Indian  tribes  west  of  the  Mississippi, 
on  lands  especially  appropriated  to  their  use,  was  strongly  urged  by 
President  Monroe  in  his  message  of  Jan.  25,  1825,  but  it  remained 
for  President  Jackson  to  put  the  plan  in  practical  operation.  Jack- 
son, in  Ids  message  of  1829,  emphasized  the  importance  of  the  move- 
ment, and  in  his  message  of  Dec.  4,  1830,  said:  "Two  important 
tribes,  the  Chickasaws  and  Choctaws,  have  accepted  the  provision 
made  for  their  removal  at  the  last  session  of  Congress,  and  it  is  be- 
lieved that  their  example  will  induce  the  remaining  tribes  also  to  seek 
the  same  advantages."  In  his  message  of  1831  he  stated:  "At  the 
last  session  of  Congress  I  had  the  happiness  to  announce  that  the 
Chickasaws  and  Choctaws  had  accepted  the  generous  offer  of  the  gov- 
ernment and  agreed  to  remove  beyond  the  Mississippi  river,  by  which 
the  whole  State  of  Mississippi  and  the  western  part  of  Alabama  wiU. 
be  fi'eed  from  Indian  occupancy  and  opened  to  a  civilized  population. 
The  treaties  with  these  tribes  are  in  coui*se  of  execution,  and  their  re- 
moval, it  is  hoped,  wiU  be  completed  in  the  course  of  1832. ' ' 

The  vast  western  territory,  designed  for  the  exclusive  occupancy 
of  the  Indians,  was  defined  by  the  Congressional  act  of  May  20,  183-4, 
and  was  estimated  to  contain  over  132,000,000  acres,  including  the 
region  bounded  on  the  east  by  the  Arkansas  and  Missouri  rivers,  on 
the  north  by  the  Platte,  and  on  the  west  and  south  by  the  Mexican 
possessions,  except  that  district  in  Mis-souri  later  known  as  the  "Platte 
Purchase."  The  report  of  the  house  committee  in  May,  1834,  says: 
"This  teiTitory  is  to  be  dedicated  to  the  use  of  the  Indian  tribes  for- 
ever by  a  guaranty,  the  most  sacred  known  among  civilized  communi- 
ties— the  faith  of  the  nation."  The  committee  admitted  that  the  guar- 
anties of  tlie  past  had  not  always  been  faithfully  observed,  but  ex- 
cused the  action  of  the  govei-nment  in  not  redeeming  them  on  the 
grounds  that  they  should  not  have  been  given,  and  concluded  the  re- 
port by  saying:  "Our  inability  to  perform  our  treaty  guaranties 
arose  from  the  conflicts  between  the  riglits  of  the  states  and  the 
United  States.  Nor  is  it  surprising  that  iiuestions  arising  out  of  such 


LOUISIANA  549 

a  conflict,  which  have  bewildered  wiser  heads,  should  not  be  readily 
comprehended  or  appreciated  by  the  unlettered  Indians." 

According'  to  government  reports  the  following  Indians  had  been 
removed  to  the  West  by  the  close  of  the  year  1837 :   Chickasaws,  549 
Chippewas,  Ottawas  and  Pottawatomies,  2,244;  Choctaws,  15,000 
Creeks,  20,437;  Quapaws,  476;  Seminoles,  407;  Apalachicolas,  265 
Cherokees,  7,911  ;  Kickapoos,  588;  Delaware,  826;  Shawnese,  1,272 
Ottawas,  374;  Weas,  222;  Piankesliaws,  162;  Peorias  and  Kaskaskias, 
132 ;  Senecas  and  Shawanese,  462 ;  a  total  of  51,327.   The  policy  of  re- 
moval was  firmly  adhered  to  by  the  government,  and  the  migration  of 
the  Indians  continued  until  the  white  man  was  left  in  iindisputed 
possession  of  all  the  country  east  of  the  Mississippi. 

In  1871  a  radical  change  took  place  in  the  attitude  of  the  govern- 
ment toward  its  Indian  wards.  On  March  3  of  that  year  Congress 
declared  "that  hereafter  no  Indian  nation  or  tribe  within  the  territory 
of  the  United  States  shall  be  acknowledged  or  recognized  as  an  in- 
dependent nation,  tribe  or  power,  with  wliom  the  United  States  may 
contract  by  treaty."  This  marked  the  end  of  the  treaty  system  and 
the  policy  adhered  to  for  almost  a  century  was  overthrown.  The  new 
order  of  affairs  involved  the  solution  of  many  new  and  difScult  prob- 
lems. In  theory  there  had  been  over  65  semi-independent  nations 
within  the  borders  of  the  United  States,  but  now  all  was  changed.  The 
Indian  commissioners  declared  that  "the  bounty  of  the  government 
has  pauperized  them  (the  Indians),  and  in  some  cases  has  tended  to 
brutalize  more  than  to  civilize."  Cash  annuities  were  said  to  be 
wrong  in  principle,  as  the  money  went  in  advance  to  greedy  white 
sharpers.  The  law  of  1871  and  the  subsequent  acts  calling  for  a  com- 
plete survey  of  all  the  Indian  reservations  and  the  creation  of  various 
commissions,  foreshadowed  the  Indian  Crimes  act  of  1885  and  the  gen- 
eral allotment  act  of  Feb.,  1887.  The  latter  was  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant steps  ever  taken  in  Indian  legislation,  and  will  eventually 
lead  to  the  allotment  in  severalty  of  all  Indian  lands.  Following  is 
an  epitome  of  Indian  treaties  that  have  directly  or  indirectly  affected 
Louisiana: 

Indian  Treaty  of  Mobile,  1765. — This  treaty  was  concluded  by  the 
British  government  of  the  province  of  West  Florida,  with  a  great 
council  of  the  Choctaws,  March  26,  1765,  and  resulted  in  the  cession 
by  that  nation  of  a  region  on  the  Mobile  river  and  its  tributaries  and 
the  gulf  coast  south  of  about  the  Line  of  31°  north  latitude,  between 
Mobile  bay  and  the  most  western  point  to  which  the  Choctaws  had  con- 
trol, practically  to  the  Mississippi  river.  The  treaty  provided:  "The 
boundary  to  be  settled  by  a  line  extended  from  Grosse  point,  in  the 
island  of  Mount  Louis,  by  the  course  of  the  western  coast  of  Mobile 
bay,  to  the  mouth  of  the  eastern  branch  of  the  Tombecbee  river,  and 
north  by  the  course  of  said  river  to  the  confluence  of  Alibamout  and 
Tombecbee  rivers  to  the  mouth  of  Chiekianoce  river,  and  from  the 
confluence  of  Chiekianoce  and  Alibamont  rivers  a  straight  line  to  the 
confluence  of  Bance  and  Tombecbee  rivers ;  thence  by  a  line  along  the 
western  bank  of  Bance  river  till  its  confluence  with  the  Tallatukpe 
river;  from  thence  by  a  straight  line  to  the  Tombecbee  river  opposite 


550  LOUISIANA 

to  Atehalikpe.  (Hatchatigbee  bluff)  ;  a»icl  from  Atchalikpe  by  a 
sti-aight  line  to  the  most  northerly  part  of  Buckatanne  river,  and 
down  the  course  of  Buckatanne  river  to  its  confluence  with  the  river 
Pascagoula.  and  do^ii  by  the  course  of  the  river  Pascagoula,  within 
twelve  leagues  of  the  sea  coast :  and  thence,  by  a  due  west  line,  as 
far  as  the  Choctaw  nation  have  a  right  to  grant.  *  *  •  And  none 
of  his  majesty's  white  subjects  shall  be  permitted  to  settle  on  the  Tom- 
beehee  river  to  the  northward  of  the  rivulet  called  Centebonck  (Sen- 
tabogue  or  Snake  creek)." 

Indian  Treaty  of  Mobile,  1784.— On  June  22,  1784.  a  great  body 
of  Iiulians — Choctaws.  Chiekasaws,  Alibamons  and  smaller  tribes — as- 
sembled at  ilobile  in  response  to  the  Spanish  invitation,  and  the 
treaties  there  concluded  amounted  to  taking  under  Spanish  protection 
and  guarantee  the  territorial  claims  of  the  Indian  nations.  These 
treaties  were  made  at  the  suggestion  of  Alexander  McGillivray.  chief 
of  the  Tallapoosas.  and  that  of  the  British  trading  house  of  Panton, 
Leslie  &  Co.  McGillivray  gave  as  a  reason  for  suggesting  the  treaty 
the  probability  of  the  formation  of  a  new  and  independent  American 
government  by  the  frontier  settlers  of  the  Mississippi  valley,  who 
would  invade  the  Spanish  domain  at  the  earliest  opportunity.  He 
represented  to  Gov.  Miro  that  there  was  danger  of  an  Indian  alliance 
with  that  movement,  and  he  proposed  to  throw  the  Indian  strength  to 
Spain  in  return  for  commercial  advantages  and  privileges  for  Ms 
people.  In  tenns  this  treaty  was  identical  with  the  treaty  made  about 
the  same  time  with  the  Tallapoosas  (Creeks)  and  Cherokees,  through 
McGillivray,  at  Pensacola,  by  Gov.  O'Neill. 

The  Indians  promised  to  "maintain  an  inviolable  peace  and  fidel- 
ity" with  Spain  and  among  themselves.  ""We  undertake  to  expose  for 
the  royal  service  of  his  Catholic  majesty  our  lives  and  fortimes;  and 
we  promise  to  obey  the  sovereign  ordere  which,  in  a  ease  of  necessity, 
shall  be  communicated  to  us  by  the  captain-general  of  the  provinces 
of  Louisiana  and  Florida,  and  in  his  name  by  the  respective  governor 
or  particular  commander  of  said  provinces."  They  further  agreed 
to  turn  over  to  the  Spanish  authorities  any  enemies  that  might  enter 
their  nation,  and  to  admit  among  themselves  no  white  person  with- 
out a  Spanish  passport.  They  renounced  "forever  the  practice  of 
taking  scalps  or  making  slaves  of  the  whites,"  and  promised  humane 
treatment  of  white  prisoners,  with  the  right  of  exchange.  All  white 
prisoners,  subjects  of  the  United  States,  were  to  be  delivered  to  the 
governor-general.  Other  provisions  were  made  to  prevent  the  com- 
mon crimes  of  the  frontier. 

The  Spanish  were  represented  by  Don  Estevan  Miro.  governor  of 
Louisiana,  and  Don  Martin  Navarro,  intendant-general  of  the  pro- 
vinces of  Ix)uisiana  and  West  Florida.  The  Spanish  officers  promised 
to  establish  a  permanent  commerce  at  the  most  ei|uitable  prices,  the 
tariffs  and  regulations  to  be  then  and  there  fixed.  They  asked  the 
Indians  for  no  lands  and  promised  security  and  guaranty  for  the 
lands  they  actually  held,  "according  to  the  right  of  property  with 
which  they  possess  them,  on  condition  that  they  are  compreliended 
within  the  lines  and  limits  of  his  Catholic  majesty."    If  enemies  of 


LOUISIANA  551 

Spain  should  dispossess  the  Indians,  Spain  would  provide  them  with 
new  homes  in  any  vacant  land  available. 

As  a  result  of  these  negotiations,  the  trading  houses  of  William 
Panton  at  Pensacola,  and  James  Mather  at  Mobile,  were  intrusted  by 
the  Spanish  with  the  commercial  eare  of  the  Indians,  and  Spain  ac- 
quired the  right,  as  she  claimed,  to  defend  the  Indian  title  to  all  the 
country  from  the  Oconee  river  in  Georgia  to  the  Mississippi  and 
north  to  the  Ohio.  On  the  basis  of  these  treaties  the  Spanish  gov- 
ernment explicitly  denied  the  claim  of  the  United  States  to  sov- 
ereignty over  the  Indian  nations,  or  the  exclusive  right  to  acquire 
lands  from  them.  Spain  novi'  maintained  the  right,  in  apparent  vio- 
lation of  the  peace  treaties  which  ended  the  War  of  the  Revolution, 
to  maintain  military  posts  from  jMemphis  down,  within  the  agreed 
limits  of  the  United  States,  and  to  assert  control  over  the  Indians  of 
the  Southwest,  as  did  Great  Britain  in  the  Northwest. 

Indian  Treaties  of  Hopewell  and  Seneca. — There  was  no  provision 
made  for  the  Indian  nations  who  had  been  allies  of  the  king  when 
Great  Britain  and  the  United  States  made  peace  in  1783.  At  first 
some  of  the  states  attempted  to  make  binding  treaties  with  the  In- 
dians on  their  frontiers,  but  they  proved  abortive.  In  1785  Benjamin 
Hawkins,  Andrew  Pickens,  Joseph  Martin  and  Lachlin  Mcintosh  were 
appointed  commissioners  plenipotentiary  of  the  United  States,  to  make 
peace  with  all  the  Indians  of  the  South,  to  settle  the  status  of  the  red 
men  and  to  arrange  satisfactory  limits.  When,  after  much  delay,  the 
commissioners  invited  the  Creeks,  through  McGillivray,  to  enter  into 
a  treaty,  they  were  told  that  the  Creeks  had  already  made  a  treaty 
with  Spain  and  the  United  States  was  too  late.  (See  Treaty  of 
Mobile,  1784.)  As  only  two  towns  of  the  Creeks  were  represented  at 
Galphinton,  where  they  were  invited,  the  American  commissioners 
refused  to  do  business  with  so  few,  and  proceeded  to  the  Kiowee  river 
to  treat  with  other  nations,  who  had  been  summoned  for  that  purpose. 
Here,  on  Nov.  28,  1785,  at  Seneca,  a  treaty  was  made  with  about  1,000 
Cherokees,  defining  limits  and  recognizing  the  supremacy  of  the 
United  Staters.  Agents  of  Ijoth  Georgia  and  North  Carolina,  were 
present  at  this  treaty,  and  pi'otested  against  the  treaty  as  being  in 
derogation  of  the  rights  of  the  states. 

Late  in  December  of  the  same  year  the  U.  S.  commissioners  met  at 
Hopewell,  "a  seat  of  Gen.  Pickens,"  a  large  delegation  of  Choctaw 
chiefs,  who  had  made  a  long  and  difficult  journey  of  77  days  in  order 
to  treat.  The.y  appeared  determined  to  seek  an  alliance  with  the 
United  States,  and  expressed  a  deep  aversion  to  the  Spanish  and 
Creeks.  The  Choctaws  brought  with  them  their  British  medals  and 
commissions  to  exchange  for  American,  of  which,  unfortunately,  there 
were  none,  and  also,  asked  for  3  stands  of  colors.  A  conference  ex- 
tending over  several  days  was  held,  in  which  John  Pitehlyn  served 
as  interpreter  for  the  board,  and  finally,  on  Jan.  3.  1786,  a  treat.y  of 
alliance  and  friendship  was  made,  which  also  confirmed  the  bounds 
of  the  Choctaw  nation  as  it  had  existed  in  1782. 

The  Chickasaws  arrived  at  Hopewell  a  little  later  and  a  treaty  was 
concluded  'with  them  on  Jan.  10,  1786.   The  chiefs  Piomingo  and  Min- 


552  LOUISIANA 

gotusha  were  both  present,  the  former  announcing  that  he  was  the 
head  warrior  of  the  nation.  The  Chickasaws  promised  to  cede  laud  for 
a  trading  post  on  the  Tennessee  river,  and  agreed  to  a  frontier  line 
for  settlements.  The  commssioners  reported  "that  if  the  ad.ioining 
states  were  disposed  to  carry  the  treaties  into  eifeet,  the  Indians 
would  be  happy  in  the  new  change  of  sovereignty  and  in  constant 
amity  with  lis."  Georgia  and  North  Carolina  repudiated  the  treaties 
as  invasions  of  the  sovereignty  of  the  states,  and  the  Spanish,  through 
Gov.  Miro.  declared  the  treaties  were  chimeras.  They  were  however 
confirmed  as  part  of  the  supreme  law  of  the  land  by  the  treaty  of 
Coleraine  (1796).  and  submitted  to  all  parties  coneeraed.  after  a 
struggle  that  occupied  the  entire  administi-ation  of  President  Wash- 
ington. 

Indian  Treaty  of  Natchez.— This  treaty  was  made  on  May  14, 
1790.  at  the  "parochial  church  called  the  Savior  of  the  World,  of  the 
said  fort  of  the  Natchez,"  between  Don  Manuel  Gayoso  de  Lemos, 
colonel  of  the  royal  armies,  governor  of  the  fort  and  district  of  Nat- 
chez, and  Ta.scaduca.  king  of  the  Chickasaw  nation.  Pranchimastabia, 
principal  chief  of  the  Choctaw  nation,  accompanied  by  the  chiefs 
Yteleghaua.  Stouahiama.  Tapenahuma,  and  Neesahumaacho.  and  in 
presence  of  many  captains  and  warriors  of  both  nations.  The  treaty 
was  witnessed  by  Don  Joseph  Yidal,  secretary,  Carlos  de  Grandpre, 
Blasdu  Bouchet,  Estevan  Minor,  Turner  Brashears.  Ryan  (Bryan) 
Bmin.  Gregorio  White.  Ygnacio  Lopez,  Augustin  ^Macarty.  Jorge 
Cochran,  Francisco  Candel.  Luis  Faure.  Juan  Girault.  Carlos  Todd, 
Ebenezer  Fulson.  Antonio  Soler.  Jorge  Tompson,  Guillermo  Wush- 
toff.  Jaime  McFarland.  Elias  Smith  and  Kiiineth  Thompson. 

The  extracts  of  this  treaty  as  below  quoted  are  from  the  translation 
appearing  in  American  State  Papers  (X.  228).  After  providing  that 
"all  the  individuals  of  the  Spanish.  Chickasaw  and  Choctaw  nations 
shall  love  one  another  reciprocally,"  and  give  each  other  prompt  in- 
formation, the  treaty  .states: 

Art.  2.  "That  to  remove  every  nuotive  of  discord,  which  in  future 
times  might  occur  about  limits,  the  Chickasaw  and  Choctaw  nations 
acknowledge  that  the  limits  of  the  dominion  of  his  majesty  in  the 
neighborhood  of  their  territory  on  the  western  side,  begin  on  the  Mis^ 
sissippi  river  at  the  moiith  of  the  river  Zasu,  and  ascending  the  said 
river  along  the  middle  of  its  waters  till  it  comes  near  the  place  called 
Juego  do  la  Pelota  (ball  ground),  where  the  English  nation,  by 
agreement  with  the  Choctaw  nation,  marked  a  dividing  line  which  con- 
tinued until  it  entered  West  Florida,  and  following  the  said  line 
from  the  said  Juego  do  la  Pelota.  till  it  meets  those  which  separates 
the  rest  of  the  dominions  of  his  Catholic  majesty  from  the  Alibamones 
and  Talipuche  nations. 

Art.  3.  "The  said  Chickasaw  and  Choctaw  nations  declare,  that  all 
the  lands  which  are  to  the  south  and  to  the  west  of  the  said  line  belong 
indisputably  to  his  Catholic  majesty,  great  king  of  the  Spains  and 
Indies,  without  that  they  for  themselves  or  their  descendants  have 
any  right  to  them,  nor  at  any  time  may  reclaim  them  imder  any  pre- 
text or  motive  it  may  be,  and  moreover  they  promise  to  support  the 


LOUISIANA  553 

Spanish  nation  in  possession  of  the  said  lands,  in  which  are  speci- 
fically comprehended  the  government  and  territory  of  the  Natchez, 
as  far  as  the  waters  of  the  Zasu. 

Art.  4.  "The  Spanish  nation  declares  and  acknowledges  that  aU 
the  lands  to  the  east  of  the  said  dividing  line  of  the  2nd  article  be- 
long lawfully  and  indispiitably  to  the  Chickasaw  and  Choctaw  na- 
tions, promising  to  support  them  therein  with  all  their  power." 

The  remaining  9  articles  pledged  harmony  between  the  two  na- 
tions and  Spain ;  promised  an  ample  conveyance  of  presents  and  goods 
to  the  Indians  in  return  for  the  cession  of  all  rights  to  the  territory 
of  the  Nogales,  adjoining  the  Yazoo ;  mutually  confirmed  the  treaty 
of  Mobile  and  all  subsequent  promises,  etc.  This  treaty,  with  the 
treaty  of  Pensacola,  was  communicated  to  Mr.  Jefferson,  secretary  of 
state,  by  Jaudenes  and  Viar.  Spanish  commissioners,  in  1793,  as  a 
justification  of  Spanish  interference  in  Indian  affairs. 

Indian  Treaty  of  1793. — According  to  Gayarre,  Gov.  Carondelet 
had  the  satisfaction  on  Oct.  28,  1793.  through  his  agent  and  represen- 
tative. Col.  Gayoso,  governor  of  Natchez,  to  make  a  reciprocally  de- 
fensive and  offensive  treaty,  between  Spain  on  the  one  side  and  the 
Chickasaws,  Creeks,  Cherokees,  and  Alibamons  on  the  other.  The 
treaty  of  1784  was  ratified,  and  the  Indian  nations  agreed  in  return 
for  the  protection  of  Spain  to  contribute  to  maintain  his  Catholic 
majesty  in  possession  of  the  provinces  of  Louisiana  and  the  two 
Ploridas. 

Indian  Treaty  of  Chickasaw  Blufifs. — This  treaty  was  negotiated 
on  Oct.  24,  1801,  by  Gen.  James  Wilkinison,  Benjamin  Hawkins  and 
Andrew  Pickens,  with  the  mingo  and  16  of  the  head  men  of  the 
Chickasaw  nation.  Presents  of  .$700  in  value  were  made  to  the  In- 
dia.ns,  who  in  turn  granted  permission  to  build  a  wagon  road  on  the 
Natchez  trace,  northward  to  the  mouth  of  Bear  creek  on  the  Tennessee 
river  and  on  to  Miro  district,  or  Nashville.  The  grant  of  5  miles  square 
at  the  mouth  of  Bear  creek  for  the  purposes  of  trading  post,  obtained 
by  the  United  States  in  1786  under  the  treaty  of  Hopewell,  had  never 
been  occupied,  as  the  Spanish  party  among  the  Chickasaws  had  re- 
monstrated. After  this  convention.  Col.  Butler  and  8  companies  of  the 
2nd  infantry  were  ordered  up  the  Tennessee,  the  route  being  changed 
to  east  of  Bear  creek,  and  Samuel  Mitchell,  Chickasaw  agent,  and  2 
Indians  were  deputed  to  mark  the  line. 

Indian  Treaty  of  Fort  Adams. — This  convention  was  concluded 
at  Loftus  heights  (Fort  Adams),  Dec.  12,  1801,  between  Gen.  Wilkin- 
son, Benjamin  Hawkins  and  Andrew  Pickens,  with  the  Choctaw  na- 
tion, which  was  represented  mainly  by  '.' Tuskonahopia,  of  the  Lower 
towns,  Mingo  Poos  Coos,  of  the  Choctaw  Half  town,  Oakehuma, 
Puckshumubbee  and  Elatalahoomuh,  of  the  LTpper  towns.  Buckshu- 
mabbee,  factor  of  a  Mobile  merchant,  and  Mingo  Homassatubbe. " 
.The  Indians  received  gifts  valued  at.  .$2,000.  The  treaty  provided 
that  a  road  should  be  opened  on  the  Natchez  trace  through  the  Choc- 
taw country,  as  had  been  recently  granted  by  the  Chickasaw  nation, 
and  that  the  old  British  line  of  Natchez  district  should  be  resurveyed 
and  marked  as  a  boundary  line  of  the  lands  opened  to  settlement.   The 


554  LOUISIANA 

commissioners  also  proposed  a  road  to  the  settlements  on  the  Tom- 
bigbee  and  Mobile,  but  did  not  press  it,  as  it  would  run  through  the 
lands  of  the  Six  towns,  a  people  friendly  to  Spain,  whose  head  men 
were  then  in  conference  with  the  Spanish  governor  at  New  Orleans. 

Indian  Treaty  of  Fort  Confederation, — This  treaty  was  concluded 
at  Fort  Confederation,  formerly  the  French  Fort  Tombecbe,  on  the 
Tombigbee  river,  Oct.  17,  1802,  by  Gen.  Wilkinson,  with  1,800  repre- 
sentatives of  the  Choctaw  nation.  It  was  a  provisional  convention  for 
a  resurvey  of  the  north  line  of  the  old  British  district  of  Mobile,  or 
Charlotte  county,  so  far  as  it  lay  above  the  Ellieott  line,  between  the 
Chickasawhay  and  Tombigbee  rivers.  The  rectification  of  the  Natchez 
district  frontier  was  also  discussed.  The  line  was  duly  surveyed  by 
Wilkinson,  Mingo  Poos  Coos  and  Alatala  Hooma,  and  ratified  by 
them  as  commissioners  plenipotentiary,  at  Hoc-Buckintoo-pa,  Aug.  31, 
1803.  The  boundary  was  defined  as  beginning  on  the  Spanish  line, 
in  the  Hatehee  Comeesa  or  Wax  river,  up  said  river  to  the  confluence 
of  the  Chickasawhay  and  Buekataunee;  up  the  latter  to  Bogue  Hoo- 
ma or  Red  creek ;  up  the  latter  to  a  pine  tree  near  the  trading  path 
from  Mobile  to  the  Hewhannee  towns,  thence  in  various  coui*ses  to 
Sentabogue  or  Snake  creek,  and  down  the  same  and  the  Tombigbee 
and  Jlobile  to  the  Spanish  line. 

Indian  Treaty  of  Fort  Clark.— In  Nov..  1808,  ^Meriwether  Lewis, 
governor  and  superintendent  of  Indian  atfairs  for  Louisiana  Terri- 
tory, and  Pierre  Chouteau,  agent  for  the  Osage  Indians,  met  at  Fort 
Clark,  above  the  mouth  of  the  Osage  river,  and  negotiated  a  treaty 
with  the  Osages.  by  which  that  tribe  ceded  to  the  United  States  all 
their  territory  lying  between  the  Arkansas  and  Missouri  rivere  east 
of  line  running  due  south  from  Fort  Clark  to  the  Arkansas  river. 
This  was  the  first  large  cession  of  lands  west  of  the  Mississippi  made 
by  any  Indian  tribe  to  the  United  States. 

Indian  Quapaw  Treaty. — By  the  treaty  with  the  Quapaws,  made 
in  1818.  the  United  States  acquired  about  2,500,000  acres  of  land  in 
the  northern  part  of  Louisiana.  The  cession  was  bounded  as  follows: 
"Beginning  at  the  mouth  of  the  Arkansas  river;  thence  up  that 
stream  to  the  Canadian :  thence  up  the  Canadian  to  its  source ;  thence 
south  to  the  big  Red  river;  down  the  middle  of  that  stream  to  the 
big  raft ;  thence  in  a  direct  line  so  as  to  strike  the  Mississippi  river 
30  leagues  in  a  straight  line  below  the  mouth  of  the  Arkansas."  The 
following  reservation  was  made  from  the  cession:  "Beg;inning  at  a 
point  on  the  Arkansas  river  opposite  the  present  Post  of  Arkansas 
and  running  in  a  due  southwest  course  to  the  Washita  river:  thence 
up  that  stream  to  the  Saline  fork:  thence  up  the  Saline  fork  to  a 
point  from  which  a  due  north  coui-se  will  strike  the  Arkansas  river  at 
Little  Rock ;  thence  down  the  right  bank  of  the  Arkansas  to  the  place 
of  beginning." 

Indian  Treaty  of  Harrington's  Landing.— By  this  treaty,  made 
on  Nov.  15,  1824,  the  Quapaw  reservation  mentioned  above  was  ceded 
to  the  United  States,  in  consideration  of  payment  of  $500  to  each  of 
the  four  princdpal  chiefs  and  an  annuity  of  $4,000  in  goods  and  mer- 
chandise and  $1,000  in  specie  to  the  tribe  for  11  years,  in  addition  to 


LOUISIANA  555 

all  previous  annuities.  At  the  same  time  the  government  took  steps 
to  amalgamate  the  Quapaws  with  the  Caddo  nation,  the  former  agree- 
ing to  remove  to  the  Caddo  reserve  on  the  Red  river  and  to  become 
a  part  of  that  tribe.  The  removal  was  made  in  March,  1826,  but  on 
May  13,  1833,  the  Quapaws  were  granted  a  reservation  of  150  sec- 
tions west  of  the  Missouri,  and  they  severed  their  connection  with  the 
Caddoes. 

Indian  Treaty  of  the  Caddo  Agency. — On  July  1,  1835,  Jehiel 
Brooks,  acting  as  commis.sioner  for  the  United  States,  negotiated  a 
treaty  with  the  Caddo  Indians  at  their  agency  in  Louisiana,  by  which 
that  tribe  ceded  to  the  United  States  a  tract  of  land  ' '  bounded  on  the 
west  by  the  north  and  south  line  which  separates  the  United  States 
from  Mexico ;  *  *  *  on  the  north  and  east  by  the  Red  river  from 
the  point  where  the  said  United  States  boundary  line  intereects  the 
said  Red  river,  whether  it  be  in  the  Territory  of  Arkansas  or  the  State 
of  Louisiana ;  following  the  meanders  of  said  river  down  to  its  junc- 
tion with  the  Pascagoula  bayou ;  on  the  south  by  the  said  Pascagoula 
bayou;  by  said  bayou  to  its  junction  with  bayou  Wallace;  by  said 
bayou  and  Lake  Wallace  to  the  mouth  of  the  Cypress  bayou ;  thenee 
up  said  bayou  to  the  point  of  intersection  with  the  first  mentioned 
north  and  south  line,  following  the  meanders  of  said  water-courses; 
but  if  the  said  Cypress  bayou  be  not  clearly  definable  so  far,  then 
from  a  point  which  shall  be  defina;ble  by  a  line  due  west  till  it  intersects 
the  said  first  mentioned  north  and  south  line,  be  the  contents  of  land 
within  said  boundary  more  or  less."  By  this  treaty  a  considerable 
portion  of  the  northwestern  part  of  the  State  of  Louisiana  was  relin- 
quished by  the  Indians  and  opened  to  settlement. 

Indian  Village,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  western  part  of  Ouachita 
parish,  is  4  miles  southwest  of  Calhoun,  the  nearest  railroad  station. 

Indian  Wars. — For  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  century  after  the 
first  settlement  was  established  at  Biloxi  by  the  French,  the  relations 
between  the  white  colonists  and  the  natives  M'ere  in  the  main  peaceful, 
and  were  undisturbed  by  armed  conflicts.  The  first  serious  trouble 
occurred  in  the  fall  of  1729,  with  the  Natchez  tribe,  but  as  this  dis- 
turbance was  more  in  the  nature  of  a  massacre  than  a  war,  a  full  ac- 
count of  the  event  will  be  found  under  the  head  of  "Natchez  Massa- 
cre." The  Chickasaw  nation  was  charged  by  the  French  with  being 
the  chief  instigator  of  the  massacre.  This  aggressive  and  warlike  tribe 
occupied  an  extensive  region  north  of  the  Choctaws.  Their  villages 
once  extended  from  the  Cumberland  to  the  Tennessee,  thence  to  the 
.  Mississippi  and  the  headwaters  of  the  Yazoo  and  Tombigbee.  Their 
record  is  unique  in  the  fact  that  they  were  never  conquered  by  the 
whites,  the  Creeks,  Cherokees,  Sha)\vnees  nor  Choctaws,  with  whom 
they  were  often  at  war.  During  the  early  French  period,  they  pro- 
fessed friendship  for  the  French,  and  often  sent  deputations  to  the 
posts  at  Biloxi  and  Mobile.  However,  they  soon  came  under  British 
influence,  and  were  thenceforth  guilty  of  luimerous  acts  of  aggression 
against  the  French.  When  they  finally  accorded  an  asylum  to  the 
Natchez  refugees,  after  the  final  dispersal  of  that  tribe  in  1732,  Bien- 
ville, who  had  returned  to  the  colony  as  governor,  sent  an  agent  to 


556  LOUISIANA 

the  Chickasa-ws  demanding  the  delivery  of  the  Natchez  in  their  midst. 
The  answer  of  the  Chickasaws  was  "that  they  and  the  Natchez  now 
formed  one  nation,  and  that  they  consequently  could  not  give  them 
up."  Bienville  then  determined  to  invade  the  Chickasaw  country  and 
made  arrangements  with  the  younger  D'Arta^ette,  commandant  of 
the  Illinois  post,  to  come  down  the  river  and  effect  a  .iunetiou  with 
him  in  the  Chickasaw  coiintry  early  in  the  spring  of  1736.  D"Arta- 
guette  was  ordered  to  bring  with  him  all  the  Illinois  Indians.  French 
troops  and  settlers  he  could  muster.  Bienville  planned  to  lead  an  ex- 
pedition from  New  Orleans  in  person,  and  to  penetrate  the  Chickasaw 
country  by  way  of  the  Mobile  and  Tombigbee  rivers.  The  place  of 
rendez^•ous  was  "Tombecbe"  (Jones's  bluff,  on  the  Little  Tombigbee), 
where  a  company  of  soldiers  had  been  sent  9  months  before  to  build 
a  fort  and  cabins,  as  a  resting  place  for  the  army.  Bienville  left  New 
Orleans.  JIarch  23,  embarking  his  little  army  of  600  Frenchmen  and 
negroes  (45  of  the  latter  under  the  command  of  Capt.  Simon,  a  free 
mulatto)  in  boats  and  pirogues  and  proceeded  first  to  Fort  Mobile. 
On  April  20  he  reached  Jones'  bluff,  where  he  was  joined  by  his 
Choctaw  allies  under  their  head  chief  to  the  number  of  over  500. 
After  a  series  of  exasperating  delays  and  difficulties  the  army  finally 
resumed  its  march,  proceeding  up  the  Tombigbee  both  by  land  and 
water.  On  May  22  it  reached  a  point  on  the  Tombigbee  (Cotton  Gin) 
a  little  less  than  30  miles  from  the  Chickasaw  villages.  Before  leav- 
ing the  river  Bienville  fii-st  caused  to  be  erected  some  palisaded  forti- 
fications and  a  shed  for  the  protection  of  his  boats  and  .supplies.  He 
left  here  his  sick  men  and  a  garrison  of  20  men.  and  set  out  on  the 
24th  through  the  woods  and  canebrakes  for  the  Indian  villages, 
marching  in  Indian  file  with  his  Choctaw  allies  on  his  flanks.  Two 
days  later  the  army  arrived  at  the  edge  of  a  fine  open  prairie  whereon 
could  be  descried  the  various  fortified  villages  of  the  enemy,  over  one 
of  which  floated  the  English  colore  and  several  Englishmen  could  be 
seen  among  the  Indians.  After  a  coiincil  of  war  an  attack  was  or- 
dered on  the  nearest  of  the  fortified  \'illages.  knowTi  as  Ackia  and 
subseqiiently  called  Chickasaw  Old  Fields,  distant  some  3  miles  from 
the  present  town  of  Tupelo.  ]\Iiss..  and  only  a  few  miles  from  the 
great  council  house  of  the  tribe.  In  a  fierce  assault  led  by  Bienville's 
nephew.  Noyan,  which  lasted  from  1:30  to  5  o'clock  p.  m..  the  French 
were  repulsed  ^vith  severe  loss.  As  Bienville  found  his  Indian  allies 
unreliable  both  during  and  after  the  battle,  had  no  cannon  with  which 
to  reduce  the  Indian  forts,  having  left  his  heavy  pieces  behind  on 
the  Tombigbee,  was  short  of  provisions  and  encumbered  now  with 
many  wounded,  and  having  heard  nothing  from  D 'Artaguette.  he 
determined  on  an  immediate  retreat.  In  retiring  from  the  field  of 
baittle  the  French  were  even  unable  to  bring  off  all  their  dead,  and  the 
following  morning  had  the  chagrin  of  seeing  the  naked  corpses  im- 
paled on  tlie  palisades  of  the  fort.  The  French  officers  appear  to  have 
fought  -(rith  the  utmost  bravery,  but  the  same  can  not  be  said  of  many 
of  their  men.  among  whom  were  many  raw  and  ill-disciplined  recruits. 
Among  the  gallant  French  officers  who  met  their  death  in  this  bloody 
Indian  fight  were  the  Chevalier  de  Contre  Cceur,  De  Lusser,  captain 


LOUISIANA  557 

of  grenadiers  and  De  Jiizan,  Noyan's  aide-de-camp.  Among  the 
wounded  were  Noyan ;  D'Hauterive,  captain  of  grenadiers;  Grondel, 
lieutenant  of  the  Swiss ;  De  Velles  and  Montbrun.  The  brave  Grondel, 
who  later  received  the  cross  of  St.  Louis  and  had  a  distinguished 
career,  narrowly  escaped  being  scalped.  As  he  lay  bleeding  and  des- 
perately wounded  near  the  walls  of  the  fort,  he  was  rescued  from  the 
Indian  tomahawk  by  the  reckless  daring  of  a  grenadier  named  Reg- 
nisse,  who  ran  to  his  relief  amid  the  stoi-m  of  bullets  and  bore  him 
away  to  safety  on  his  shoulders.  Transporting  his  wounded  on  lit- 
ters, Bienville  slowly  retreated  with  all  his  forces  to  the  Tombigbee, 
which  he  reached  on  the  29th  and  found  it  so  reduced  in  volume  that 
he  cast  his  cannon  in  the  river  and  hastened  down  to  Fort  Tombig- 
bee. Reaching  here  on  June  2,  he  immediately  sent  forward  the 
wounded  and  sick  with  all  his  surgeons,  and  departed  himself  the 
following  day.  Before  leaving  the  Tombigbee  settlement,  Bienville 
drew  up  a  plan  of  the  fortifications  he  wished  to  have  erected,  and 
left  here  Capt.  De  Berthel  in  command  of  a  garrison  of  50  men  to  build 
the  new  works. 

The  most  unfortunate  part  of  this  dismal  campaign  remains  to 
be  told.  Upon  his  arrival  in  New  Orleans  Bienville  learned  why 
D 'Artagiiette  had  not  effected  a  junction  with  him  as  ordered.  In 
obedience  to  his  instructions  D'Artaguette  had  assembled  a  consider- 
able force  from  the  upper  coiin'fcry,  and  as  early  a,s  March  4,  1736,  was 
at  the  Ecores  a  Prudhomme  (third  Chickasaw  bhiff)  on  the  Missis- 
sippi, "with  30  soldiers.  100  volunteers,  and  almost  all  the  Indians  of 
the  Kaskaskia  village.  There  he  was  .ioined  by  De  Vincennes  with  40 
Iroquois,  and  all  the  Indians  of  the  Wabash  tribe.  De  Mon,tcheTval, 
with  the  Cahokias  and  the  Mitchigamies,  was  daily  expected.  De 
Grandpre,  who  commanded  at  the  Arkansas,  had  dispatched  28  war- 
riors of  that  tribe  to  ascertain  whether  D'Artaguette  was  at  the 
Ecores  a  Prudhomme.  and  to  come  back  to  him  with  that  informa- 
tion." (Gayarre).  When  these  messengers  an-ived,  D'Artaguette  had 
already  set  forth,  and  instead  of  returning  and  reporting,  they  fol- 
lowed his  route.  It  appears  that  as  a  resiilt  of  this  disobedience  of 
orders,  Grandpre  and  his  Arkansans  never  participated  in  the  expedi- 
tion at  all.  while  Montcherval  and  his  force  of  14  Frenchmen  and  160 
Indians  only  arrived  on  the  the  scene  of  action  in  time  to  assist  the 
shattered  remnant  of  D 'Artaguette 's  forces  in  their  retreat.  When 
D'Artaguette  and  his  little  ai-my  of  130  Frenchmen  and  366  Indians 
arrived  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Chickasaw  villages,  their  scouts  could 
discover  no  signs  of  Bienville  and  his  forces.  Shortly  after  they 
learned  from  a  courier  that  Bienville  was  unavoidably  delayed  and 
would  not  arrive  until  the  end  of  April  at  the  earliest.  D'Artaguette 
thereupon  held  a  council  of  war,  and  it  was  decided  that  as  they  were 
short  of  provisions  and  the  Indian  allies  talked  of  deserting,  an  im- 
mediate attack  should  be  made  on  one  of  the  more  exposed  of  the 
Chickasaw  villages.  Having  affected  the  capture  of  this  village  and 
the  provisions  therein,  they  could  intrench  themselves  and  await  the 
arrival  of  Bienville.  L^nfortunately  their  pre.sence  was  known  to  the 
enemy,  and  hardly  had  they  commenced  their  attack  on  the  fortified 


558  LOUISIANA 

village  -when  they  were  suddeuly  assailed  by  a  superior  force  of  the 
enemy,  among  whom  were  a  considerable  nnmlier  of  Englishmen. 
Surprised  by  this  impetuous  counter-attack,  the  Miamis  and  Illinois 
allies  took  flight,  but  the  French  and  the  remaining  Indians  maintained 
an  obstinate  defense  until  most  of  the  French  officers  had  been  shot 
do\vn,  when  a  retreat  was  ordered.  Tliey  were  so  iiercely  pureued  by 
the  enemy  that  the  retreat  soon  became  a  rout.  Over  50  of  the 
French  were  killed  and  many  othei-s  wounded,  while  19  were  cap- 
tured, among  whom  were  D'Artaguette,  who  had  fallen  desperately 
wounded;  the  Jesuit  Father  Senae;  Dii  Tisne,  an  officer  of  regidars; 
and  Lalande,  a  militia  captain.  The  French  officers  St.  Ange.  De 
Coulauges,  De  la  Gravieere,  De  Courtiguy,  Des  Essarts,  Langlois,  and 
Levieux  fell  early  in  the  fight.  Those  who  managed  to  escape  were 
pursued  by  the  relentless  Chickasaws  for  more  than  100  miles,  the 
pursuit  ending  only  when  a  violent  storm  intervened.  Says  Gayarre : 
' '  The  Chickasaws  took  possession  of  all  tlie  provisions  and  baggage  of 
the  French,  with  450  pounds  of  powder,  12.000  bullets  and  11  horses. 
Their  victory  was  as  complete  as  possible,  and  the  ammunition  which 
fell  into  their  hands  was  of  great  use  to  them,  in  helping  them  to 
resist  the  subsequent  attack  of  Bienville."'  Fifteen  of  those  captured, 
including  D"Artaguette  and  Father  Senac.  were  afterwards  tortured 
and  burned  at  the  stake:  two  of  the  French  officers  were  eventually 
exchanged,  and  from  these  the  full  details  of  the  final  tragedy  were 
learned. 

In  reporting  the  miserable  failure  of  his  campaign,  Bienville 
maintained  that  he  made  the  best  use  possible  of  the  means  at  his 
command,  but  was  unable  to  anticipate  the  many  delays  in  his 
preparations,  or  the  wretched  cowardice  of  his  soldiers.  But  grant- 
ing all  this,  there  was  a  manifest  faihire  to  properly  weigh  all  the 
difficulties  of  the  campaign,  and  a  lack  of  generalship  displayed  in 
permitting  the  undisciplined  foe  to  meet  and  defeat  his  two  armies 
in  detail.  Says  French,  in  Historical  Collections  of  Louisiana,  vol. 
5,  p.  112:  "It  is  not  easy  to  jiistify  Bienville's  conduct  in  this 
expedition.  The  war  was  rashly  brought  and  rashly  conducted. 
He  entered  the  enemy's  country  without  any  means  of  siege,  made 
one  attack  on  a  fort,  and  then,  without  attempting  by  scouts  to 
open  communication  with  D'Artaguette,  whom  he  had  ordered  to 
meet  him  in  the  Chickasaw  country  on  the  10th  of  ]\ray,  or  making 
any  attempt  to  give  him  proper  orders,  without  even  taking  one 
Chickasaw  prisoner  to  get  any  information  of  D'Artaguette 's  pro- 
ceedings, he  retreated,  and  ended  the  campaign  disastrously." 

Bienville  suffered  severely  in  his  military  prestige  as  a  result  of 
his  unsxiccessful  campaign  of  1736  against  the  Chickasaws.  Deter- 
mined, if  possible,  to  rehabilitate  bis  reputation  with  the  French 
government  ajid  to  avenge  his  previous  defeat,  be  devoted  much  of 
the  years  1737-38  to  the  preparations  for  a  second  campaign  against 
the  Chickasaws.  He  continually  incited  the  Choctaw  nation  to 
make  war  against  the  Chickasaws,  and  in  this  way  managed  to 
inflict  considerable  losses  on  the  tribe.  He  also  repeatedly  urged 
on  the  home  government  the  necessity  of  more  troops  and  sought 


LOUISIANA  559 

permission  to  enter  npon  a  second  campaign,  alleging  that  the 
Chickasaws  must  be  humiliated  at  all  hazards.  Consent  to  prose- 
cute a  second  campaign  was  finally  accorded  him,  and  he  was  also 
furnished  with  reinforcements  to  the  number  of  700  men,  embrac- 
ing a  strong  body  of  marines,  commanded  by  the  Chevalier  de 
Noailles  d'Ayme,  a  number  of  recruits,  as  well  as  some  "bom- 
bardiers, cannoniers  and  miners."  lie  was  also  given  a  siipply  of 
arms,  ammunition,  provisions  and  merchandise.  Instructions,  how- 
ever, were  given  to  Bienville  that  M.  de  Noailles  was  to  command 
not  only  the  marine  troops,  but  also  the  colonial  troops  and  militia 
heretofore  under  the  orders  of  Bienville,  who  was  ordered  to  act 
in  concert  with  the  new  commander  in  the  direction  and  employ- 
ment of  his  troops,  as  "M.  de  Noailles,"  Avrote  the  minister  of 
marine,  "has  the  necessary  talents  and  experience  to  command." 
A  large  part  of  the  year  1739  was  devoted  to  the  work  of  prepara- 
tion and  the  expedition  was  planned  on  a  most  formidable  scale. 
Bienville  had  determined  this  time  to  penetrate  the  Cliickasaw 
country  by  way  of  the  Mississippi,  instead  of  the  IMobile  and  Tom- 
bigbee.  He  was  moved  to  this  course  by  the  desire  to  escape  the 
previous  danger  of  a  low  stage  of  water,  and  also  by  the  greater 
facility  thus  afforded  in  obtaining  provisions  and  in  transporting 
his  artillery.  As  a  preliminary,  the  support  of  the  great  Choctaw 
nation  was  secured.  Already  a  competent  engineer,  acting  iinder 
Bienville's  instructions,  had  examined  the  countr.y  between  the 
Mississippi  and  the  Chickasaw  villages  and  had  reported  that  a 
good  road  was  possible  for  the  whole  120  miles  intervening.  Beau- 
harnias,  governor  of  Quebec  and  Canada,  was  ordered  to  coiiperate 
with  him,  and,  indeed,  every  settlement  in  the  province  was  called 
upon  for  assistance.  Bienville  first  built  a  temporary  fort  and  a 
number  of  cabins  at  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Francis,  to  serve  as  an 
intermediate  station  for  his  troops  and  supplies,  pending  the  com- 
pletion of  his  preparations.  By  the  end  of  June  he  had  assembled 
here  an  army  composed  of  marines,  troops  from  the  capital,  militia 
and  negroes,  together  with  some  of  the  neighboring  Indians.  In 
August  the  vanguard  of  the  army  was  moved  up  the  river  to  the 
moutli  of  the  river  Margot  (Wolf),  which  was  the  general  rendez- 
vous. Here  the  army  was  reinforced  until  it  aggregated  about  1,200 
Frenchmen,  double  that  number  of  Indian  allies,  and  a  few  negroes. 
Capt.  Alphonse  de  la  Buissoniere,  who  had  succeeded  the  brave 
D'Artaguette  at  the  Illinois,  came  down  with  200  Frenchmen  and 
300  Indians.  Soon  after  Celoron  and  St.  Laurent,  two  Canadian 
officers,  arrived  with  a  company  of  Quebec  and  Montreal  cadets 
and  a  body  of  Indians  from  that  distant  region.  Bienville  and  the 
troops  under  his  command,  strange  to  relate,  did  not  reach  the 
general  rendezvous  until  Nov.  12.  Meanwhile,  the  army  on  the 
Margot  busied  itself  with  the  construction  of  a  spacious  fort,  called 
Fort  Assumption,  because  it  was  completed  on  the  day  of  the  feast 
of  the  Assumption,  and  also  erected  a  house  for  the  commandant, 
Noailles,  barracks  for  the  soldiers,  storehouses,  ammunition  houses 
and  a  bakery. 


560  LOUISIANA 

The  troops  remained  here  for  6  months,  or  from  August,  1739, 
to  March,  1740,  without  making  any  aggressive  movement.  Pro- 
visions were  at  first  abimdant,  but  at  last  became  so  scarce  the 
men  Avere  forced  to  eat  their  horses,  many  of  the  supplies  expected 
having  been  lost  en  roiite  from  the  St.  Francis  and  from  Natchi- 
toches. ^Moreover,  the  ravages  of  disease  carried  off  so  many  of 
the  men  that  there  were  scarcely  300  white  men  left  tit  for  active 
duty.  Before  this  time  Bienville  appears  to  have  superseded 
NoaiUes  in  the  chief  command.  A  council  of  war  was  held,  and 
Bienville  asserted  they  were  reduced  to  the  necessity  of  making 
war  Avith  only  the  auxiliary  troops,  as  his  own  were  sick,  or  else 
offering  terms  of  peace  to  the  enemy.  Jn  other  words  the  piuiitive 
expedition  must  be  renoimced,  Fort  Assumption  evacuated,  and  the 
whole  enterprise  abandoned.  About  the  middle  of  March,  Bienville 
sent  Capt.  Celoron  and  his  company  of  cadets,  with  about  100  other 
white  troops,  all  that  could  be  spared  at  this  junction,  and  some 
400  or  500  Indians,  towards  the  Chickasaw  villages,  ostensibly  in 
search  of  the  enemy,  but  with  orders,  in  case  the  Chickasaws  came 
to  ask  for  peace,  to  grant  it  in  his  name.  When  Celoron  and  his 
men  came  in  sight  of  the  villages,  the  Chickasaws  apparently  be- 
lieved tliem  to  be  only  the  advance  guard  of  the  whole  army  and 
at  once  made  overtures  of  peace.  It  is  also  likely  that  they  were 
influenced  to  this  course  by  the  extent  of  the  preparations  made  by 
the  French  to  crush  them.  Be  this  as  it  may,  the  Chickasaws  were 
extremely  humble  in  their  protestations  of  friendship  for  the 
French,  stating  they  had  two  English  slaves  among  them  but  no 
French.  Celeron  agreed  to  peace,  and  sent  to  BieuA-ille  a  delega- 
tion of  their  principal  chiefs  and  warriors,  with  whom  a  formal 
treaty  of  peace  was  concluded  in  the  month  of  April,  1740.  The 
Chickasaws  delivered  to  Celoron  a  few  of  the  Natchez  refugees, 
and  the  prisoners  were  later  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  French  of 
Louisiana.  The  auxiliary  troops  were  then  dismissed  with  thanks 
and  presents;  Forts  Assumption  and  St.  Francis  were  razed,  as  they 
were  now  useless,  and  the  regular  army  returned  to  New  Orleans, 
after  an  absence  of  more  than  ten  months.  According  to  the  offi- 
cial statements  of  Bienville  and  Commissary  Salmon,  the  war  had 
proved  a  most  expensive  one,  the  sum  of  1,088,383  livres  having 
been  spent  from  Jan.,  1737,  to  May  31,  1740,  in  its  prosecution. 

Compared  with  the  elaborate  efforts  put  fortli  by  the  French 
during  this  campaign  and  the  enormoiis  sacrifices  in  life  and  treas- 
ure, the  net  results  attained  were  reaUy  quite  insignificant.  True, 
a  temporary  peace  was  patched  up  with  the  wily  foe,  but  even 
this  proved  to  be  only  a  short-lived  affair,  and  the  following  year 
marauding  bands  of  Chickasaws  were  again  harassing  the  French. 
The  Pointe  Coupee  settlement  was  attacked  by  one  of  these  hostile 
bands,  and  a  party  of  French  traders  and  trappers  on  the  Wabash, 
consisting  of  24  men  and  2  women,  was  almost  exterminated  by 
the  same  band.  Indeed,  as  a  result  of  the  persistent  hostility  of  the 
Chickasaws,  incited  thereto  no  doubt  by  the  English,  the  trade 
between  New  Orleans  and  the  country  on  the  upper  Mississippi 


LOUISIANA  561 

was  very  hazardous,  and  was  subject  to  frequent  delays  and  inter- 
ruptions. In  order  to  withstand  the  attacks  of  the  alert  and  savage 
Chickasaws,  the  boats  were  compelled  to  come  down  the  river  in 
convoys,  making  the  descent  annually  in  December,  and  returning 
in  February.  In  the  effort  to  prevent  these  constant  outrages,  and 
to  bring  the  treacherous  tribe  into  final  subjection.  Gov.  Vaudreuil 
was  even  compelled  to  inaugurate  another  expedition  against  them, 
which  proved  as  unsuccessful  as  the  preceding  campaigns,  and  only 
resulted  in  a  temporary  truce. 

The  period  of  Vaudreuil's  administration  was  tilled  with  the  stir- 
ring events  leading  up  to  the  final  clash  of  arms  between  the  Eng- 
lish and  French  in  America.  Among  these  happenings  was  a  long 
series  of  Indian  outrages  growing  out  of  the  contest  for  the  control 
of  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  valleys,  in  which  the  venal  Indian 
nations  played  no  small  part,  being  subjected  first  to  one  influence 
and  then  to  the  other.  Even  the  traditional  friendship  of  the  great 
Choctaw  nation  for  the  French  was  seriously  threatened,  and  that 
tribe  was  rent  in  twain  by  a  bloody  civil  war,  one  element,  com- 
manded by  the  redoubtable  chiefs  Red  Shoe  and  his  brother,  being 
known  as  the  English  party,  while  the  larger  element  in  the  tribe 
remained  fairly  steadfast  in  their  allegiance  and  was  known  as  the 
French  party.  Never  had  the  colony  been  more  continually  ha- 
rassed by  hostile  excursions  of  the  various  Indian  tribes.  As  late 
as  1749  Vaudreuil  speaks  of  the  frequent  attacks  of  the  Indians 
throughout  the  colony,  which  kept  even  the  lower  settlements  be- 
tween Natchez  and  New  Orleans  in  constant  terror.  He  writes : 
"To  destroy  entirely  the  Indians,  there  could  be  nothing  so  effective 
as  a  force  composed  of  the  Creoles  of  the  country.  They  alone  are 
able  to  scour  the  woods,  and  to  make  war  after  the  fashion  of  these 
barbarians.  But  unfortunately  there  is  not  a  sufficient  number  of 
them." 

Finally,  in  1750,  some  measure  of  tranquility  was  restored  to 
the  colony  by  the  crushing  defeat  of  the  hostile  English  party, 
known  as  rebels,  by  Grandpre,  who  was  in  command  of  a  large 
party  of  Choctaws  friendly  to  the  French.  Henceforth  the  Choc- 
taws  became  more  firmly  attached  to  the  French  than  ever,  and 
in  the  treaty  made  with  the  nation  at  this  time  it  was  stipulated 
that  the  whole  Choctaw  nation  should  continue  to  make  war  upon 
that  "perfidious  race,"  as  the  Chickasaws  were  styled,  until  they 
were  exterminated.  Despite  the  success  of  the  French  in  dealing 
with  the  Choctaw  nation,  however,  the  years  1747-1752  brought 
little  relief  from  the  marauding  Chickasaws,  who  remained  under 
English  influence  and  were  unsubdued.  Attacks  on  the  French 
settlements  and  on  the  fleets  of  pirogues  plying  the  Mississippi 
often  occurred.  It  is  possible  that  Vaudreuil  might  have  ai-ranged 
a  peace  with  the  Chickasaw  nation  had  he  so  desired,  but  the 
French  were  still  smarting  from  the  humiliation  of  the  previous 
unsuccessful  campaigns,  and  Vaudreuil  hoped  to  inaugurate  an- 
other campaign  that  would  finally  crush  their  power.  The  con- 
stant Indian  hostilities,  combined  with  the  fear  of  English  aggres- 
1—36 


562  LOUISIANA 

sioD,  had  furnished  Vaudreiiil  with  sufficient  excuse  to  ui'ge  time 
and  gain  an  increase  in  the  militarj'  forces  of  the  colon}^  He  finally 
gained  his  point  in  1750,  when  the  French  monarch  decreed  that 
the  colony  should  henceforth  be  provided  with  not  less  than  37 
companies  of  50  men  each,  exclusive  of  olScers.  As  a  result  the 
province  was  in  an  excellent  state  of  defense  in  1751,  when  there 
were  2,000  regulars  under  Vaudreuil's  orders,  distributed  as  fol- 
lows: 975  at  New  Orleans  (75  Swiss\  475  at  Mobile  (75  Swiss), 
300  at  the  Illinois,  and  50  each  at  the  Arkansas,  Natchez,  Natchi- 
toches, Pointe  Coupee  and  the  German  Coast. 

Therefore,  being  well  supplied  with  troops  in  1752,  and  the 
Chickasaws  having  renewed  their  depredations,  Vaudreuil  was  in  a 
position  to  carry  into  execution  his  predetermined  purpose  of  pro- 
ceeding against  the  hostile  tribe.  He  took  the  route  followed  by 
Bienville  in  his  campaign  of  1736,  and  with  a  force  of  700  French- 
men and  a  large  number  of  Choctaw  and  other  Indians,  advanced 
up  the  ilobile  and  Tombigbee  rivers.  Ouce  more,  however,  the 
foe  managed  to  evade  the  French,  and  retired  into  some  strongly 
fortified  positions,  where  Vaudreuil  did  not  deem  it  wise  to  assail 
them,  but  contented  himself  with  burning  some  of  their  deserted 
villages  and  destroying  their  crops  and  cattle.  Then,  leaving  a 
strong  reinforcement  to  the  garrison  at  Fort  Tombigbee  and 
strengthening  the  works,  he  returned  to  New  Orleans,  where  he 
disbanded  his  army.  The  only  result  of  this  campaign  against  the 
Chickasaws  was  to  quiet  tliem  for  a  few  years,  as  their  permanent 
allegiance  and  good  will  were  never  obtained. 

Indigo. — The  use  of  indigo  as  a  dyestufi:  is  believed  to  have  orig- 
inated in  India,  from  Which  country  it  passed  to  Eiu'ope  at  a  very 
early  date,  but  it  was  lost  to  that  country  during  the  greater  part 
of  the  middle  ages  until  reintroduced  by  the  Dutch  about  the  mid- 
dle of  the  sixteenth  century.  No  successful  substitute  for  indigo 
has  ever  been  found,  the  blue  color  imparted  by  it  being  both  beau- 
tiful and  durable,  and  it  forms  the  basis  of  the  black  dye  used  on 
woolen  fabrics  of  fine  quality.  It  is  the  product  of  several  A-arieties 
of  plants  of  the  genus  indigofera,  natural  order  leguminosa,  sub- 
order papilionace»,  and  is  now  cultivated  in  most  of  the  tropical 
and  subtropical  countries  of  the  world.  A  species  of  the  indigo 
plant  (amorpha  casrulea)  was  introduced  in- Louisiana  in  1728,  and 
indigo  soon  became  one  of  the  staple  products  of  the  colony.  When 
Louisiana  was  transferred  to  Spain  40  years  later,  the  ciilture  of 
indigo  received  a  backset  through  the  .fact  that  the  French  ports 
were  closed  to  the  Louisiana  trade,  and  in  the  Spanish  markets 
the  American  indigo  commanded  a  very  low  price  when  compared 
with  the  finer  product  from  the  Spanish  colonies  farther  south. 
After  a  time  more  liberal  commercial  regulations  were  adopted 
and  the  cultivation  of  indigo  was  revived.  In  1793  _a  little  worm 
made  its  appearance  and  for  several  seasons  in  suecessfon  it  wrought 
such  havoc  upon  the  growing  plants  that  the  planters  abandoned 
indigo  for  crops  that  were  immune  from  the  ravages  of  the  insect. 
Industrial  Institutes. — The  first  Louisiana  institution  to  bear  this 


LOUISIANA  563 

name  was  created  by  the  legislatiu-e  of  1894,  with  the  object  of 
providing  an  institution  for  the  industrial  education  of  both  sexes. 
The  constitution  of  1898  recognized  it  as  a  part  of  the  educational 
system  of  the  state.  It  is  located  at  Rustou,  Lincoln  parish,  first 
opened  its  doors  in  Sept.,  1895,  with  a  faculty  of  5  members,  and 
had  during  its  first  session  an  attendance  of  202  students.  Since 
that  date  the  number  of  its  instructors  has  more  than  trebled, 
while  the  attendance  of  the  institute  during  the  session  of  1907-8 
amounted  to  617,  representing  some  47  different  parishes  of  the 
state.  The  original  act  placed  the  institute  under  the  control  of 
the  governor  of  the  state,  2  trustees  appointed  from  the  state  at 
large,  and  1  from  each  Congressional  district,  but  subsequently 
the  state  superintendent  of  public  education  was  made  an  es-officio 
member  of  the  board  of  trustees.  All  white  children  of  the  state 
are  eligible  to  admission  to  the  institution  under  the  following 
simple  requirements :  All  boys  miist  be  16  years  of  age,  girls  15, 
and  be  prepared  to  begin  the  work  of  oae  of  the  terms.  The  growth 
of  the  school  in  efficiency  and  usefulness  has  been  steady  and 
rapid,  and  it  stands  as  an  excellent  exponent  of  the  modern  idea  in 
education — the  harmonious  training  of  the  head,  heart  and  hand. 
It  offers  the  usual  academic  courses  in  language,  literature,  his- 
tory, science  and  mathematics,  aud  at  the  same  time  provides  a 
practical  training  in  draAving,  the  use  and  application  of  tools,  the 
domestic  and  fine  arts,  and  in  the  business  affairs  of  life.  The  full 
course  of  study  is  5  years,  and  is  made  up  of  2  general  depart- 
ments, the  academic  and  the  industrial,  closely  interrelated.  The 
academic  department  embraces  courses  in  English  and  literature, 
mathematics,  history,  social  sciences,  natural  sciences  and  draw- 
ing. The  industi'ial  department  embraces  a  business  course,  me- 
chanical course,  domestic  science  course,  an  industrial  art  course 
and  a  music  course.  The  school  awards  a  certificate  of  proficiency 
on  the  completion  of  the  required  work  in  an  industrial  subject, 
provided  the  student  is  also  proficient  in  the  accompanying  aca- 
demic subjects.  Upon  the  completion  of  any  full  course  it  awards 
its  students  the  degree  of  bachelor  of  industry  (B.  I.).  The  grounds 
of  the  institute  include  about  80  acres,  and  are  situated  about  half 
a  mile  from  the  depot  at  Ruston.  It  is  now  well  provided  with 
quarters  for  the  prosecution  of  its  academic  and  industrial  work, 
and  is  well  equipped  with  laboratories  and  apparatus  for  the  pros- 
ecution of  its  practical  and  scientific  work ;  the  library  has  over 
4,000  volumes  on  its  shelves.  A  list  of  the  buildings  include  the 
institute  hall,  mechanics'  hall,  girls'  dormitory,  boys'  hall,  laundry, 
president's  cottage  and  foundry. 

The  Southwestern  Industrial  Institute  was  created  by  Act  162 
of  the  general  assembly  of  Louisiana,  approved  July  14,  1898,  for 
the  education  of  the  white  children  of  the  state  in  the  arts  and 
sciences.  It  was  called  "industrial"  in  order  to  emphasize  the  im- 
portance of  education  as  a  factor  in  the  industrial  development  of 
a  state  or  country,  and  in  further  recognition  of  the  new  idea  in 
education  which  takes  account  of  the  whole  boy  and  the  whole 


564  LOUISIANA 

girl,  making  the  trained  hand  the  -willing  servant  of  the  trained 
brain.    In  a  -word,  the  purpose  of  the  state  ^vas  to  establish  a  school 
Avhieh  -would  offer  to  tlie  youth  of  the  eommomvealth  broad  and 
varied  courses  of  instruction,  both  in  academic  studies  and  in  prac- 
tical and  useful  arts.     The  school  thus  provides  fully  for  regular 
academic  training  in  the  essentials  of  an  English  education,  as  -well 
as  for  shopwork  in  -wood  and  iron  for  boys,  sewing  and  cooking 
for  girls,  and  stenography,  typewriting,  bookkeeping,  telegraphy 
and  other  useful  studies  and  exercises  for  both.     The  original  act 
provided  that  the  institution  should  be  located  in  that  part  of  the 
13th  senatorial  district  which  should  offer  the  best  inducements 
therefor  to  the  board  of  trustees.     The  best  offer  submitted  in  the 
active  competition  which  ensued  was  made  by  the  people  of  the 
parish  of  Lafayette,  who  voted  a  two-mill  tax  for  7  years  for  the 
support  of  the  institution,  supplemented  by  liberal  appropriations 
from  the  city  and  parish  of  Lafayette,  by  cash  subscriptions  from 
private  citizens,  and  by  the  private  gift  of  a  valuable  site  of  25 
acres.     The  offer  was  formally  accepted  by  the  board  of  trustees 
at  a  meeting  held  in  New  Iberia  on  Jan.  5,  1900.    In  order  to  pro- 
-vide  funds  for  the  erection  of  the  original  buildings  and  the  other 
immediate  needs  of  the  schools,  negotiable  bonds  were  issued  upon 
the  seven-year  tax  voted  by  the  people.     The  sale  of  these  bonds, 
supplemented  by  some  liberal  state  appropriations,    enabled     the 
board  to  erect  and  equip  a  complete  group  of  buildings,  adequate 
to  the  needs  of  a  thoro\ighly  organized  secondary  institution  of 
learning,   providing   for   both    academic   instruction     and    manual 
training.  In  June.  1901,  the  main  building,  completed  and  equipped, 
was  formally  opened  with  appropriate  exercises,  and  the  first  ses- 
sion of  the  institute  was  held  from  Sept.  18,  1901,  to  May  26,  1902. 
The   school  has  had   a  highly  prosperous   career  from   the   start, 
there  being  some  250  students  in  attendance  during  its  last  session. 
In  addition  to  the  many  practical  advantages  offered  by  the  insti- 
tute, the  Federal  government  maintains  on  the  grounds  a  U.  S. 
demonstration  farm  directed  by  the  bureau  of  plant  industry.    The 
buildings  of  the  institute  consist  of  the  main  building,  a  handsome 
two-story  brick  structure  of  generous  proportions,  the   dormitory 
for  girls,  which  is  also  a  two-story  brick  structure  of  large  size, 
the  workshop  with  a  boiler  room,  pump  room  and  fuel  room  ad- 
jacent, and  a  neat  and  substantial  two-story  frame  residence  for 
the  president  of  the  institute.     Six  regular  courses  of  study  are 
provided,  one  academic  and  five  industrial,  as  follows:     The  aca- 
demic course,  the  manual  training  course,  the  course  in  domestic 
science,  the  course  in  stenography  and  typevrriting.  the  commercial 
course  and  the  course  in  telegraphy.     Only    the  academic  course 
extends  through  4  years,  the  others  ranging  from  3  to  1  year  in 
duration.     The   entrance  requirements   are  purposely  made   quite 
simple  in  order  to  provide  opportunities  for  the  greatest  possible 
number  of  students.    Candidates  for  admission  must  have  attained 
the  age  of  14  years  and  have  satisfactorily  completed  the  equiva- 
lent of  sixth  grade  work.     No  fees  are  charged  for  graduation, 


LOUISIANA  565 

diplomas  or  certificates,  and  tuition  is  entirely  free.  Prof.  E.  L. 
Stephens  has  been  the  president  of  the  institute  from  the  begin- 
ning. 

Innis,  a  village  in  the  northern  part  of  Pointe  Coupee  parish,  is 
situated  on  the  west  bank  of  False  river,  3  miles  east  of  Bienvenue, 
the  nearest  railroad  station,  and  20  miles  northwest  of  New  Roads, 
the  parish  seat.     It  has  a  money  order  postoffice. 

Insane  Asylums. — People  of  Louisiana  so  unfortunate  as  to  be 
afflicted  with  mental  disease  are  now  cared  for  in  two  large  and 
complete  hospitals — one  located  at  Jackson  and  the  other  at  Pine- 
ville.  The  insane  are  apportioned  between  the  two  institutions  ac- 
cording to  residence.  Patients  are  received  at  the  Insane  Asy- 
lum of  Louisiana  at  Jackson,  who  come  from  the  first  district,  which 
comprises  the  parishes  of  Ascension,  Assumption,  Concordia,  East 
Baton  Rouge,  East  Carroll,  East  Feliciana,  Iberville,  Jefferson,  La- 
fourche, Livingston,  Madison,  Orleans,  Plaquemines,  Pointe  Cou- 
pee, St.  Bernard,  St.  Charles,  St.  Helena,  St.  James,  St.  John,  St. 
Tammany,  Tangipahoa,  Tensas,  Terrebonne,  Washington,  West 
Baton  Rouge,  and  West  Feliciana ;  and  at  the  Hospital  for  the  In- 
sane at  Pineville  from  the  second  district,  comprising  the  parishes 
of  Avoyelles,  Bienville,  Bossier,  Caddo,  Calcasieu,  Caldwell,  Cam- 
eron, Catahoula,  Claiborne,  De  Soto,  Franklin,  Grant,  Iberia,  Jack- 
son, Lafayette,  Lincoln,  Morehouse,  Natchitoches,  Ouachita,  Rap- 
ides, Red  River,  Richland,  Sabine,  Union,  Vernon,  Webster,  Winn, 
Acadia,  St.  Landry,  St.  Martin,  St.  Mary,  Vermilion,  West  Carroll, 
Allen,  Beauregard,  Jeff  Davis  and  Evangeline. 

The  Insane  Asylum  of  Louisiana  at  Jackson  was  founded  in  1847 
by  legislative  enactment,  and  received  as  its  first  inmates  80  pa- 
tients transferred  from  the  Charity  hospital  in  New  Orleans.  It 
'has  now  reached  the  proportions  of  a  thriving  village,  where  com- 
munity life  prevails,  and  all  the  inhabitants  are  supplied  with  food 
from  one  mammoth  kitchen  and  dine  in  one  great  hall.  Some  1,300 
patients  are  now  accommodated  and  nearly  200  employes  are  ne- 
cessitated by  the  many  requirements  of  the  institution.  Both  cur- 
able and  incurable  patients  are  received,  likewise  both  paying  and 
free  patients.  Many  industries  are  established  upon  the  grounds, 
and  where  their  condition  permits  patients  are  encouraged  or 
obliged  to  busy  themselves  in  occupations  which  contribute  to 
their  own  support.  A  large  garden,  cultivated  by  the  inmates, 
furnishes  supplies  for  the  hospital  table ;  clothing  is  made  for  the 
patients  in  the  sewing  room  and  tailoring  department ;  there  is  a 
workshop  for  shoemaking,  a  carpenter  shop,  steam  laundry,  etc. 
Two  buildings  are  devoted  entirely  to  industrial  pursuits.  In  con- 
nection with  the  institution  21/2  miles  distant  from  the  main  hos- 
pital buildings,  a  farm  colony  is  maintained.  Several  houses  con- 
structed of  reinforced  concrete  are  to  furnish  accommodations  for 
men  patients  occupied  in  farm  duties.  The  farm  consists  of  400 
acres  and  is  expected  to  furnish  the  dairy  supplies  for  the  asylum. 
Its  buildings  are  A^ery  complete  and  well  equipped,  the  most  recent 


566  LOUISIANA 

beins'  the  cow  bam,  65x156  feet  in  dimensious.  with  100  stalls, 
built  of  reinforced  concrete  chiefly  by  the  patients. 

The  comfort  and  health  of  the  inmates  are  maintained  by  means 
of  well  kept,  well  ventilated  rooms  and  wards,  an  abundance  of 
appetizing  and  nourishing  food,  and  the  presence  of  modern  sani- 
tary conveniences,  sewage  disposal  system,  water  works,  artesian 
Avater,  steam  heat,  electric  lighting  sj^stem,  ice  plant,  and  cold  stor- 
age plant.  Opportiuiities  for  amusement  and  pleasure  are  carefully 
arranged;  a  band  of  12  pieces  plays  in  the  dining  hall  during  the 
dinner  hour  and  upon  the  lawn  in  fine  weather ;  covered  walks 
afford  several  miles  of  promenade  in  wet  weather ;  three  weekly 
dances  are  given  in  the  large  hall;  church  services  are  held  on 
Sundays  })y  pastors  of  different  denominations,  and  the  beautiful 
lawns  sloping  to  the  bay  entice  even  the  most  disconsolate  to  rest 
in  the  cool  shade  of  the  live-oaks. 

The  asylum  is  supported  by  the  bounty  of  the  state  and  has  re- 
ceived an  appropriation  of  !f;140,000  annually  for  a  number  of 
years.  This  sum,  however,  is  now  far  from  sufifieient,  and  it  is  confi- 
dently expected  that  the  legislature  will  considerably  enlarge  it  in 
the  near  future.  Applications  are  now  received  for  many  more  pa- 
tients than  can  be  accommodated.  A  doctor  of  high  standing  in 
liis  profession  is  medical  superintendent  of  the  hospital,  and  able 
assistants  are  provided.  The  superintendent  is  appointed  for  an 
indefinite  term  by  the  board  of  administrators,  which  consists  of  8 
members,  2  appointed  each  year  by  the  governor  for  a  term  of  2 
years.     The  governor  is  ex-ofiicio  president  of  the  board. 

The  Louisiana  Hospital  for  the  Insane  at  Pineville  is  of  more  re- 
cent origin,  having  been  established  in  conformance  to  the  legis- 
lative enactment  of  1902.  The  theory  and  general  plan  of  its  or- 
ganization are  similar  to  those  of  the  hospital  at  Jackson,  and  the 
institutions  may  relieve  each  other  when  either  one  is  overcrowded. 
The  buildings  at  Pineville  are  in  every  respect  modern  and  well 
equipped  and  a  competent  medical  corps  is  in  attendance  at  the 
asylum.  Particular  efforts  are  made  in  the  case  of  each  patient 
to  determine  the  line  of  treatment  best  adapted  to  his  require- 
ments, and  most  likely  to  restore  him  to  health.  The  spacious 
grounds,  delightfully  and  healthfully  situated,  are  cared  for  by 
the  patients,  and  out  of  door  occuiiations  urged  upon  them  in  the 
hope  these  unfortunates  may  derive  benefit  from  the  well  known 
restorative  qualities  of  the  balmy  life-giving  air.  The  mild  climate 
of  Louisiana  renders  particularly  appropriate  agricultural  imder- 
takings  for  the  benefit  of  those  mentally  diseased  inhabitants 
Avhnm  the  state  has  taken  under  its  paternal  care. 

Insurrection  of  1768.— (See  Revolution  of  1768.) 

Interest. — The  legal  rate  of  interest  in  Louisiana  is  5  per  cent, 
and  all  debts  bear  this  rate  from  maturity  without  any  stipulation. 
Eight  per  cent,  may  be  stipulated,  and  a  higher  rate  may  be  col- 
lected, if  embodied  in  the  face  of-  the  obligation,  or  by  way  of  dis- 
count, but  no  higher  rate  than  8  per  cent,  after  maturity  of  the 
obligation  is  lawful,  and  any  stipulation  of  this  character  forfeits 


LOUISIANA  567 

the  eutii-e  interest.  In  the  absence  of  any  stipulation  with  regard 
to  interest,  all  debts  bear  interest  at  the  rate  of  5  per  cent,  from 
their  maturity.  Judgments  bear  the  same  rate  of  interest  as  the 
debts  on  which  they  are  founded. 

Internal  Improvements. — In  the  early  part  of  the  19th  century 
a  wave  of  sentiment  in  favor  of  internal  improvements  swept  over 
the  Mississippi  valley.  The  country  was  rapidly  filling  with  set- 
tlers ;  public  highways  and  bridges  were  needed ;  rivers  were  to  be 
cleared  of  driftwood,  sand-bars  and  other  impediments  to  naviga- 
tion, levees  in  many  places  were  to  be  constructed,  and  many  other 
things  must  be  done  to  give  the  people  the  conveniences  of  a  fully 
civilized  community.  State  legislatures  passed  acts  authorizing 
the  expenditure  of  money,  and  memorialized  Congress  for  assist- 
ance in  the  way  of  further  appropriations  to  accomplish  these  ends. 

On  March  20,  1826,  Gov.  Henry  Johnson  approved  an  act  of  the 
Louisiana  general  assembly  creating  a  board  of  five  commissioners, 
to  be  appointed  by  the  governor,  with  the  advice  and  consent  of 
the  state  senate,  to  be  known  as  the  "board  of  internal  improve- 
ments," of  which  the  governor  should  be  ex-officio  president.  The 
act  made  it  the  duty  of  the  board  tO  clear  rivers  and  bayous  of  ob- 
structions, construct  canals,  open  roads,  etc.  The  commissioners 
were  required  to  visit  the  several  localities  where  improvements 
were  asked  for  and  decide  as  to  which  should  be  undertaken  first. 
Thej'  were  to  serve  without  remuneration,  except  traveling  ex- 
penses, but  they  were  authorized  to  employ  the  surveyor-general 
of  the  state,  and  two  other  engineers  if  they  deemed  it  necessary, 
paying  them  reasonable  compensation,  to  visit  the  site  of  any  pro- 
posed improvement,  make  the  necessary  estimates,  etc.,  and  report 
the  same  to  the  board,  which  was  to  make  a  full  and  complete  re- 
port of  all  the  jjroceedings  to  the  next  session  of  the  legislature. 
Three  of  the  commissioners,  with  the  governor,  were  to  constitute 
a  quorum  for  the  transaction  of  business,  and  the  sum  of  $9,000  was 
appropriated  to  employ  engineers.  This  act  seems  to  have  been  of 
a  tentative  nature,  and  but  little  real  improvement  was  accom- 
plished under  its  operations.  In  his  message  to  the  general  assem- 
bly in  Jan.,  1827,  Gov.  Johnson  dwelt  at  length  on  the  subject  of 
internal  improvements,  especially  the  advantages  to  be  derived 
from  tlie  opening  of  a  canal  from  the  Mississippi  to  the  giilf  by  way 
of  the  lakes,  but  he  did  not  live  to  see  the  realization  of  liis  dream, 
as  the  Lake  Borgne  canal  was  not  opened  until  1901,  three-quar- 
ters of  a  century  after  such  a  project  had  been  advocated  by  Gov. 
Johnson. 

On  Jan.  14,  1829,  the  board  of  internal  improvements  made  a  re- 
port to  the  legislature  regarding  the  damages  wrought  along  the 
Mississippi  river  by  floods,  and  urged  the  general  assembly  to  in- 
voke the  assistance  of  the  general  government  in  the  construction 
of  levees.  Accordingly,  on  Feb.  5,  the  legislature  adopted  a  reso- 
lution requesting  the  Louisiana  senators  and  representatives  in 
Congress  to  lay  the  matter  before  the  U.  S.  corps  of  engineers, 
requesting   that   corps   to   make    a   survey  of  the  places  along  the 


568  LOUISIANA 

river  that  -were  liable  to  damage  by  overflow  and  suggest  some 
plan  for  deepening  the  channel.  Another  resolution  of  the  same 
date  instructed  the  board  of  public  improvements  to  take  steps  for 
the  erection  of  levees  and  the  cutting  of  canals  or  sluices  connect- 
ing the  lakes  and  the  gulf,  to  draw  off  the  overflow  waters  from 
the  Mississippi.  It  is  easier,  however,  to  adopt  resolutions  and  to 
formulate  great  undertakings  than  to  find  the  means  of  putting 
them  into  execution,  and  for  lack  of  sufficient  funds  the  elaborate 
levee  and  canal  system  contemplated  by  the  legislature  was  not 
carried  out.  To  remedy  this  condition  of  affairs,  the  general  as- 
sembly passed  an  act,  approved  by  Gov.  Roman  on  March  4,  1833, 
creating  a  fund  for  internal  improvements,  "to  be  applied  exclu- 
sively to  the  purposes  of  rendering  navigable,  and  uniting  by  ca- 
nals, the  principal  water  coiirses,  and  of  more  intimately  connect- 
ing by  public  liighways  the  dilTerent  parts  of  the  state." 

The  fund  tluis  provided  for  was  to  consist  of  .$20,000  annually, 
to  be  raised  from  duties  collected  on  auction  sales ;  arrearages  on 
the  same  at  that  time  of  one  year's  standing;  all  sums  of  money 
received  under  the  act  of  Congress  of  Feb.  16,  1811 ;  and  all  ap- 
propriations of  the  legislature  of  Louisiana,  or  other  states,  or  of 
the  U.  S.  Congress.  The  fund  was  vested  in  a  corporate  body 
styled  "The  President  and  Directors  of  the  Board  of  Public 
Works."  to  he  composed  of  9  citizens — 3  from  each  Congressional 
district — the  governor  to  be  president  ex-officio  of  the  board.  The 
act  further  provided  that  the  governor,  treasurer  of  state  and  at- 
torney-general should  constitute  a  special  or  subordinate  board,  to 
exercise  control  over  the  management  and  expenditure  of  the  fund 
during  recess.  The  board  was  authoi-ized  to  s\ibscribe  in  behalf  of 
the  state  to  such  public  works  as  the  general  assembly  might  di- 
rect, and  it  was  required  to  keep  a  record  of  its  proceedings  and 
report  annually  to  the  legislature. 

Tender  the  operations  of  this  law  some  progress  was  made,  but 
in  1847  Gov.  Isaac  Johnson  called  attention  in  his  message  to  the 
fact  "that  liberal  appropriations  have  been  made  annually  for  sev- 
eral years  for  the  improvement  of  interior  navigation,  but  the  re- 
sults are  neither  encouraging  nor  commensurate  with  the  expendi- 
ture." Two  years  later,  in  Jan.,  1849,  he  reiterated  his  former 
statements  and  urged  some  reform  in  the  sy.stem,  but  the  legisla- 
ture seemed  to  be  satisfied  with  conditions  as  they  existed  and  for 
some  time  the  work  went  along  in  much  the  same  manner. 

In  the  meantime  a  number  of  companies  had  been  incorporated 
witli  power  to  construct  canals,  etc.  One  of  the  earliest  of  these 
corporations  was  the  Barataria  &  Lafourche  canal  company,  which 
was  chartered  by  the  act  of  Feb.  6,  1829,  with  a  capital  "stock  of 
$150,000,  the  governor  to  appoint  5  commissioners  to  receive  sub- 
scriptions until  the  full  amount  of  stock  was  taken.  The  company 
was  autliorized  to  construct  a  canal  from  the  Mississippi  river  at 
Dugue's  plantation  in  Jefferson  parish  to  connect  with  Lake  Per- 
rier,  Salvador,  Ouache  or  Barataria,  with  locks  at  the  Mississippi, 
and  was  given  power  to  levy  toll  upon  all  vessels  passing  throug'h 


LOUISIANA  569 

the  canal.  Subscriptions  to  the  stock  came  in  slowly,  and  the 
legislature,  by  the  act  of  March  25,  1835,  directed  the  state  treas- 
urer to  subscribe  for  500  shares  in  the  name  of  the  state.  By  the 
same  act  the  board  of  internal  improvements  was  instructed  and 
authorized  to  employ  on  the  canal  one-third  of  the  slaves  belong- 
ing to  the  state,  which  was  to  receive  $150  per  annum  for  each 
slave  so  employed,  and  this  arrangement  was  to  continue  until  the 
canal  was  completed,  or  until  the  entire  amount  of  the  state's  sub- 
scription should  be  paid.  As  frequently  happened,  the  work  dragged 
along,  and  as  late  as  1853  the  legislature  authorized  the  governor 
to  appoint  commissioners  to  modify  the  contract  with  the  com- 
pany, no  money  to  be  paid  unless  an  agreement  was  reached. 

Following  the  incorporation  of  this  company  was  that  of  the 
Lafourche  &  Terrebonne  navigation  company,  with  which  the  state 
had  a  similar  experience.  This  company  was  granted  a  charter  to 
improve  the  bayous  Terrebonne,  Black,  Carpe  and  De  Large,  and 
to  open  one  or  more  canals  from  Bayou  Lafourche  to  Terrebonne, 
thence  to  the  bayous  Black,  Carpe,  Caillou  and  De  Large,  and 
through  Bayou  Black  to  Berwick  bay.  The  capital  stock  was  fixed 
at  $100,000,  and  the  company  was  granted  the  same  rights  and 
privileges  as  the  Barataria  &  Lafourche  canal  company.  These 
two  companies  present  examples  of  how  internal  improvements 
were  made  by  private  corporations,  aided  by  the  state.  In  a  few 
instances  the  work  was  prosecixted  to  a  successful  termination,  but 
in  a -majority  of  cases  the  charter  and  credit  of  the  state  were  ob- 
tained as  a  basis  for  speculation.  The  policy  was  continued,  how- 
ever, until  late  in  the  50 's,  one  of  the  last  of  such  corporations  hav- 
ing been  the  Abita  improvement  company,  which  was  incorporated 
for  25  years  by  the  act  of  March  12,  1855,  with  a  capital  stock  of 
$50,000  and  power  to  build  factories,  plank-roads,  railroads,  etc. 

Louisiana  was  not  alone  in  her  efforts  to  secure  internal  improve- 
ments by  making  liberal  appropriations  of  the  public  revenues  and 
granting  generous  charters  to  corporations,  as  nearly  every  west- 
ern and  southern  state  passed  thi'ough  a  similar  experience.  The 
Confederate  war  put  an  end  to  most  of  the  internal  improvement 
companies,  and  since  that  time  internal  improvements  have  been 
made  along  more  rational  lines.  Levees  have  been  constructed 
under  the  supervision  and  with  the  aid  of  the  general  govern- 
ment ;  railroads  have  been  built  by  private  capital ;  highways  and 
other  local  improvements  have  been  made  by  the  parishes  levying 
a  special  tax  or  by  issuing  bonds  for  such  specific  purposes,  and 
for  every  dollar  expended  the  state  has  received  a  fair  equivalent. 
(See  also  Levees,  Eailroads,  Roads,  etc.) 

Invisible  Empire. — (See  Ku  Klux  Klan.) 

Ion,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  northeastern  part  of  Tensas  parish,  is 
situated  on  the  Mississippi  river,  about  4  miles  east  of  Quimby, 
the  nearest  railroad  station. 

Iota,  a  village  of  Acadia  parish,  is  situated  in  the  western  part 
on  the  Southern  Pacific  R.  R.,  about  10  miles  northwest  of  Crow- 


570  LOUISIANA 

ley.  the  parish  seat.  It  has  a  money  order  postoffiee.  express  of- 
fice and  telegraph  station,  and  a  population  of  769. 

Iowa,  a  village  in  Jet?  Davis  parish,  is  a  station  on  the  Southern 
Paeitie  R.  E.,  about  13  miles  east  of  Lake  Charles,  the  parish  seat. 
It  has  a  money  order  ]iostoffiee,  express  office,  telegraph  station 
and  telephone  facilities,  and  is  a  shipping  point  of  some  conse- 
qiienee.     Population  100. 

Irene,  a  post-village  in  the  northwestern  part  of  East  Baton 
Kouge  parish,  is  a  station  on  the  line  of  the  Louisiana  Railway  & 
Navigation  company,  12  miles  northwest  of  Baton  Rouge,  the  par- 
ish seat. 

Irion,  Alfred  Brings,  lawyer  and  jurist,  was  born  in  Avoyelles 
parish.  La..  Feb.  18.  1833.  He  received  his  education  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  North  Carolina,  where  he  graduated  in  1855 :  studied 
law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1857.  He  became  .iudge  of  the 
circuit  court  of  appeals  in  1880,  which  office  he  held  for  4  years; 
was  elected  to  the  49th  Congress  as  a  Democrat,  and  after  leav- 
ing Congress  resumed  the  practice  of  law. 

Irish  Bend,  one  of  the  principal  ^-illages  of  St.  Mary  parish,  is 
located  on  the  Bayou  Teche,  about  5  miles  northeast  of  Franklin, 
the  parish  seat,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  a  short  line  of  rail- 
road called  the  East  &  "West  R.  R.  Further  transportation  facili- 
ties are  afforded  by  the  Southern  Pacitic  steamers  on  the  bayou. 
The  village  has  a  money  order  postoffiee  and  telephone  connec- 
tions with  the  surrounding  towns.  A  battle  was  fought  here  on 
April  14,  1863,  in  which  the  Federals  were  at  first  defeated,  but 
received  reinforcements  and  rallied,  when  the  Confederates  were 
in  turn  forced  back  and  the  gunboat  Diana  was  blown  up  and 
burned.    Population  100. 

Irma,  a  post-village  in  the  easteim  pai"t  of  Natchitoches  parish, 
is  a  station  on  the  line  of  the  Louisiana  Railway  &  Navigation 
company,  5  miles  northeast  of  Natchitoches,  the  parish  seat. 

Iron. — Appleton's  Annual  Cyclopedia  for  1885,  p.  549,  says: 
"Iron  has  recently  been  discovered  in  northwestern  Louisiana.  The 
iron  countiw  is  an  extensive  district  running  in  a  northeasterly 
and  soiithwesterly  direction  from  Arkansas  into  Texas.  At  the 
upper  and  lower  ends  of  the  district  the  iron  is  being  worked  prof- 
itably," The  iipper  end  of  the  district  referred  to  being  in  Arkan- 
sas, and  the  lower  end  in  Texas,  the  above  statement  does  not  give 
much  authentic  information  regarding  the  deposits  of  iron  ore  in 
Louisiana.  A  handbook  published  by  the  commissioner  of  agri- 
culture and  immigration  in  1904  says:  "Iron  ores  occur  in  form 
of  nodular  secretions,  or  thin  plates,  in  nearly  all  of  the  old  ter- 
tiary beds,  and  occasionally  in  the  Lafayette  sands.  They  are  badly 
scattered,  and  as  yet  have  had  no  economic  value,  though  selected 
specimens  give  good  results  upon  analysis,  a  few  showing  over  50 
per  cent,  of  metallic  iron." 

Isabel,  a  post-hamlet  and  station  of  Washington  parish,  is  on  the 
New  Orleans,  Great  Northern  R.  R.,  about  15  miles  southeast  of 
Franklinton,  the  parish  seat. 


LOUISIANA  571 

Island,  a  village  in  the  sontlieastern  part  of  Pointe  Coupee  par- 
ish, is  a  station  on  the  Texas  &  Pacific  R.  R.,  about  4  miles  south- 
east of  New  Roads,  the  parish  seat.  It  has  a  money  order  post- 
office  and  telegraph  station. 

Ivan,  a  post-village  in  the  northeastern  part  of  Bossier  parish, 
is  a  station  on  the  Bodcau  Valley  R.  R.,  about  12  miles  northeast 
of  Benton,  the  parish  seat. 


J 


Jack,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  central  part  of  St.  Helena  parish,  is 
situated  on  a  confluent  of  the  Tickfaw  river,  about  5  miles  south 
of  Greensburg,  the  parish  seat,  and  3  miles  northwest  of  Mayer, 
the  nearest  railroad  station. 

Jackson,  a  town  in  tlie  western  part  of  East  Feliciana  parish,  is 
situated  on  Thompson's  creek  at  the  junction  of  the  Jackson  and 
the  Yazoo  &  Mississippi  Valley  railroads,  and  about  12  miles  west 
of  Clinton,  the  parish  seat.  It  is  one  of  the  old  towns  of  Louisiana, 
incorporated  by  an  act  of  the  legislature  April  2,  1832,  and  re- 
ceived its  name  in  honor  of  Gen.  Andrew  Jackson.  When  the  par- 
ish of  Feliciana  was  created  in  1811,  this  town  became  the  parish 
seat  and  remained  so  until  the  old  parish  was  divided  in  1824  to 
form  the  parishes  of  East  and  West  Feliciana.  It  is  one  of  the 
largest  towns  in  this  portion  of  the  state,  and  is  the  seat  of  Cen- 
tenary college  (Methodist  Episcopal),  which  was  organized  in 
1825,  the  Williams  Female  institute,  the  Louisiana  Female  Colle- 
giate institute  and  the  state  asylum  for  the  insane.  It  has  a  num- 
ber of  beautiful  clun-ches,  homes  and  mercantile  establishments, 
a  money  order  postoffice,  a  bank,  telegraph  and  telephone  facilities, 
and  a  population  of  2,146. 

Jackson,  Andrew,  soldier  and  statesman,  was  boi-n  in  what  was 
kno\^^l  as  the  "Waxhaw  Settlement,"  on  the  border  between  North 
and  Soixth  Carolina,  March  15,  1767.  About  2  years  before  his 
birth  his  parents,  Andrew  and  Elizabeth  (Hutchinson)  Jackson, 
came  to  America  from  the  noi'th  coast  of  Ireland,  and  soon  after 
settling  in  the  Waxhaw  district  the  father  died,  leaving  to  his 
widow  a  half-cleared  farm,  with  no  one  to  assist  in  its  cultivation 
but  her  children.  She  was  soon  to  be  deprived  of  this  help,  for 
during  the  Revolutionary  war  Andrew  and  his  two  brothers  took 
up  arms  in  defense  of  their  country.  The  elder  brother  was  killed 
at  the  battle  of  Stono  Ferry,  and  Andrew,  though  but  13  years  old, 
served  with  his  remaining  ])rother  under  Gen.  Sumter  until  the 
close  of  the  war.  His  mother  died  while  nursing  American  soldiers 
in  prison  at  Charleston,  S.  C,  and  soon  afterward  his  brother 
Robert  died  of  small-pox.  Under  these  circumstances  Andrew's 
opportunities  to  acquire  an  education  were  extremely  limited.  In 
1784  he  began  the  study  of  law  with  Spruce  McKay  at  Salisbury, 
N.  C,  and  about  3  years  later,  when  only  20  years  of  age,  he  was 
appointed  solicitor  for  the  western  district  of  South  Carolina  (now 


OIZ 


LOUISIANA 


Tennessee).  At  that  time  he  stood  "six  feet  and  an  inch  in  his 
stockings,  verj^  slender,  but  not  awkward,  with  a  face  long,  thin 
and  blonde ;  high  narrow  forehead,  a  mass  of  sandy  hair,  and  deep 
blue  eyes,  which  then  and  ever  afterward  could  blaze  into  the 
fiercest  expression  when  lie  was  aroused."  In  1788  Jackson 
reached  Nashville  and  within  the  next  3  years  had  built  up  a  suc- 
cessful law  practice.  In  1791  he  married  Rachel  Robards,  the  di- 
vorced wife  of  Lewis  Kobards  and  a  daughter  of  John  Douelson, 
one  of  the  pioneers  of  Tennessee.  After  the  marriage  it  was  discov- 
ered that  the  decree  of  divorce  was  not  yet  effective  and  a  second  cere- 
mony was  performed  2  years  later.  This  romance  caused  several  mis- 
undersftandings  in  after  years,  one  of  which  resulted  in  a  duel  between 
Jackson  and  Charles  Dickinson,  in  which  Jackson  had  a  rib  broken 
and  Dickinson  was  killed.  In  1796  Jackson  was  a  delegate  to  the 
Tennessee  constitutional  convention  and  the  same  year  was  elected  to 
Congress.  The  following  year  he  was  elected  to  the  U.  S.  senate, 
but  resigned  in  1798  to  become  one  of  the  supreme  judges  of  Ten- 
nessee. Not^vithstanding  these  civic  honors,  he  was  more  of  a  warrior 
than  a  stateman,  and  on  several  occasions  had  abandoned  his  profes- 
sional duties  to  make  war  on  the  Indians.  "When  the  War  of  1812 
began  he  was  living  on  his  farm  near  Nashville,  though  he  held  the 
rank  of  ma,ior-general  in  the  Tennessee  militia.  He  soon  gathered 
together  over  2,000  of  his  men  and  offered  his  services  and  theirs  to 
the  government,  but  the  offer  was  not  accepted.  In  the  winter  of 
1812-13  he  received  orders  to  reinforce  Gen.  Wilkinson  at  New  Or- 
leans, and  on  Jan.  7,  1813,  left  Nashville  for  that  purpose.  On  Feb. 
15  he  arrived  with  his  command  at  Natchez,  where  he  received  orders 
from  the  war  department  to  disband  his  men  and  turn  over  all  pub- 
lie  stores  and  property  in  his  possession  to  Wilkinson.  ' '  This  amoimted 
practically  to  an  order  to  disband  500  miles  from  home,  without  pay, 
means  of  transport  or  commissariat  or  hospital  stores;  but  Jackson 
determined  to  permit  no  such  outrage  as  this,  and,  though  in  dis- 
obedience of  orders,  marched  his  troops  back  in  a  body  to  their  ovm 
state,  reaching  Nashville  May  22,  1813."  Later  in  that  year  and  in 
1814  he  was  active  in  overcoming  the  hostile  tribes  of  Indians  in  Ala- 
bama, Florida  and  Georgia,  and  on  May  31,  1814,  was  made  a  major- 
general  in  the  U.  S.  army.  After  driving  the  British  from  Peusaeola 
he  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  army  at  New  Orleans  and 
arrived  in  that  city  on  Dec.  2,  1814.  One  of  his  first  acts  was  to  ask 
the  legislature  to  suspend  the  wi-it  of  habeas  coi-pus.  in  order  that 
Commodore  Patterson  might  impress  seamen,  but  the  legislature  re- 
fused to  comply,  and  also  refused  to  adjourn  at  the  request  of  the 
governor.  JIartin  says  that  Jackson  then  "issued  a  general  order, 
putting  the  city  of  New  Orleans  and  its  environs  under  strict  martial 
law,  and  directed  that  every  individual  entering  the  city  should  report 
himself  to  the  adjutant-general's  office,  and  on  failure  be  arrested 
and  held  for  examination.  None  should  be  permitted  to  leave  the 
city  or  Bayou  St.  John,  without  a  passport  from  the  general  or  some 
of  his  staff".  No  vessel,  boat  or  craft,  should  leave  the  city  or  Bayou 
St.  John,  without  such  a  passport,  or  that  of  the  commodore.     The 


LOUISIANA  573 

lamps  of  the  city  to  be  extinguished  at  nine  o'clock,  after  which  every 
person  found  in  the  streets  or  out  of  his  usual  place  of  residence,  with- 
out a  pass  or  the  countersign,  to  be  apprehended  as  a  spy  and  held 
for  examination."  This  order  caused  some  dissatisfaction  among  the 
people,  but  as  the  British  were  approaching  the  city  they  submitted 
and  joined  in  the  measures  for  the  common  defense.  Other  incidents 
occurred  while  Jackson  was  in  command  at  New  Orleans  by  which  his 
impetiious  nature  brought  him  into  conflict  with  the  civil  authorities. 
On  Dec.  28,  1814,  while  the  American  and  British  forces  were  en- 
gaged, he  received  a  rumor  that  the  legislature  was  "about  to  give 
up  the  country  to  the  enemy"  and  sent  word  to  Oov.  Claiborne  "to 
make  strict  inquiry  into  the  subject,  and  if  true,  to  blow  them  up." 
An  investigation  exonerated  the  legislature,  which  then  extended  a 
vote  of  thanks  "to  all  those  who  had  in  the  slightest  degree  contrib- 
uted to  the  defense  of  the  .state,  except  Gen.  Jackson."  A  number 
of  French  subjects  in  New  Orleans  were  encouraged  by  the  French 
consul  to  enlist  under  Jackson's  standard.  After  the  British  were 
driven  from  the  state,  these  men  wanted  to  return  to  their  families 
and  obtained  from  the  consxil  certificates  as  to  their  nationality,  thus 
securing  their  discharge  from  the  army.  So  many  of  these  certificates 
appeared  that  Jackson  suspected  them  of  being  improperly  issued  by 
the  consul.  On  Feb.  28,  1815,  he  issued  an  order  for  all  French  sub- 
jects to  leave  the  city  within  three  days  and  retire  into  the  interior. 
When  the  consul,  on  the  recommendation  of  Gov.  Claiborne,  was  pre- 
paring to  invoke  the  aid  of  the  courts  on  behalf  of  his  countrymen,  'he 
was  ordered  out  of  the  city,  "which  order  was  instantly  obeyed." 
Three  days  later  there  appeared  in  the  Courier  de  la  Loui.siane  a  com- 
munication signed  by  Louis  Louallier,  a  native  of  France  and  the 
member  of  the  legislature  from  the  county  of  Opelousas,  making  severe 
strictures  on  Jackson  for  issuing  sTich  an  order.  Martial  law  still  pre- 
vailed, and  on  Sunday,  March  5,  Loiiallier  was  arrested  by  Jackson's 
order.  The  prisoner  applied  to  Judge  Hall  of  the  U.  S.  district  court 
for  a  writ  of  habeas,  which  was  granted,  but  Jackson  refused  to  recog- 
nize the  writ,  and  ordered  the  arrest  of  the  judge  for  "aiding,  abet- 
ting and  exciting  mutiny  in  my  camp."  (See  Hall,  Dominiek  A., 
and  Louallier,  Louis.)  Mr.  Dick,  the  U.  S.  district  attorney,  came 
to  the  assistance  of  the  judge  and  applied  to  Judge  Lewis,  one  of  the 
district  judges  of  the  state,  for  a  writ  of  habeas  corpus,  whereupon 
Jackson  had  Dick  arrested  and  confined  in  the  barracks  along  \*ith 
Hall  and  Louallier.  Soon  after  this  martial  law  was  revoked,  and  on 
the  21st.  Dick  brought  proceedings  against  Jackson  by  moving  for  a 
rule  to  show  cause  why  a  process  of  attachment  should  not  issue 
against  the  general  for  contempt  of  court.  He  was  sentenced  to  pay 
a  fine  of  $1,000  and  costs  and  immediately  signed  a  check  for  the 
amount.  When  the  general  left  the  court  room  his  eairriage  was 
drawn  by  his  friends  and  admirers  to  the  Exchange  coffee  house, 
where  he  made  a  speech  admonishing  them  to  "remember  the  example 
he  had  given  them  of  respectful  submission  to  the  administration  of 
justice."  His  friends  insisted  on  refunding  to  him  the  amount  of  the 
fine  and  costs,  but  he  refused  to  accept  it.    In  1843  the  legislature  of 


574  LOUISIANA 

Lonisiaua  asked  Congress  to  refund  the  fine  with  interest,  and  prom- 
ised, that  in  ease  Congress  failed  to  do  so,  the  state  would  reimburse 
him  On  the  recommendation  of  President  Tyler,  Congress  made  an 
appropriation  of  a  sum  sufficient  to  refund  the  original  amount  of  the 
fine,  ^^■ith  interest  for  30  years.  After  the  excitement  due  to  martial 
law  and  Jackson's  sensational  arrest  had  died  away  the  people  took 
a  more  friendly  view  of  Jackson  and  a  higher  appreciation  of  his  serv- 
ices. On  several  occasions  he  was  an  honored  guest  of  New  Orleans 
or  the  State  of  Louisiana.  He  received  3  of  the  5  electoral  votes  of 
the  state  when  he  ran  for  president  in  1824 ;  all  5  of  the  votes  in  1828 
and  again  in  1832;  the  name  of  the  Place  d'Armes  was  changed  to 
Jackson  Square  in  his  honor,  and  in  that  square  stands  one  of  the  fin- 
est equestrian  statues  in  the  world,  erected  by  a  grateful  people  to 
the  memory  of  the  '"Hero  of  New  Orleans."  Gen.  Jackson  died  at 
his  home,  "The  Hermitage,"  near  Nashville,  June  8,  184.5,  and  was 
buried  in  a  corner  of  his  garden  by  the  side  of  his  wife's  remains, 
their  resting  place  being  marked  by  a  massive  monument  of  Tenn- 
essee limestone. 

Jackson  Parish,  established  in  1845,  dnring  the  administration  of 
Gov.  Alexander  Mouton,  was  created  from  a  part  of  Claiborne  par- 
ish. All  this  country  was  known  as  the  "Natchitoches  District" 
when  held  by  France  and  Spain,  and  the  early  history  of  Jackson 
is  that  of  Natchitoches  and  Claiborne  parishes.  It  has  an  \indu- 
lating  surface  of  574  square  miles;  is  situated  in  the  north-central 
part  of  the  state ;  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Lincoln  parish :  on 
the  east  by  Ouachita  and  Caldwell  parishes ;  on  the  south  by  Winn 
parish,  and  on  the  west  by  Bienville  and  Claiborne  parishes.  The 
parish  seat  was  Vernon,  a  little  north  of  the  center  of  the  parish.  A 
small  log  building  was  used  for  the  first  court  house,  but  it  was  re- 
placed by  a  two-story  frame  building  and  later  a  siibstantial  build- 
ing was  erected  which  still  stands.  Jackson  parish  belongs  to  what 
are  known  as  the  "hill  parishes."  The  general  surface  of  the  coim- 
try  is  rolling  and  rises  in  many  places  to  considerable  pine  hills, 
while  scattered  throughout  the  parish  are  broad  creek  bottoms,  and 
many  springs  are  found  in  various  localities.  Water  is  abundant 
and  good  for  both  stock  and  domestic  purposes.  The  largest  and 
most  important  streams  are  the  Dugdemona  river  and  the  Bayous 
Castor  and  Beaucoup.  The  soil  is  of  several  varieties,  principally 
sandy  loam,  fertile  in  the  bottom  lauds,  which  are  of  alhndal 
formation,  moderately  rich  in  the  uplands,  and  yield  abundantly. 
Cotton  is  the  principal  crop,  though  corn,  oats,  hay,  sorghum, 
sweet  and  Irish  potatoes,  peas,  sugar-cane,  wheat,  rye  and  barley 
are  all  grown  with  profit,  as  are  all  kinds  of  fruit  and  nuts  common 
to  this  part  of  the  state.  The  live  stock  industry,  which  until 
lately  was  neglected,  is  growing  rapidly  owing  to  the  shipping  facil- 
ities now  afforded,  and  the  excellent  grass  lands  of  the  parish,  where 
stock  can  graze  almost  the  entire  year.  Dairying  has  increased 
and  is  a  very  profitable  industry  as  carried  on  by  the  small  farmer. 
Like  several  of  the  other  northern  parishes  Jackson  is  not  thickly 
settled,  as  railroads  are  recent.    There  are  no  cities,  but  a  number 


LOUISIANA  575 

of  live  and  flourishing  towns  and  villages,  the  most  important  of 
which  are  Vernon,  Jonesboro,  Chathamville,  Hoods  Mills,  Rochester, 
Spencer,  Quitman,  Nash  and  Womack.  Schools  are  maintained 
for  both  black  and  white.  When  the  parish  was  organized  it  con- 
tained a  population  of  5,566,  which  has  gradually  increased.  The 
following  statistics  are  taken  from  the  U.  S.  census  for  1910 :  number 
of  farms,  1,685;  acreage,  189,627;  acres  under  cultivation,  64,733; 
value  of  land  and  improvements  exclusive  of  buildings,  $1,031,953; 
value  of  farm  buildings,  $396,678 ;  value  of  live  stock,  $377,965 ;  value 
of  all  crops,  $574,108.    Population  13,818. 

In  1908  a  bill  was  introduced  in  the  Louisiana  legislature  to  au- 
thorize a  vote  to  be  taken  in  the  parish  on  the  question  of  moving 
the  seat  of  justice  from  Vernon  to  some  other  point.  A  two-thirds 
majority  was  required  to  change  the  site  and  under  this  Jonesboro 
was  selected. 

Jackson  Square,  a  piiblic  park  in  New  Orleans,  was  first  known 
as  the  "Place  d'Armes,"  and  was  set  aside  as  a  parade  ground  when 
Bienville  had  the  location  of  the  new  capital  laid  out  in  1718.  It 
served,  as  in  European  cities,  as  a  parade  ground  for  the  troops  of  the 
garrison.  From  the  beginning  the  Place  d'Armes  was  the  same  rec- 
tangular shape  it  is  today,  larger  only  by  the  width  of  the  present 
sidewalks  around  it,  an  open  plat  of  coarse,  native  grass,  crossed  by 
two  diagonal  paths,  occupying  the  exact  middle  of  the  town  front. 
Behind  it  a  like  amount  of  gi'ound  was  reserved  for  ecclesiastic  uses, 
on  the  front  half  of  which  was  built  the  St.  Louis  cathedral  (q.  v.). 
This  is  one  of  the  most  noted  spots  in  Louisiana.  Here  the  French 
troops  were  reviewed,  and  all  the  most  important  public  meetings  of 
the  colony  took  place  in  the  square.  In  the  center  was  planted  a  flag 
staff,  from  which  at  different  epochs  in  the  history  of  the  province 
floated  the  royal  banners  of  France,  Spain,  and  the  United  States. 
This  quaint  old  square  has  witnessed  many  an  important  event  in  the 
history  of  Louisiana,  for  on  this  spot  the  different  transfers  of  the 
province  have  taken  place.  (See  Transfer  of  Louisiana.)  The  square 
was  originally  bounded  on  the  upper  and  lower  sides  by  a  row  of  old 
Spanish  buildings,  which  belonged  to  the  Baroness  de  Pontalba, 
who  had  these  buildings  torn  down  and  erected  dwellings  with  stores 
beneath.  At  the  same  time  she  improve!  the  square,  had  it  laid  out 
in  the  French  style  and  planted  with  flowers  and  shriibs.  "When  the 
monument  of  Gen.  Jackson  was  erected  in  the  square,  the  name  was 
changed  to  Jackson  Square  in  his  honor. 

Jacksonville  (R.  R.  name  Toomey),  a  village  and  station  in  the 
southwestern  part  of  Calcasieu  parish,  is  on  the  Southern  Pacific  R. 
R.,  about  25  miles  west  of  Lake  Charles,  the  parish  seat.  It  has  a 
money  order  postoffice,  telegraph  station  and  express  ofiSce,  and  is  the 
principal  trading  and  shipping  towai  of  the  southwestern  part  of  the 
parish. 

Jacobins. — When  the  states-general  was  convened  at  Versailles, 
France,  in  1789,  a  number  of  the  members  organized  themselves  into 
a  political  society,  known  at  first  as  the  "Club  Breton."  Upon  the 
removal    of   the    court    and    the    national    assembly    to    Paris,    the 


576  LOUISIANA 

club  took  the  name  of  the  "Society  of  Friends  of  the  Constitution." 
The  name  of  Jacobins  was  given  to  its  membei-s  from  the  fact  that 
their  meetings  in  Paris  were  held  in  the  hall  of  the  old  Jacobin  con- 
vent. Branch  clubs  were  formed  throughout  Prance  and  when  the 
national  assembly  was  dissolved  in  Sept.,  1791,  the  election  of  the 
legislative  assembly  was  mainly  due  to  the  influence  of  the  Jacobin 
club.  The  following  year  the  Jacobins  reached  the  zenith  of  their 
power.  The  agitation  that  resulted  in  the  destruction  of  the  Giron- 
dists and  the  death  of  Louis  XVI.  culminating  in  the  i-evohition  in 
France,  was  the  work  of  the  Jacobins.  In  1793  a  Jacobin  club  was 
formed  in  Philadelphia.  Pa.,  and  early  in  179-1  this  club  caused  to  be 
circulated  in  Louisiana  the  following  address: 

"LIBERTY,  EQUALITY 

' '  The  Freemen  of  France  to  their  brothers  in  Louisiana : 
2nd  year  of  the  French  Republic. 

"The  moment  has  arrived  when  despotism  must  disappear  from 
the  earth.  France,  having  obtained  her  freedom,  and  constituted  her- 
self into  a  republic,  after  having  made  known  to  mankind  their  rights, 
after  having  achieved  the  most  glorious  victories  over  her  enemies,  is 
]iot  satisfied  with  successes  by  which  she  alone  woTild  profit,  but  de- 
clares to  all  nations  that  she  is  ready  to  give  her  powerful  assistance 
to  those  that  m.ay  be  disposed  to  follow  her  example. 

"Frenchmen  of  Louisiana,  you  still  love  your  mother  country; 
such  a  feeling  is  innate  in  your  hearts.  The  French  nation,  knowing 
your  sentiments,  and  indignant  at  seeing  you  the  victims  of  the  t}'- 
i"ants  by  whom  you  have  been  so  long  oppressed,  can  and  will  avenge 
yovu"  wrongs.  A  perjured  king,  prevaricating  ministers,  vile  and  in- 
solent courtiers,  who  fattened  on  the  labors  of  the  people  whose  blood 
they  sucked,  have  suft'ered  the  punishment  due  to  their  crimes.  The 
French  nation,  irritated  by  the  outrages  and  injustices  of  which  it 
had  been  the  object,  rose  against  those  oppressors,  and  they  disap- 
peared before  its  wrath,  as  rapidl.v  as  dust  obeys  the  breath  of  an  im- 
petuous wind. 

"The  hour  has  struck.  Frenchmen  of  Louisiana;  hasten  to  profit 
by  the  great  lesson  which  you  have  received.  Now  is  the  time  to  cease 
being  slaves  of  a  government  to  which  you  were  shamefully  sold ;  and 
no  longer  to  be  led  on  like  a  herd  of  cattle,  by  men  who  with  one  word 
can  strip  yoii  of  what  you  hold  most  dear — liberty  and  property. 

"The  Spanish  despotism  has  surpassed  in  atrocity  and  stupidity 
all  the  other  despotisms  that  have  ever  been  known.  Has  not  bar- 
barism always  been  the  companion  of  that  government,  which  has 
rendered  the  Spanish  name  execrable  and  horrible  in  the  whole  conti- 
nent of  America  ?  Is  it  not  that  nation  who,  under  the  hypocritical 
mask  of  religion,  ordered  or  permitted  the  sacrifice  of  more  than 
twenty  millions  of  men?  Is  it  not  the  same  race  that  depopulated, 
impoverished  and  degi-aded  whole  countries,  for  the  gratification  of 
an  insatiable  avarice?  Is  it  not  the  nation  that  has  oppressed  and 
still  oppresses  you  under  a  heaw  voke  ? 


LOUISIANA  577 

"What  have  been  the  fruits  of  so  many  crimes?  The  annihilation, 
the  disgrace,  the  impoverishment,  and  the  besotting  of  the  Spanish 
nation  in  Europe,  and  a  fatal  lethargy,  servitude,  or  death  for  an 
infinite  number  of  the  inhabitants  of  America.  The  Indians  cut  down 
the  tree  whose  fruits  they  wish  to  reach  and  gather.  A  fit  illustra- 
tion of  despotism !  The  fate  of  nations  is  of  no  importance  in  the 
eye  of  tyranny.  Everything  is  to  be  sacrificed  to  satisfy  capricious 
tastes  and  transient  wants,  and  all  those  it  rules  over  must  groan 
under  the  chains  of  slavery. 

"Frenchmen  of  Louisiana,  the  unjust  treatment  you  have  under- 
gone must  have  sufficiently  convinced  you  of  these  sad  truths,  and 
your  misfortunes  must  undoubtedly  have  deeply  impressed  your  souls 
with  the  desire  of  seizing  an  honorable  opportunity  of  avenging  your 
wrongs.  Compare  with  your  situation  that  of  your  friends — the  free 
Americans.  Look  at  the  province  of  Kentucky,  deprived  of  its  out- 
lets for  its  products,  and  yet,  notwithstanding  these  obstacles,  and 
merely  through  the  genial  influence  of  a  free  government,  rapidly  in- 
creasing its  population  and  wealth,  and  already  presaging  a  pros-, 
perity  which  causes  the  Spanish  government  to  tremble. 

"Treasure  up  in  your  minds  the  following  observations:  they  di- 
vulge the  secret  siprings  of  all  despotic  governments,  because  they  tear 
off  the  veil  which  covers  their  abominable  designs.  Men  are  created 
and  born  to  love  one  another,  to  be  united  and  happy,  and  they  would 
be  so  effectually,  if  those  who  call  themselves  the  images  of  G-od  on 
earth — if  kings — had  not  found  out  the  means  of  sowing  discord 
among  them  and  destroying  their  felicity. 

"The  peopling  of  Kentucky  has  been  the  work  of  a  few  years; 
your  colony,  although  better  situated,  is  daily  losing  its  population, 
because  it  lacks  liberty.  The  Americans,  who  are  free,  after  con- 
secrating all  their  time  to  cultivating  their  lands  and  to  expanding 
their  industry,  are  sure  to  enjoy  quietly  the  fruits  of  their  labors, 
but,  ■nath  regard  to  yourselves,  all  that  you  possess  depends  on  the 
caprice  of  a  viceroy,  who  is  always  unjust,  avaricious  and  vindictive. 
These  are  evils  which  a  firm  determination,  once  taken,  can  shake  off. 
Only  have  resolution  and  energy,  and  one  instant  will  suffice  to 
change  your  unhappy  condition.  "Wretched  indeed  would  you  be- 
come if  you  failed  in  the  undertaking!  Because  the  very  name  of 
Frenchmen  being  hateful  to  all  kings  and  their  accomplices,  they 
would,  in  return  for  your  attachment  to  lis,  render  your  chains 
more  insupportable,  and  Avould  persecute  you  with  unheard  of  vex- 
ations. 

"You  quiver,  no  doubt,  with  indignation;  you  feel  in  your  hearts 
the  desire  of  deserving  the  honorable  appellation  of  freemen,  but 
the  fear  of  not  being  assisted  and  of  failing  in  your  attempt  deadens 
your  zeal.  Dismiss  such  apprehensions:  know  ye,  that  your 
brethren,  the  French,  who  have  attacked  with  success  the  Spanish 
government  in  Europe,  will  in  a  short  time  present  themselves  on 
your  coasts  ■n^th  naval  forces ;  that  the  republicans  of  the  western  por- 
tion of  the  United  States  are  ready  to  come  down  the  Ohio  and  Missis- 
sippi in  company  with  a  considerable  number  of  French  republicans, 
1—37 


578  LOUISLVNA 

and  rush  to  your  assistance  under  the  bannei-s  of  Fi-aiice  and  libertj' ; 
and  that  you  have  every  assurance  of  success.  Therefore,  inhabitants 
of  Louisiana,  show  who  j-ou  are ;  prove  that  you  have  not  been  stupe- 
fied by  despotism,  and  that  you  have  retained  in  your  breasts  French 
valor  and  intrepidity ;  demonstrate  that  you  are  worthy  of  being  free 
and  independent,  because  we  do  not  solicit  you  to  unite  yourselves 
with  us.  but  to  seek  your  own  freedom.  "When  you  shall  have  the  sole 
control  of  your  actions,  you  will  be  able  to  adopt  a  republican  consti- 
tution, and  being  assisted  by  France  so  long  as  your  weakness  will 
not  permit  you  to  protect  or  defend  youi-selves.  it  will  be  in  your 
power  to  luiite  voluntarily  -n-ith  her  and  your  neighbors— the  United 
States — forming  with  these  two  republics  an  alliance  which  will  be  the 
liberal  basis  on  which,  henceforth,  shall  stand  our  mutual  i;>olitical 
and  commercial  interests.  Your  country  will  derive  the  greatest  ad- 
vantages from  so  auspicious  a  revolution ;  and  the  glory  with  which  you 
vrill  cover  yourselves  will  equal  the  prosperity  which  you  will  secure 
for  yourselves  and  descendants.  Screw  up  your  eoiirage.  Frenchmen 
of  Louisiana.  Away  with  pusillanimity — ea  ira — ca  ira — audaces 
fortiuia  juvat." 

This  address,  coming  just  at  the  time  Genet  was  striving  to  in- 
terest the  citizens  of  the  United  States  in  a  war  against  Spain,  found 
an  echo  in  the  hearts  of  many  of  the  Frenchmen  of  Louisiana  and 
caused  some  anxiety  on  the  pai't  of  Gov.  Carondelet.  He  knew  that 
many  of  the  French  inhabitants  of  the  province  had  never  become 
fully  reconciled  to  the  idea  of  Spanish  domination  and  feared  an  out- 
break. He  industriously  put  his  fortifications  in  as  good  a  state  of 
defense  as  possible,  organized  his  forces,  and  even  went  so  far  as  to 
issue  an  order  forbidding  theatre  orchesti-as  to  play  the  "ilarseil- 
laise. "  Before  the  revolutionary  spirit  gained  much  headway  the  Fed- 
eral government  demanded  Genet's  recall.  This  put  a  damper  on  the 
spirit  of  the  Jacobins  in  America,  and  when  on  July  28,  1794,  Ro- 
bespierre was  put  to  death  in  Paris  the  organization  there  received 
its  death  blow.  Tlie  days  of  Jacobinism  on  both  continents  were 
over. 

Jacoby,  a  money  order  post-village  of  Pointe  Coupee  parish,  is 
situated  in  the  northwestern  part.  5  miles  west  of  Bienvenue.  the  near- 
est railroad  station,  and  about  20  miles  northwest  of  New  Koads.  the 
parish  seat.   Population  100. 

Jamestown,  a  village  of  Bienville  pai-ish,  is  situated  on  the 
Louisiana  &  Arkansas  R.  R.  in  the  western  part  of  the  parish.  It  has 
a  money  order  postofiSce.  telegraph  station  and  express  office,  and  is 
the  center  of  trade  for  a  considerable  district. 

Jamestown  Exposition. —  (See  Expositions.) 

Janssens,  Francis,  Roman  Catholic  archbishop,  was  born  at  Til- 
bourg,  Holland,  Oct.  17,  1843.  At  the  age  of  13  yeai-s  he  entered  the 
Bois  le  Due  seminary,  where  he  remained  for  10  years.  In  1866  he 
became  a  student  in  the  American  college  at  Louvain.  Belgium,  and 
on  Dec.  21,  1867,  he  was  ordained.  The  following  autumn  he  went  to 
Richmond,  Va..  where  he  remained  until  in  May.  1881.  serving  as  ad- 
ministrator of  the  diocese  in  the  years  1877-78."  On  April  7,  18S1.  he 


LOUISIANA  579 

was  appointed  bishop  of  Natchez  to  succeed  Bishop  Elder,  left  Rich- 
mond early  in  Maj',  and  arrived  at  Natchez  on  the  7th  of  that  month. 
After  the  death  of  Archbishop  Leray,  Bishop  Janssens  was  made  arch- 
bishop of  New  Orleans  to  siicceed  him,  and  was  invested  with  the  pal- 
lium by  Cardinal  Gibbons  in  the  St.  Louis  cathedral  at  New  Orleans 
on  May  8,  1889.  This  was  the  first  time  in  the  history  of  the  diocese, 
and  perhaps  of  any  diocese  in  the  United  States,  that  the  pallium  was 
conferred  by  a  cardinal.  The  French  sermon  on  that  occasion  was 
delivered  by  Bishop  Durier,  of  the  see  of  Natchitoches,  and  the  Eng- 
lish sermon  by  Bishop  Kain,  of  the  see  of  Wheeling,  W.  Va.  At  the 
close  of  the  ceremonies  the  new  archbishop  addressed  the  people,  en- 
treating them  to  work  diligently  and  in  harmony  for  the  advance- 
ment of  the  see  of  New  Orleans.  His  wishes  in  this  respect  were  evi- 
dently realized,  for  during  his  administration  there  was  practically 
no  discord,  and  the  church,  with  all  her  charities  and  educational  in- 
stitutions, made  steady  progress.  In  the  spring  of  1897  Archbishop 
Janssens  left  New  Orleans  to  visit  his  home  in  Holland.  He  embarked 
on  the  steamer  Creole  for  New  York,  and  died  on  that  vessel  on  June 
19,  1897.  His  remains  were  brought  to  New  Orleans  and  interred  with 
imposing  ceremonies.  His  death  was  univereally  regretted,  as  he  was 
a  man  loved  by  all,  Catholics  and  non-Catholics  alike,  for  his  many 
sterling  qualities. 

Jay-Grenville  Treaty. — (See  Treaties.) 

Jeanerette,  a  town  of  Iberia  parish,  was  incorporated  March  15, 
1878.  It  is  situated  in  the  southeastern  part  of  the  parish  on  the 
Bayou  Teehe  and  the  Southern  Pacific  R.  R.,  about  12  miles  southeast 
of  New  Iberia,  the  parish  seat,  in  the  great  sugar  district.  Its  prin- 
cipal industries  are  sugar  and  rice  mills  and  lumbering.  Excellent 
shipping  and  tranportation  facilities  are  afforded  by  the  raih-oad  and 
the  bayou,  which  is  navigable  most  of  the  year.  It  has  an  inter- 
national money  order  postoffice,  3  banks,  a  telegraph  station,  express 
office,  several  fine  mercantile  establishments,  and  in  1910  a  population 
of  2,206. 

Jeflferson,  a  post-village  in  a  parish  of  the  same  name,  is  a  station 
on  the  Southern  Pacific  R.  R.,  about  8  miles  west  of  Gretna,  the  par- 
ish seat.  It  is  one  of  the  oldest  of  the  modern  towns  of  the  state, 
having  been  incorporated  March  9,  1850.  Its  proximity  to  New  Or- 
leans has  prevented  its  becoming  the  important  shipping  point  that 
its  location  on  the  river  warrants. 

Jefferson  College,  the  oldest  institution  in  the  State  of  Louisi-ana 
for  the  higher  education  of  young  men,  was  incorporated  Feb.  28, 
1831,  by  certain  public-spirited  gentlemen,  among  whom  were  A.  B. 
Roman,  Valcour  Aime,  Etienne  Mazureau,  D.  F.  Burthe  and  J.  H. 
Shepherd.  Its  charter  gave  it  the  power  to  gi'ant  "such  literary 
honors  and  degrees  as  are  usually  granted  by  any  institution  of  learn- 
ing in  the  United  States."  It  was  named  in  honor  of  Thomas  Jeffer- 
son and  Avas  designed  to  be  altogether  free  from  religious  bias,  no 
religious  tenets  being  required  of  either  teacher  or  student.  Saj's  Fay, 
in  his  History  of  Education  in  Louisiana:  "This  institution  owes  its 
origin  without  doubt  to  the  divided  sentiments  of  the  French  and  Eng- 


580  LOUISIANA 

lish  populations  of  the  state.  The  College  of  Orleans  had  been  under 
the  former  influence,  but  the  English  College  of  Louisiana  had  sup- 
planted it.  Now  the  College  of  Jefferson  was  set  up  in  opposition  to 
the  latter,  and  the  efforts  of  both  were  doubtless  paralyzed  by  thedr 
rivalry.  Such  a  multiplication  of  colleges  had,  however,  been  recom- 
mended by  one  of  the  couunittees  on  education."  During  the  early 
yeai-s  of  its  existence  the  college  was  subjected  to  many  and  trying 
vicissitudes.  Its  valuable  eqiiipment  of  buildings  was  entirely  de- 
stroyed by  fire,  it  was  twice  abandoned  altogether,  and  even  lost  for 
a  time  its  old  populaa-  name.  Finally,  it  succumbed  to  financial  em- 
barrassments and  was  bought  in  at  sheriff's  sale  by  Valcour  Aime,  a 
distinguislied  and  prosperous  planter  of  St.  James  parish.  This  was  at 
the  begmning  of  the  Civil  war,  the  fortune  of  which  again  caused  it 
to  close  its  doors.  For  a  period  during  the  great  struggle,  when  the 
river  parishes  were  overrun  by  Federal  troops,  the  college  buildings 
were  used  as  a  barracks  for  soldiers  and  as  a  military  post.  Today, 
as  one  of  the  institutions  of  learning  maintained  by  the  Marist  order, 
and  known  as  St.  Mary's  Jeffei-son  college,  it  maintains  a  prosperous 
existence. 

The  fu-st  10  years  after  its  incorporation  in  1831,  the  college  had  a 
highl.v  flourishing  career,  and  stood  in  substantiall.y  the  same  financial 
relation  to  the  state  as  that  enjo.yed  by  the  College  of  Louisiana.  Prior 
to  1835  considerable  sums  were  appropriated  annually  by  the  state  for 
its  maintenance,  and  in  the  latter  year  the  sum  of  $15,000  annually 
for  10  years  was  voted,  but  this  grant  was  revoked  after  the  expira- 
tion of  8  .years.  From  1842  the  college  received  a  grant  of  $10,000  per 
annum  imtil  Dec.  31,  1845,  when  the  state  finally  disposed  of  all  its 
interest  in  the  institution  and  withdrew  its  support.  In  the  year  1842 
Jeffei-son-  college  was  at  the  acme  of  its  existence  in  ante-bellum  days. 
In  a  report  to  the  legislature  of  that  year  it  was  able  to  state  the  fol- 
lowing facts:  There  was  a  main  building  44  by  300  feet;  5  two-story 
houses  of  brick  construction  ^^-ith  shingled  roofs  for  the  use  of  pro- 
fessors: and  two  porters'  lodges.  The  oiitlav  for  buildings  had  been 
$124,586;  for  land,  $10,000.  The  founders  "had  contributed  $50,822 
and  a  cabinet  valued  at  $3,150.  The  outlay  on  the  library  had  been 
$8,710:  for  phj^sical  apparatus,  $600;  and  the  same  for  the  labora- 
tory. The  library  liad  7,000  volumes,  and  the  apparatus  consisted  of 
Pixi's  large  cabinet  de  physique  and  a  complete  physical  library. 
The  state  liad  contributed  for  land,  buildings,  library  and  equipment 
the  sum  of  $62,591,  and  in  addition  nearly  .$30,000  for  salaries  and 
the  board  of  gratuitous  pupils.  The  institution  was  at  tliis  time  ca- 
pable of  accommodating  300  pupils,  and  was  educating  gratis  12 
boarding  pupils  on  an  average.  The  college  indebtedness  was  $61,- 
849.  Such  was  the  condition  of  the  college  in  1842  when  it  was  over- 
t.aken  by  its  gi-eatest  calamity.  On  March  6.  1842,  a  disastrous  fire 
broke  out,  which  reduced  its  splendid  buildings  to  ruins,  and  de- 
stroyed its  fine  library  and  scientific  equipment.  Now  ensued  years  of 
struggle  and  successive  ill  fortune.  As  stated,  the  state  ceased  its 
appropriations  in  1845,  and  in  1855  the  college  was  forced  to  close  its 
doors  for  a  time,  though  it  shortly  after  resumed  operations  through 


LOUISIANA  581 

the  generous  efforts  of  Valcour  Aime,  aided  by  Gov.  A.  B.  Roman.  It 
was  again  forced  to  close  its  doors  in  1859  on  account  of  its  burden 
of  debt.  Forced  into  liquidation,  bankruptcy  proved  its  real  salva- 
tion as  Mr.  Aime  purchased  the  college  buildings  and  grounds  at  the 
sale  for  the  sum  of  $20,000,  and  embelished  the  rejuvenated  institu- 
tion with  the  beautiful  Gothic  chapel  now  used  by  students  and 
faculty.  A  new  corporation  was  formed  and  chartered  by  the  leg- 
islature in  1861,  and  the  college  once  more  resumed  its  work  under 
the  old  name  of  Jefferson  college.  It  has  already  been  stated  how 
the  college  fafed  during  the  Civil  war.  When  the  war  was  over  the 
stockholders  were  unable  to  reorganize  the  institution,  and  to  save  it 
from  being  used  for  the  education  of  freedmen,  its  directors  deter- 
mined to  place  it  imder  the  charge  of  the  archbishop  of  New  Orleans. 
At  the  suggestion  of  the  latter,  negotiations  were  undertaken  with  the 
Marist  fathers  to  purchase  the  grounds  and  buildings  and  continue 
the  work  of  the  college.  These  were  successfully  concluded  in  May, 
1864,  when  all  the  assets  of  the  college  passed  into  the  hands  of  the 
Marist  order.  Mr.  Aime  generously  donated  his  shares,  amounting  to 
the  par  value  of  $20,000,  to  the  society,  in  grateful  remembrance  of 
which  the  Marists  have  remembered  him  daily  in  the  masses  said  in  the 
chapel  he  built,  and  in  addition  have  educated  gratuitously  a  large 
niunber  of  his  descendants.  The  college  was  reopened  under  its  new 
auspices  on  July  12,  1864,  and  has  since  continued'to  grow  in  size  and 
influence.  Large  niuuljers  of  the  eminent  sons  of  Louisiana  have  re- 
ceived their  training  within  its  classic  walls.  A  list  of  the  presidents 
under  the  Marist  administration  includes  the  names  of  Revs.  S.  Chau- 
rain,  J.  J.  Gi'imes,  George  Rapier,  Thomas  Henry,  the  present 
archbishop,  J.  H.  Blenk,  M.  Thouvenin,  and  the  Very  Rev. 
R.  H.  Smith.  Among  the  presidents  of  the  college  before  the 
war  was  Charles  Oscar  Dugue,  one  of  the  best  French  poets  of 
Louisiana. 

The  old  college  ranks  high  among  the  eduational  institutions  of 
the  state  and  nation,  and  bids  fair  to  have  a  long  and  honorable  future. 
It  is  beautifully  located  at  Convent,  La.,  the  county  seat  of  St.  James 
parish,  on  one  of  the  great  bends  of  the  Mississippi,  about  half  way 
between  New  Orleans  and  Baton  Rouge.  It  has  over  200  acres  of 
choice  grounds,  part  of  which  is  under  cultivation,  and  the  rest  is 
beautifully  embelished  by  the  art  of  the  landscape  gardener,  its  two 
magnificent  avenues  of  large  oak  trees  and  fine  front  lawn  being 
particularly  pleasing  to  the  eye.  The  college  buildings  are  in  the 
classic  style  of  architecture,  "the  noble  proportions  and  their  dazzling 
whiteness  standing  out  in  bold  relief  against  the  majestic  oaks  and 
picturesque  shrubbery  which  surrounds  them."  These  buildings  in- 
clude a  main  building,  an  alumni  hall,  new  hall,  chapel  for  the  ex- 
clusive use  of  faculty  and  students,  and  recently  enlarged  and  re- 
paired, a  gymnasium,  2  music  halls,  college  hotel,  infii-mary,  etc.  Jef- 
ferson college  represents  the  highest  type  of  Christian  manhood  and 
citizenship  in  its  cm'riculum  and  training,  and  enjoys  under  the  law 
the  right  to  grant ' '  such  literary  honors,  degrees  and  diplomas  as  are 
usually  granted  by  colleges  and  universities  in  the  United  States." 


582  LOUISIANA 

Its  graduates  are  qualified  to  recedve  a  first-grade  certificate  to  teach 
in  the  public  schools  of  the  state,  without  passing  the  usual  examina- 
tions, and  it  is  the  only  Catholic  institution  in  the  state  that  enjoys 
this  pri-i-ilege.  The  college  confere  the  degrees  of  B.  S.,  A.  B.  and 
]\I.  A.,  and  also  confers  a  commercial  diploma  on  those  who  have  com- 
pleted the  three  yeaj-s'  commercial  coui-se. 

Jeff  Davis  Parish  is  in  the  southwestei-u  part  of  Louisiana  and 
was  formed  from  Calcasieu.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Allen, 
on  the  east  by  Acadia,  on  the  south  by  Cameron  and  Calcasieu,  and 
on  the  west  by  Calcasieu  parishes.  Its  area  is  about  600  square 
miles  and  the  surface  is  generally  level.  In  the  northern  portion 
some  himbering  is  carried  on  while  the  southern  portion  is  largely 
devoted  to  the  culture  of  rice,  which  latter  product  is  of  excellent 
quality  and  commands  good  prices.  This  is  one  of  the  best  portions 
of  the  Louisiana  rice  fields,  in  which  the  development  has  been 
marked  and  important  in  the  last  two  decades.  In  mineral  resources 
the  parish  is  one  of  the  foremost  in  the  state,  the  celebrated  Jen- 
nings oil  and  gas  field  having  been  developed  here.  Sulphur  is 
also  here  in  large  quantities,  and  has  been  mined.  The  Southern 
Pacific  traverses  the  parish  in  its  southern  part,  and  along  it  sev- 
eral to\vns  of  importance  have  grown  up.  On  the  formation  of  the 
parish  Jennings  became  the  capital.  The  path  of  greatest  progress 
in  the  state  seems  to  lie  across  this  parish  and  no  doubt  when  the 
next  census  figures  shall  be  published  Jeff  Davis  will  show  well  to 
the  front.  Statistics  have  hitherto  been  given  with  its  mother  par- 
ish— Calcasieu. 

Jefferson  Parish,  one  of  the  gulf  parishes,  was  created  early  in 
the  history  of  the  state,  out  of  parts  of  Orleans  and  Plaquemines 
parishes.  2  of  the  original  19  pari.shes  into  which  Orleans  territory  was 
divided  by  the  territorial  legislature  in  1807.  It  Avas  organized  on 
Feb.  11.  1825.  during  the  administration  of  Gov.  Henry  Johnson,  and 
was  named  in  honor  of  Thomas  Jefferson,  the  3d  president  of  the 
United  States.  The  pai-ish  has  an  area  of  413  sq\iai-e  miles,  is  situated 
in  the  southeastern  part  of  the  state,  and  is  di\-ided  by  the  Mississippi 
river,  which  runs  through  its  northern  portion.  Lake  Pontchartrain 
forms  its  northern  boimdary;  on  the  east  it  is  bounded  by  Orleans 
and  Plaquemines  paa-ishes ;  on  the  south  by  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and 
on  the  west  by  Lafourche  and  St.  Charles  parishes.  The  seat  of  gov- 
ernment was  established  at  Lafayette,  but  in  1852  it  was  removed  to 
Carrollton,  where  a  courthouse  was  built.  In  1874  Carrollton  was  in- 
corporated as  the  7th  district  of  New  Orleans,  and  the  seat  of  grovern- 
ment  was  again  changed  to  Harvey's  Canal,  but  in  May,  1884,  was 
located  at  Gretna.  The  early  settlements  of  the  parish  were  made  by 
the  French  and  Spanish.  Many  settlers  came  directly  from  France, 
and  after  1765  the  population  was  increased  by  Acadian  refugees. 
Among  the  earliest  resident  families  were  those  of  'William  ISIinor, 
Duncan  Kenner,  the  Fortiers.  Pierre  Sauve,  Beauseguer  Boisblanc, 
the  Soniats.  the  Labarres.  Frangois  Dor\-ille.  Joseph  Velon  and  others. 
i\Iany  of  the  representative  families  of  the  parish  are  proud  to  trace 
their  ancestry  back  to  the  nobility  of  France.    Jefferson  parish  lies 


LOUISIANA  583 

so  close  to  New  Orleans  that  when  the  Confederate  government  called 
for  volunteei's  during  the  Civil  war,  many  men  joined  New  Orleans 
companies,  and  the  war  record  of  the  parish  does  not  do  her  jxistice, 
but  one  company,  the  Jeffereon  Mounted  Guards,  was  furnished  by 
this  parish.  The  company  was  organized  on  March  13,  1862,  with  Guy 
Dreux,  brother  of  Col.  Charles  Dreux,  the  first  Confederate  officer 
killed  in  Virginia,  as  captain,  and  was  composed  of  60  and  90  day 
volunteers.  They  were  detailed  as  headquarters  escort  in  the  Army  of 
the  Tennessee  and  served  in  that  capacity  until  May,  1865.  Gretna, 
Kemier,  McDonoghville,  Harvey  and  Westwego  are  the  most  im- 
portant to^Tns.  Other  to\\^ls  and  villages  are  Amesville,  Barataria, 
Waggamaji  and  Grand  Isle.  The  parish  maintains  schools  for  both 
white  and  black.  The  principal  streams  are  the  Mississippi  river,  and 
Bayous  Barataria,  Rigolet,  Des  Families.  St.  Denis,  Dupont  and 
Grand.  Its  formation  is  la.i'gely  coast  marsh,  but  there  is  a  large  area 
of  alhivial  land  and  wooded  swamp.  The  rich  soil  found  along  the 
Mississippi  river  and  the  different  bayous  is  verj''  productive.  Sugar 
is  the  staple  crop,  but  rice,  jute,  coiii,  Irish  potatoes,  onions  and 
garden  vegetables  of  all  kinds  are  extensively  grown  and  shipped  to 
northern  markets.  Horticulture  is  a  profitable  industry ;  oranges 
lemons,  mandarins,  figs,  pomegranates,  plums,  prunes,  pecans,  guavas, 
olives,  bananas  and  grapes  being  grown  in  abundance.  The  timber 
in  the  parish  is  chiefly  oak  and  willow,  though  large  cypress  swamps 
'are  found  in  different  portions  along  the  streams.  Fish  are  plentiful, 
and  the  oyster  industry  of  the  parish  is  of  considerable  importance, 
especially  along  the  coast,  where  a  number  of  canneries  have  been 
established.  Terrapin,  crabs  and  many  varieties  of  salt  water  fish  are 
taken  in  large  numbers  in  the  inlets,  bayous  and  lakes.  Transporta- 
tion facilities  in  the  central  and  southern  portions  of  tlie  parish  are 
poor,  biit  the  northern  part  is  a  network  of  raib-oads,  as  it  is  crossed 
by  the  Illinois  Central.  Texas  Pacific,  Southern  Pacific,  Yazoo  &  Mis- 
sissippi Valley,  and  the  New  Orleans,  Fort  Jackson  &  Grand  Isle 
roads,  all  riuindng  into  New  Orleans.  The  following  statistics  are 
from  the  U.  S.  census  for  1910 :  number  of  farms,  364 ;  acreage  in 
farms,  30,702 ;  acres  improved,  14,196 ;  value  of  land  and  improve- 
ments exclusive  of  farm  buildings,  $1,844,285 ;  value  of  farm  build- 
ings, $419,830;  value  of  live  stock,  $257,959;  total  value  of  crops, 
$556,119.    The  population  was  18,247. 

Jefferson,  Thomas,  third  jiresident  of  the  United  States,  was 
born  at  Shadwell,  Albemarle  county,  Va.,  April  2,  1743.  An  account 
of  bis  life  and  public  services  is  of  interest  to  the  student  of  Louisi- 
ana history,  as  it  was  dm-ing  his  administration  that  the  province  was 
purchased  from  France  by  the  United  States.  (See  Louisiana  Pur- 
chase). Mr.  Jefferson  was  educated  in  private  schools  and  at  "WilUam 
and  Mary  College,  and  in  1767  began  the  practice  of  law.  Two  years 
later  he  was  elected  to  represent  his  county  in  the  Virginia  house  of 
burgesses,  where  he  remained  until  the  beginning  of  the  Revolution. 
In  1775  he  was  elected  a  delegate  to  the  Continental  Congress ;  was 
one  of  the  committee  of  five  to  prepare  the  Declaration  of  Indepen- 
deniee,  and  at  the  request  of  the  other  members  of  the  committee  he 


584  LOUISIANA 

drafted  the  Declaration,  which  was  adopted  almost  exactly  as  he  had 
written  it.  In  Oct..  1776.  he  resigned  his  seat  in  Congress  to  enter  the 
Virginia  legislature,  and  on  June  1,  1779,  was  elected  governor  of 
Virginia  to  succeed  Patrick  Henry.  In  1782  he  was  appointed  by 
Congress  minister  plenipotentiary  to  act  with  others  in  the  negotia- 
tion of  a  treaty  of  peace  with  Great  Britain.  The  following  year  he 
was  again  elected  a  delegate  to  Congress,  and  it  M-as  during  this  term 
that  he  secured  the  adoption  of  the  dollar  as  the  monetary  imit  and 
the  decimal  system  of  coinage.  In  May,  1784,  he  was  appointed  minis- 
ter plenipotentiary  to  Europe  to  aid  John  Adams  and  Benjamin 
Franklin  in  the  negotiation  of  commercial  treaties,  and  the  following 
March  was  appointed  minister  at  the  French  court  to  succeed  Dr. 
Franklin.  He  remained  in  France  until  the  fall  of  1789.  when  he 
was  appointed  secretary  of  state  by  Washington,  being  the  first  man 
to  hold  that  important  position  under  the  Federal  constitution.  On 
Dec.  31.  1793,  he  resigned  his  place  in  the  cabinet  and  retired  to 
private  life,  but  in  1796  was  elected  vice-president.  In  1800  he  was 
elected  to  the  presidency  by  the  house  of  representatives  on  the  36th 
ballot,  he  and  Aaron  Burr  having  received  an  equal  number  of  elec- 
toral votes,  and  ilr.  Burr  became  vice-president. 

On  Nov.  25.  1802,  W.  C.  C.  Claiborne,  at  that  time  governor  of 
Mississippi  territory,  wrote  to  the  secretary  of  state  enclosing  a  com- 
munication from  Manuel  de  Salcedo,  the  Spanish  governor  of  Louisi- 
ana, relative  to  the  right  of  deposit  at  New  Orleans.  In  this  commu- 
nication, dated  at  New  Orleans,  Nov.  15.  1802.  Salcedo  said:  "I  can 
now  assure  yoiir  excellency  that  His  Catholic  ilajesty  has  not  hitherto 
issued  any  order  for  suspending  the  deposit,  and  consequently  has 
not  designated  any  other  position  on  the  banks  of  the  Mississippi  for 
that  purpose.  But  I  must  inform  j'ou,  in  answer  to  your  inquiry,  that 
the  intendant  of  these  provinces  (who  in  the  affairs  of  his  own  de- 
partment is  independent  of  the  general  government),  at  the  same  time 
that,  in  conformity  with  the  roj^al  commands  (the  peace  in  Europe 
ha\'ing  been  published  since  the  4th  of  May  last),  he  suspended  the 
commerce  of  neutrals,  also  thoiight  proper  to  suspend  the  tacit  pro- 
longation which  continued,  and  to  put  a  stop  to  the  infinite  abuses 
which  resulted  from  the  deposit,  contrary  to  the  interest  of  the  State 
and  of  the  commerce  of  these  colonies,  etc. ' ' 

Claiborne's  letter  and  its  enclosure  were  sent  to  the  house  of  repre- 
sentatives by  Mr.  Jefferson  on  Dec.  30,  1802.  and  created  considerable 
excitement  in  that  body.  On  Jan.  11,  1803,  the  president  sent  to  the 
senate  a  message  nominating  Robert  R.  Livingston  "to  be  minister 
plenipotentiary  and  James  Monroe  to  be  minister  extraordinarj-  and 
plenipotentiary,  vriXh  full  powers  to  both  jointly,  or  to  either  on  the 
death  of  the  other,  to  enter  into  a  treatj-  or  convention  with  the  First 
Consul  of  France  for  the  purpose  of  enlarging  and  more  eft'ectiially 
securing  our  rights  and  interests  in  the  river  IMississippi  and  in  the 
teiTitories  eastward  thereof."  In  the  same  message  he  named  Charles 
Pinckney  to  be  minister  plenipotentiary,  James  Monroe  to  be  minister 
extraordinaiy  and  plenipotentiarj'  to  enter  into  a  treaty  or  convention 
with  the  king  of  Spain  for  the  same  purpose.   The  nominations  were 


LOUISIANA  585 

coniii-med  by  the  senate,  and  thus  the  machinery  was  set  in  motion 
that  resulted  in  the  acquisition  of  Louisiana.  Mr.  Jefferson  had  some 
doubts  about  the  constitutionality  of  the  cession,  as  well  as  some  mis- 
givings as  to  whether  his  action  in  the  purchase  of  the  province  would 
be  approved  by  Congress  and  the  people  of  the  United  States.  But  both 
doubts  and  misgivings  were  without  foundation.  Congress  promptly 
approved  the  treaty  and  in  1804  Mr.  Jefferson  was  reelected  by  the 
people.  He  finally  retired  from  public  life  at  the  close  of  his  second 
term  on  March  4,  1809,  and  died  on  July  4,  1826. 

In  1772  Mr.  Jefferson  married  Mrs.  Martha  Skelton,  the  widow  of 
Barthurst  Skelton  and  daughter  of  John  Wayles,  an  eminent  lawyer 
of  Virginia.  She  died  on  Sept.  2,  1782,  leaving  a  daughter,  Martha, 
who  afterward  became  the  wife  of  Gov.  Randolph  of  Virginia.  She 
was  the  head  of  her  father's  household  after  the  death  of  her  mother, 
and  was  mistress  of  the  White  House  during  his  incumbency  as  presi- 
dent. Mr.  Jefferson's  devotion  to  the  interests  of  his  country  was  of 
such  a  character  that  he  died  comparatively  poor.  On  March  16,  1827, 
the  Louisiana  legislature,  upon  the  recommendation  of  Gov.  Henry 
Johnson,  passed  a  resolution  donating  $10,000  to  liis  heirs.  (For  the 
full  text  of  this  resolution  see  Heniy  Johnson's  administration.) 

Jena,  one  of  the  principal  villages  of  Lasalle  parish,  is  a  station 
on  the  Louisiana  &  Arkansas  R.  R.,  about  20  miles  southwest  of  Har- 
risonbui'g.  It  has  a  money  order  postoffice,  express  and  telegraph  offi- 
ces, and  is  a  trading  center  for  a  large  agricultural  district.  Popula- 
tion 689. 

Jennings,  the  capital  of  Jeff  Davis  parish,  is  located  on  the  South- 
em  Pacific  R.  R.,  about  halfway  between  the  cities  of  Lake  Charles 
and  Lafayette.  It  is  in  the  great  rice  district  of  southwestern  Louisi- 
ana, and  in  1907  the  Jennings  Canal  company  was  chartered,  with  a 
capital  stock  of  $100,000,  for  the  purpose  of  building  a  system  of 
irrigating  canals  for  rice  culture.  It  also  has  important  lumber  in- 
dustries, wood-working  factories,  and  a  factory  for  manufacturing 
oil  well  machinery  and  supplies.  An  immense  bed  of  sulphur  has 
been  found  at  Jennings,  and  the  development  of  its  oil  and  gas 
field  has  been  notable.  The  town  is  incorporated,  has  good  schools 
and  churches,  sevei'al  fine  mercantile  establisiiments,  and  is  one  of  the 
leading  commercial  centers  of  southwestern  Louisiana.  Some  idea  of 
the  rapid  growth  of  the  town  may  be  gained  from  the  following  in- 
cident. In  1910  the  population  was  3,925.  Previously  the  leg- 
islature authorized  the  people  of  Jennings  to  vote  on  the  question  of 
issuing  bonds  for  the  construction  of  waterworks,  sewers  and  pubJic 
buildings,  and  to  levy  a  tax  for  a  sinking  fund  for  the  redemption  of 
the  bonds.  At  that  time  the  taxable  property  was  valued  at  about 
$660,000.  The  bonds  were  issued  and  the  sinking  fund  tax  was  levied 
on  this  basis,  but  in  1906  the  value  of  the  taxable  property  had  in- 
creased to  nearly  $1,000,000  and  there  was  a  large  sui-plus  in  the  sink- 
ing fund,  which  the  town  could  not  use,  as  it  had  been  collected  for  a 
specific  purpose.  On  July  4, 1906.  the  legislature  passed  an  act  author- 
izing the  municipal  authorities  to  use  the  surplus  in  the  purchase  of 
good  negotiable  bonds.   It  is  not  often  that  a  town  grows  so  fast  that 


586  LOUISIANA 

special  legislation  is  necessary  to  enable  it  to  spend  its  public  revenues, 
but  such  was  the  case  with  Jennings. 

Jesseca,  a  little  post-village  in  the  central  part  of  Tangipahoa 
parish,  is  aliout  8  miles  southeast  of  Amite,  the  parish  seat,  and  is  the 
terminus  of  a  short  line  of  railroad  operated  by  the  Genesee  Lumber 
company,  which  connects  with  the  Illinois  Central  at  Natalbany. 

Jesuit  Bend,  a  village  in  the  northwestern  part  of  Plaquemine.? 
parish,  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Mississippi  river,  is  a  station  on  the 
New  Orleans.  Fort  Jackson  &  Grand  Isle  R.  E.  It  has  a  money  order 
postoffice  and  telegi-aph  station,  is  located  in  a  rich  orange  and  truck 
farming  district.   Population  150. 

Jesuits. — This  celebrated  order  of  the  Roman  Catholic  church 
was  founded  by  Ignatius  of  Loyola  and  five  others  in  1534.  The 
primitive  object  of  the  society  ■(Nas  limited  to  a  pilgrimage  to  the 
Holy  Land  and  a  mission  for  the  conversion  of  iinbelievers,  but  a  war 
with  the  Turks  prevented  the  pilgrimage  and  the  members  of  the  soci- 
ety turned  their  attention  to  missionary  work,  binding  themselves  un- 
reservedly to  go  as  missionaries  to  any  country  which  the  pope  might 
indicate  to  them.  In  the  early  part  of  the  17th  century  Jesuit  mis- 
sionaries came  to  America  to  undertake  the  work  of  civilizing  the 
natives  and  of  teaching  them  to  become  loyal  and  peaceable  subjects 
of  the  king  of  France.  Although  the  early  Jesuit  father  in  America 
may  have  been  somewhat  of  a  fanatic  in  promulgating  his  religious 
opinions,  he  was,  as  a  rule,  a  man  of  unswerving  loyalty  to  his  king, 
\mdauuted  coui-age  and  of  sincere  devotion  to  his  cause.  Xo  wilderness 
was  too  forbidding  for  him  to  enter,  no  obstacle  too  great  to  deter  him 
from  undertaking  what  he  conceived  to  be  his  duty,  and  the  develop- 
ment of  Canada  as  a  French  province  was  due  in  a  great  measure  to 
the  laboi-s  and  influence  of  the  Jesuits,  who  established  missions  as  far 
west  as  Michilimackinac.  The  religious  instriictoi-s  of  the  fii-st  Catholic 
settlers  in  Maryland  were  Jesuit  priests  who  came  from  Europe  with 
Lord  Baltimore,  and  almost  every  Indian  tribe  in  the  northern  Mis- 
sissippi vallej'  felt  their  influence  at  some  period  of  the  early  history 
of  that  region. 

In  1722  Louisiana  was  divided  into  three  grand  ecclesiastical  dis- 
tricts, that  of  the  Wabash  and  Illinois  country  being  assigned  to  the 
Josixits.  In  1726  they  obtained  ])ermis.sion  to  come  to  New  Orleans, 
though  that  part  of  the  province  was  then  under  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  Capuchins,  and  the  following  year  some  of  them  came  in  con- 
formity with  a  contract  with  the  Company  of  the  Indies,  wliich  de- 
frayed the  cost  of  their  transportation.  According  to  Gayarre  "The 
superior  of  the  company  of  Louisiana  Jesuits  was  to  reside  in  New  Or- 
leans, but  could  not  exercise  therein  any  ecclesiastical  functions  with- 
out the  permission  of  tlie  superior  of  the  Capuchins,  under  whose  spir- 
itual jurisdiction  New  Orlcajis  happened  to  be  placed.  *  *  *  A 
concession  of  8  acres  of  land,  fronting  on  the  river,  with  the  usual 
depth,  was  made  to  them  in  the  neighborhood  of  New  Orleans,  and 
they  long  dwelt  on  a  plantation  a  little  above  Canal  street.  *  *  * 
A  house  and  chapel  were  built  for  them,  and  they  soon  became  as 


LOUISIANA  ,  587 

powerful  ill  Louisiiana  as  they  are  destined  to  be  wherever  they  may 
have  a  footing." 

Ahout  1742  they  were  invited  to  nndertake  the  establishment  of  a 
college,  but  deoliued  because  they  had  not  suitable  quarters  nor  the 
material  to  support  such  an  institution.  In  1751  a  vessel  brdnging 
soldiers  to  Louisiana  stopped  at  the  island  of  Hispaniola,  and  the 
Jesuits  there  begged  permission  to  send  a  quantity  of  cane  to  their 
brethren  in  that  colony.  Permission  was  granted,  and,  although  the 
Louisiana  Jesuits  were  not  very  successful  in  the  production  and 
manufacture  of  sugar  and  molasses,  this  was  the  introduction  of  what 
is  now  the  leading  industry  of  the  state.  About  this  time  the  Jesuits 
■at  New  Orleans  obtained  for  their  superior  a  commission  of  grand 
vicar  from  the  Bislhop  of  Quebec,  in  whose  diocese  Louisiana  was  lo- 
cated, the  commission  to  be  carried  into  effect  within  the  limits  of  the 
Capuchin  district.  On  March  9,  1752,  Father  Dagobert,  the  superior 
of  the  Capuchins,  invited  Father  Baudoin,  the  superior  of  the  Jesuits, 
to  give  this  benediction  to  the  ohapel  of  the  hospital  for  the  parish 
poor.  The  Jesuit  superior  was  quick  to  accept,  and  soon  afterward 
he  set  up  the  claim  that,  by  the  publication  of  his  letters  patent  as 
grand  vioar  and  the  giving  of  his  benediction  upon  the  request  of  the 
Capuchin  superior,  he  had  been  recognized  as  the  vicair-general  of 
lower  Louisiana.  This  brought  on  what  has  become  known  in  history 
as  ' '  The  war  of  the  Jesuits  and  Capucliins, ' '  which  lasted  for  several 
yeare.  In  1763  the  French  government  directed  the  suppression  of 
the  order  in  all  French  territory.  The  Jesuits  in  Louisiana  were  ac- 
cordingly expelled  from  the  colony  and  their  property,  amounting  to 
about  $180,000,  was  confiscated.  On  July  21,  1773,  Pope  Clement 
XIV  issued  a  bull  suppressing  the  order  in  all  the  states  of  Christen- 
dom, liut  ill  1801  it  was  partially  restored  by  Pope  Pius  VII,  and  was 
completely  rehabilitated.  The  Jesuits  returned  to  Louisiana  in  1855 
and  established  colleges  at  Grand  Coteau  and  in  New  Orleans,  which 
have  been  ver.v  successful. 

Jetties,  Mississippi. — It  is  a  familiar  fact  that  the  erosive  power 
of  large  and  swift  rivers  causes  them  to  transport  vast  quantities  of 
sediment,  which  are  deposited  at  the  mouths,  forming  deltas.  The 
suspended  matter  carried  by  streams  depends  upon  the  rapidity  of 
the  current,  modified  by  the  depth,  the  ii-elation  between  the  amount 
of  sediment  transported  and  the  velocity  being  very  sensitive,  any 
decrease  in  velocity  resulting  in  a  deposition  of  suspended  matter. 
Therefore,  other  things  being  equal,  the  velocity  increases  as  the  area 
of  the  river-section  diminishes,  and  the  problem  presented  is  to  con- 
struct barriei-s  which  shall  decrease  the  area.  It  is  said  "to  be  a  law  of 
nature  that  if  a  stream  of  running  water  is  confined  to  certain  limits 
or  the  channel  be  contracted,  the  velocity  of  the  current  increases  and, 
with  the  increased  velocity,  a  scour  takes  place  which  in  ordinai-y 
eases  deepens  the  ohannel. "  Now  a  jetty  is  an  embankment  or  pier 
extending  into  the  sea,  and  built  of  earth,  stone,  fascines,  timber,  or 
other  suitable  material,  either  singly  or  combined.  Applj'ing  the  above 
principles,  the  hydraulic  engineer  makes  use  of  jetties  at  the  mouths 
of  rivers  and  in  tidal  harbors  to  increase  the  depth  over  bars  by  nar- 


588  LOUISIANA 

rowing  the  channel,  thus  concentrating  the  current.  A  careful  survey 
is  made  of  the  delta  to  ascertain  the  amount  of  water  discharged  by 
the  river  in  a  given  unit  of  time,  the  variations  of  the  water-line  at 
different  seasons,  the  areas  of  sections,  the  locations  of  bars,  the  direc- 
tion of  prevailing  winds,  the  effect  of  storms,  etc.  The  bars  existing 
at  the  mouth  of  the  ]\Iississippi  river  were  long  a  serious  impediment  to 
commerce  and  various  plans  were  evolved  for  the  maintenance  of  a 
deep  channel.  Dredging  alone  proved  ineffectual.  Capt.  James  B.  Eads 
first  proposed  the  application  of  jetties  to  the  ilississippi  river,  pre- 
sented his  plan  to  Congi-ess,  and  on  March  4.  1875,  was  authorized  to 
undertake  the  work  at  the  risk  of  himself  and  associates.  In  the  face  of 
much  opposition  he  brought  the  energy-  of  the  river  to  bear  upon  the 
great  bar  of  sand  and  silt  separating  South  pass  from  the  deep  water 
of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  increasing  the  depth  from  7%  to  about  30  feet 
and  achieving  succes.s.  Capt.  Eads  was  awarded  for  the  expense  of 
this  work,  $-t.250.000 — ^payable  in  installments  as  different  depths  and 
widths  of  channel  should  be  obtained;  -$1,000,000  for  his  services,  to 
be  paid  when  it  was  kno\vn  that  the  jetties  duly  maintained  the  chan- 
nel; and  .$100,000  annually  for  20  years,  to  repair  the  woi-ks  cind 
preser%'e  the  depth.  The  depth  between  jetties  required  by  contract 
was  30  feet  and  the  width  of  channel,  350  feet. 

Before  entering  the  gulf  the  Mississippi  river  di-\ades  into  prin- 
cipal mouths  or  passes.  Capt.  Eads  constructed  his  jetties  at  the  en- 
trance of  the  middle  or  South  pass.  The  east  jetty  extends  from  East- 
side  Landsend,  at  or  near  East  point  signal,  along  the  edge  of  the  old 
bar  and  into  the  gulf,  a  distance  of  11,800  feet.  Its  course  is  a  broken, 
curved  line,  deflecting  at  the  gulf  end  1,700  or  1,800  feet  to  the  right 
of  the  first  alignment  on  the  shore  end  prolonged.  The  west  jetty  is 
1,000  feet  west  of  and  parallel  to  the  east  jetty,  starting  opposite  a 
point  4.000  feet  from  the  head  of  the  east  jettj'  and  extending  7,800 
feet.  The  Kipp  dam,  600  feet  long  and  perpendicular  to  the  west  jetty 
at  its  head,  joins  it  with  the  west  shore,  its  construction  being  similar 
to  that  of  the  jetties.  The  jettj-  lines  were  established  by  driving  piles ; 
permanent  cross  sections  were  made  500  feet  apart  by  locating  sight- 
ing points  on  and  behind  each  jetty  in  the  sections  and  in  diagonal 
sections;  and  periodical  soundings  were  made  which  fiu-nished  data 
for  the  construction  of  profiles  showing  changes  in  the  channel.  The 
chief  constructive  materials  used  in  the  jetties  are  willow  mattresses, 
stone,  palmetto  cribs,  and  blocks  of  concrete.  The  mattresses  are  con- 
structed upon  inclined  planes,  having  a  rise  of  1  in  10,  the  lower  end 
resting  in  the  water,  while  the  upper  is  6  feet  above.  They  vary  in 
widtJi  from  20  to  40  feet  or  over,  but  are  generally  100  by  440  feet. 
Longitudinal  strips  21/2  by  6  inches  are  first  laid  on  the  ways,  41/0  feet 
apart;  across  these  a  6-ineh  layer  of  willow  boughs  is  placed,  the 
switch  ends  extending  2  or  3  feet  beyond  the  outside  strips;  a  second 
layer  at  right  angles  to  the  first,  is  placed  next  above ;  and  so  on  until 
the  required  thickness,  generally  2  feet,  is  obtained.  Finally,  trans- 
verse strips  are  fastened  to  the  bottom  strips  with  hickory  pins.  The 
mattress  is  then  launched  and  towed  to  its  destination,  wheire  it  is 
tied  to  the  piles,  loaded  with  stones,  and  sunk  to  its  position  on  the 


LOUISIANA  589 

river  bed  or  iipon  other  mattresses.  The  bottom  row  of  mattresses  was 
sunk  throughout  the  entire  length  of  the  jetties  before  beginning  the 
second  layer.  The  placing  of  a  single  mattress  was  always  accom- 
panied by  a  deepening  of  the  channel  somewhere,  and,  what  was  still 
more  remarkable,  a  deposit  of  sand  abutting  against  the  mattress 
began  at  once  on  the  sea  side.  In  this  manner  the  .jetties  have  been 
greatly  strengthened,  while  west  of  the  west  jetty  hard  fine  sand  has 
been  deposited,  extending  from  the  jetty  to  outlying  reefs  and  .shoals, 
and  reducing  the  depth  at  high  water  from  9  feet  to  a  few  inches. 
"With  this  experience  before  them,  Capt.  Eads  and  his  assistants  modi- 
fied their  original  plans.  A  section  of  the  finished  jetty,  as  originally 
built,  discloses  a  pile  at  one  side ;  a  number  of  mattresses,  separated 
by  layers  of  stone,  and  diminishing  in  width  from  the  bottom  to  tide 
level,  abut  against  the  pile,  and  upon  the  river  side  the  steps  formed 
by  the  mattresses  aa-e  covered  with  stone  forming  a  slope.  After  the 
action  of  the  water  had  produced  a  slope  in  the  river-bed  conforming 
to  the  new  cross-section,  another  mattress  was  sunk  on  the  slope  ad- 
joining the  foundation-mattress  and  also  covered  with  stone.  The 
surface  of  the  jetty  above  sea-level  was  covered  with  stone,  and 
crowned  with  dimension-stone  laid  dry. 

The  flow  of  water  between  the  jetties  has  been  increased  by  tem- 
porary constructions,  such  as  sheet  piling  and  wooden  aprons ;  a  dam 
tm-ns  the  water  from  Grand  bayou  into  the  pass;  and  dikes  at  the 
head  of  the  pass  still  further  increase  the  flow.  Said  one  of  the  en- 
gineers engaged  in  the  work  of  construction:  "There  were  three  de- 
structive elements  to  be  overcome  by  these  works:  1 — The  abrading 
power  of  the  river  current;  2 — The  momentum  and  impact  of  the 
waves ;  3 — The  undermining  power  of  the  waves.  With  a  full  appre- 
ciation of  the  magnitude  of  these  forccss,  no  design  was  made,  nor  was 
any  detail  allowed  to  be  put  into  the  works,  which  did  not  strictly 
adhere  to  the  following  practical  laws :  1 — That  a  broad  and  elastic 
foundation  will  prevent  undermining;  2 — That  proper  slopes  will  re- 
sist impact  of  the  waves;  3 — That  tight  work  will  stop  leakage;  and 
4 — That  work  maintained  at  a  uniform  height  will  obstruct  the  escape 
of  water  by  overflow."  Noting  in  their  order  how  far  these  laws  have 
been  fulfilled,  it  has  been  ascertained :  1 — That  the  2  rows  of  mattres- 
ses, which  have  sunk  into  the  bottom  till  a  firmer  stratiun  was  reached, 
afford  a  firm  foundation ;  2 — "Where  the  jetties  pierce  the  bar,  deposits 
on  the  sea  side  give  ample  protection,  while  on  the  river  side  wing- 
dams  projecting  perpendicularly  150  feet  from  the  jetties  stop  the  cur- 
rent and  cause  sediments  to  be  deposited,  producing  a  gentler  and 
more  (resisting  slope,  with  a  simultaneous  deepening  of  the  channel.  At 
the  gulf  ends  of  the  jetties  and  extending  some  distance  towards  shore, 
the  slopes  have  been  improved  by  sinking  cribs  of  palmetto  wood  at 
both  sides  of  the  mattresses,  and  then  building  up  the  desired  slope 
with  stones.  3 — The  compression  of  the  mattresses  by  the  weight  of 
stone  and  the  infiltration  of  sand  has  done  much  to  diminsh  the  leak- 
age, and  with  the  lapse  of  time  the  interstices  should  be  completely 
filled,  aided  by  the  use  of  gi-avel  and  broken  stone  near  the  jetty  top. 
The  shore  jetty  sections  are  maintained  above  high  water  mark  with- 


590  LOUISIANA 

out  difficulty.  Upon  the  sumniit  of  the  ^ilf  sections  a  continuous  em- 
bankment of  concrete,  vaa-ying  in  dimensions,  hut  \isually  12  feet  wide 
and  31/2  feet  thick,  has  been  constiiicted  for  a  distance  of  3,800  feet 
upon  the  east  jetty  and  2,800  feet  upon  the  west  jetty.  The  concrete 
was  molded  in  blocks  weighing  from  25  to  72  tons,  which  were  ce- 
mented together  afterward,  forming  one  solid  stone  of  great  resist- 
ing power  on  each  jetty  and  aiding  in  the  diminution  of  leakage  by 
compressing  the  mattresses.  It  was  expected  that  the  weight  would 
cause  the  elastic  limit  of  the  willows  to  be  reached,  thus  increasing 
their  impermeability. 

On  July  10,  1879.  Capt.  Eads,  having  successfully  surmounted  in- 
numerable engineering  difficulties  and  embassassments  of  the  most 
formidable  character  and  achieved  a  great  triumph  in  his  splendid 
undertaking,  was  able  to  report  the  practical  completion  of  the  jet- 
ties. At  the  head  of  the  passes  a  navigable  cJiannel  26  feet  deep  and 
165  feet  wide  was  obtained  and  certified  to  and  he  also  certified  to  a 
minimum  depth  throiigh  the  jetties  of  over  30  feet.  The  bar  at  the 
head  of  South  pass,  which  lay  like  a  formidable  dam  in  the  entrance  of 
the  channel,  with  only  14  feet  of  water  over  it,  was  completely  re- 
moved, and  the  depth  of  water  in  the  pass  was  made  greater  by  2  feet 
than  that  in  the  2  larger  passes  on  either  side.  At  the  mouth  of  South 
pass,  the  current,  which  in  1875  struggled  feebly  against  the  frictional 
resistance  of  the  bar  that  obstructed  it,  became,  by  the  constniction  of 
the  jetties,  a  stixnig  and  living  force,  which,  attacking  the  obstacle  in 
its  way,  swept  it  far  out  into  the  great  depths  of  the  gulf,  and  carved 
out  for  itself  a  deep  and  wide  channel  more  than  equal  to  the  wants 
of  commerce.  The  efficacy  of  the  scouring  process  wrought  by  the  jet- 
ties is  indicated  by  the  following  data,  of  minimum  depths  through 
the  jetties  for  the  years  immediately  succeeding  the  inception  of  the 
work:  In  Jirne,  1875,  the  water  was  10.2  feet;  in  1876  its  greatest 
depth  was  23.5  feet  in  August,  its  least  depth  being  21  in  May:  in 
1877  it  reached  24.2  feet  from  October  to  Dec.  14,  its  least  depth  be- 
ing 22  in  March ;  in  1878  it  was  27.1  feet  in  December  and  25.4  in 
March;  in  1879  it  was  31.7  feet  in  December  and  27  in  March  :  in  1880 
the  depths  were,  June  31.4;  July.  30.8;  August,  32;  September,  30.6; 
October,  30.3:  November,  30.8;  December,  30.8;  in  1881  the  greatest 
depth  was  33.8  feet  in  Janiiary,  and  its  least  30.4  feet  in  November ; 
in  1882  it  was  deepest  in  September,  or  31.9  feet,  and  least  in  Feb- 
ruary, or  30.5 ;  in  1883  the  greatest  depth  was  33.4  in  June,  the  least, 
30.2  in  Januaiy. 

Since  those  years  the  jetties  have  been  put  to  many  severe  tests, 
but  have  been  found  to  serve  admirably  all  ordinary  demands  of  com- 
merce. Tlip  government  has  recently  undertaken  the  task  of  further 
deepening  the  channel  of  South  pass,  and  vessels  drawing  35  feet  of 
water  may,  if  needs  be,  now  enter  the  river  and  ascend  to  the  port  of 
NcAV  Orleans.  The  engineering  work  of  the  government  has  also  been 
extended  to  the  Southwest  pass,  where  through  a  system  of  deep  sea 
dredging  and  other  important  iindertakings  the  channel  has  been 
greatly  deepened.  It  has  thus  put  the  finishing  touches  to  Eads'  great 
work  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  and  provided  the  means  of  approach 


LOUISIANA  591 

for  vessels  of  any  possible  draft.  This  recent  work  of  the  govern- 
ment at  the  mouth  has  entailed  the  expenditure  of  several  millions  of 
doUars,  and  has  vastly  increased  the  importance  of  Louisiana's  great 
port  of  New  Orleans.  The  saving  to  the  people  of  New  Orleans  and 
the  Mississippi  Valley  by  reason  of  the  establishment  of  the  Eads  jet- 
ties, was  succinctly  shown  by  Hon.  Joseph  H.  Burroughs,  of  Mis- 
souri, in  a  speech  on  the  improvement  of  the  Mississippi  river,  in 
which  he  stated  that  the  transportation  rates  on  a  bushel  of  wheat 
shipped  from  the  center  of  the  valley,  at  St.  Louis  by  river  to  the 
seaboard  at  New  Orleans  during  the  3  years  1877,  1878  and  1879, 
ranged  all  the  way  from  10  to  15  cents  less  than  by  rail  to  the  sea- 
board at  New  York.  That,  owing  to  the  jetties,  half  the  total  grain 
produced  in  the  14  Valley  states  could  be  shipped  from  St.  Louis  to 
New  Orleans,  instead  of  by  rail  to  New  York,  with  an  annual  sav- 
ing to  the  seaboard  of  10  cents  per  bushel,  which  would  be  $90,- 
381,552,  and  at  15  cents  per  bushel,  $135,572,328. 

Johnson,  a  post-village  in  the  northeastern  corner  of  Livingston 
parish,  is  a  station  on  the  New  Orleans,  Natalbany  &  Natchez  R.  R., 
about  12  miles  northwest  of  Hammond,  and  about  15  miles  northeast 
of  Springville,  the  parish  seat. 

Johnson,  Andrew,  17th  president  of  xhe  United  States,  was  born 
at  Raleigh,  N.  C,  Dec.  29,  1808.  At  ten  years  of  age  he  was  ap- 
prenticed to  a  tailor  and  acquired  his  elementary  education  while 
learning  his  trade,  though  he  never  went  to  school  a  day  in  his 
life.  After  completing  Ms  apprenticeship  he  woi'ked  as  a  journey- 
man tailor  for  about  two  years  and  in  May,  1826,  he  located  at 
Greeneville,  Tenn.,  where  he  married  Eliza  McCardle,  an  educated 
Avoman,  under  whose  instruction  he  completed  his  education.  As 
a  Democrat  of  the  Jackson  school  he  soon  became  a  factor  in  local 
politics,  especially  among  the  workingmen,  who  elected  him  alder- 
man in  1828  and  mayor  of  Greeneville  in  1830.  In  1831  he  was 
active  in  securing  a  new  constitution  for  the  state;  in  1835  and 
again  in  1839  he  was  elected  to  the  lower  house  of  the  legislature; 
was  a  presidential  elector  on  the  Van  Buren  ticket  in  1840;  was 
elected  state  senator  in  1841 ;  two  years  later  was  elected  to  Con- 
gress, where  he  remained  for  ten  yeai's;  was  elected  governor  of 
Tennessee  in  1853,  reelected  in  1855,  and  at  the  close  of  his  second 
term  was  chosen  IJ.  S.  senator.  He  was  a  bitter  opponent  of  seces- 
sion and  his  course  in  Congress  aroused  such  indignation  among 
the  secessionists  of  Memphis  that  he  was  there  burned  in  efSgy 
and  threatened  with  personal  violence  if  he  remained  in  the  state. 
However,  he  was  appointed  military  governor  early  in  1862  and 
remained  in  that  office  until  he  was  nominated  for  vice-president 
on  the  Republican  ticket  in  1864.  Upon  the  death  of  President 
Lincoln,  Mr.  Johnson  took  the  oath  of  office  as  president  on  April 
15,  1865.  On  April  29,  1865,  he  issued  a  proclamation  removing 
trade  restrictions  in  most  of  the  seceded  states,  and  on  Jlay  9 
issued  an  executive  order  restoring  Virginia  to  the  Union.  Then 
came  a  difference  of  opinion  between  Mr.  Johnson  and  Congress 
with  regard  to  the  policy  to  be  pursued  regarding  the  Southern 


592  LOUISIANA 

states.  The  president  took  the  position  that  the  secession  ordi- 
nances passed  by  the  several  states  were  null  and  void  from  the 
beginning  and  that  the  states  had  never  been  out  of  the  Union. 
Congress  agreed  that  the  ordinances  were  unconstitutional,  but 
maintained  that  the  states  had  been  out  of  the  Union  and  that 
they  could  not  be  restored  to  it  without  some  kind  of  legislation. 
In  this  crisis  the  president  issued  his  proclamation  of  May  29,  1865, 
granting  amnesty  to  aU  ex-Confederates,  except  certain  classes, 
and  established  provisional  governments  in  the  seceded  states. 
(No  provisional  governor  was  appointed  for  Louisiana,  the  presi- 
dent recognizing  the  civil  government  that  had  been  established 
under  the  constitution  of  1864.)  In  May.  1866,  Mr.  Johnson  tele- 
graphed to  Lieut.-Gov.  Voorhies  of  Louisiana  that  "all  orders  and 
proceedings  for  the  collection  of  taxes  for  the  purposes  of  educa- 
tion have  been  suspended."  On  July  28  he  sent  another  telegram 
to  the  lieutenant-governor  to  the  effect  that  the  militai-y  would  be 
expected  to  sustain  and  not  obstruct  or  interfere  Avith  the  courts. 
(See  Riot  of  1866.)  In  Aug.,  1866,  accompanied  by  some  of  his 
cabinet  and  ofiScers  of  the  army  and  navy,  Mr.  Johnson  visited  a 
number  of  the  Northern  states,  speaking  in  the  principal  cities  in 
defense  of  his  course  and  denouncing  Congress.  This  tour  was 
referred  to  by  the  Northern  newspapers  as  "Swinging  around 
the  circle."  In  his  message  of  Dec.  3,  1866,  the  president  said: 
"Throughout  the  recent  legislation  of  Congress  the  undeniable 
fact  makes  itself  apparent  that  these  ten  political  communities  are 
nothing  less  than  states  of  this  Union.  At  the  very  commencement 
of  the  rebellion  each  house  declared.  Avith  a  unanimity  as  remark- 
able as  it  was  significant,  that  the  war  was  not  'waged  upon  our 
part  in  any  spirit  of  oppression,  nor  for  any  purpose  of  conquest 
or  subjugation,  nor  purpose  of  overthrowing  or  interfering  with 
the  rights  or  established  institutions  of  those  states,  but  to  defend 
and  maintain  the  supremacy  of  the  constitution  and  all  laws  made 
in  pursuance  thereof,  and  to  preserve  the  Union,  with  all  the  dig- 
nity, equality,  and  rights  of  the  states  unimpaired,  and  that  as  soon 
as  these  objects  are  accomplished  the  war  ought  to  cease.'  "  Dur- 
ing this  session  he  vetoed  acts  giving  negroes  the  right  of  suffrage 
in  the  District  of  Columbia ;  the  bill  admitting  Nebraska  into  the 
Union,  because  it  contained  a  provision  that  no  law  should  ever 
be  passed  in  that  state  denying  the  right  of  suffrage  to  any  person 
because  of  his  color  or  race;  and  the  act  of  March  2,  1867,  pro- 
viding for  "the  more  eiificient  government  of  the  rebel  states." 
All  these,  as  well  as  several  others,  were  passed  over  the  presi- 
dent 's  veto  and  the  work  of  reconstruction  went  on  according  to 
the  Congressional  policy.  An  effort  was  made  to  impeach  the 
president,  but  it  failed.  On  Aug.  5,  1867,  IMr.  Jolinson  requested 
Edwin  M.  Stanton  to  resign  his  position  as  secretary  of  war.  Mr. 
Stanton  refused  and  was  suspended.  Gen.  Grant  being  appointed 
secretary  ad  interim.  "When  Congress  met,  the  senate  refused  to 
confirm  the  pi-esident's  action,  Grant  resigned,  and  Stanton  resumed 
the  duties  of  the  office.     Mr.  Johnson  then  removed  him  and  ap- 


LOUISIANA  593 

pointed  Adjt.-Geu.  Lorenzo  Tliomas.  The  senate  declared  this 
act  illegal  and  impeachment  proceedings  were  instituted.  The  trial 
began  on  ilarcli  30,  1868,  the  senate  sitting  as  a  court  of  impeach- 
ment, and  tlie  test  vote  was  taken  on  May  16,  when  35  senators 
voted  for  conviction  and  19  for  acquittal.  A  change  of  one  vote 
from  Hie  negative  to  tlie  affirmative  would  have  made  the  neces- 
sary two-thirds  for  conviction.  At  the  expiration  of  his  term  as 
president  Mr.  Johnson  returned  to  Tennessee ;  was  a  candidate 
for  Congressman  at  large  in  1872,  but  was  defeated;  was  elected 
U.  S.  senator  in  Jan.,  1875,  and  took  his  seat  at  the  beginning  of 
the  extra  session  of  that  year.  On  July  30,  1875,  he  was  stricken 
with  paralysis  and  died  the  following  day.  Perhaps  no  man  in 
American  public  life  encounteretl  more  obstacles  nor  passed  through 
more  tribulations  than  Andrew  Johnson.  Throughout  his  career 
he  .stood  firm  for  his  convictions  and  the  unbiased  student  of  his- 
tory can  hardly  fail  to  reach  the  conclusion  that  in  many  instances 
where  he  was  overruled  by  Congress  he  was  in  the  right. 

Johnson,  Henry,  fourth  governor  of  Loui.siana  after  its  admission 
into  the  Union  as  a  state,  was  born  in  Virginia,  Sept.  14,  1783. 
After  his  admission  to  the  bar  in  his  native  state  he  removed  to 
Louisiana  and  in  1809  was  appointed  clerk  of  the  2nd  superior 
court  of  the  Territory  of  Orleans.  When  the  parish  of  St.  Mary 
was  established  in  1811  he  was  appointed  judge  of  the  new  ])arish. 
He  was  a  member  O'f  the  constitutional  convention  of  1812,  and 
the  same  year  was  a  candidate  for  Congress  on  the  Whig  ticket, 
but  was  defeated.  In  1818  he  was  elected  to  the  U.  S.  senate  on 
'the  deiath  of  W.  C.  C.  Claiborne  and  sei'ved  until  1824,  when  he 
was  elected  governor  of  the  state.  In  1829  he  was  defeated  in 
his  race  for  IT.  S.  Senator,  but  in  1834  was  eleated  a  representative 
in  the  24th  Congress  and  at  1lie  close  of  his  term  was  reelected. 
When  Alexander  Porter  died  in  1844  Mr.  Johnson  was  elected  to 
the  U.  S.  senate  to  fill  the  vacancy  and  served  in  that  body  until 
1849.  In  the  meantime  he  was  a  candidate  for  governor  in  1842, 
but  was  defeated  by  Alexander  Mouton.  While  a  member  of  the 
senate  he  presented  to  Congress  the  resolutions  of  the  Louisiana 
legislature  favoriag  the  annexation  of  Texas,  and  the  memorial  of 
the  sugar  planters  of  St.  Mary's  parish  praying  for  the  repeal  of 
the  tariff  of  1846.  In  1850,  Avheu  Charles  ]\1.  Conrad  was  appointed 
secretary  of  war  and  i-esigued  his  seat  in  the  national  house  of 
representatives,  Mr.  Johnson  contested  the  seat  with  Judge  Henry 
A.  Bullard,  who  was  seated.  Gov.  Johnson  tlien  retired  from  pub- 
lic life  and  died  at  Pointe  Coupee  on  Sept.  4,  1864.  His  wife  was 
a  Miss  Key,  of  Maryland. 

Johnson's  Administration. — Gov.  Henry  Johnson  was  inaugu- 
rated on  Dec.  13,  1824,  and  found  the  finances  of  the  state  in  a 
wholesome  condition.  When  Gov.  Villere  retired  from  the  office 
Louisiana  was  entirely  free  from  debt,  but  circumstances  had  com- 
pelled Gov.  Robertson  to  turn  over  to  !iis  successor  a  debt  of  some 
$40,000  for  the  payment  of  which  ample  provision  had  been  made. 
In  his  inaugural  address  Gov.  Johnson  recommended  to  the  people 
1—38 


594  LOUISIANA 

the  cultivation  of  "a  spirit  of  concord  and  reciprocal  good-mU, " 
though  he  expressed  some  doubts  as  to  the  maintenance  of  such 
a  feeling,  considering  the  discordant  elements  which  composed  the 
heterogeneous  population.  "All  invidious  attempts,"  said  he,  "to 
foment  discord,  by  exciting  jealousies  and  party  spirit,  with  refer- 
ence to  the  accidental  circumstances  of  language  or  birth-place, 
will  be  strongly  reprobated  by  every  man  who  loves  his  country 
and  respects  himself.  We  are  all  united  by  one  common  bond. 
We  neither  have,  nor  can  have,  any  separate  or  distinct  interests; 
we  are  all  protected  by  the  same  laws,  and  no  measure  of  policy 
can  be  adopted  injurious  to  one  portion  of  the  community,  without 
affecting  every  other  in  the  same  ratio. 

These  remarks  were  doubtless  prompted  by  the  acrimonious  dis- 
cussions during  the  campaign  which  resulted  in  his  election,  and 
were  indicative  of  the  course  he  intended  to  pursue.  During  the 
ses.sion  of  the  legislature  which  witnessed  the  inauguration  of  Gov. 
Johnson,  the  Louisiana  state  bank  was  established;  the  capital  of 
the  state  was  ordered  to  be  removed  to  Donaldsonville  in  1829  and 
an  appropriation  of  $30,000  was  made  for  the  purpose  of  buying 
ground  there  and  erecting  a  capitol  building;  the  city  court  of 
New  Orleans  was  created;  and  the  state  was  divided  into  five  dis- 
tricts for  presidential  electors. 

The  year  1825  is  memorable  in  the  history  of  Louisiana  for  the 
visit  of  two  notable  men — Gen.  William  Carroll  on  Jan.  22,  and 
the  Marquis  de  Lafayette  on  April  10.  Between  the  sessions  of 
the  general  assembly  the  governor  traveled  over  the  state  on  a 
tour  of  inspection,  and  when  the  legislature  met  on  Jan.  2,  1826, 
he  said  in  his  message:  "I  have  been  highly  gratified  in  witness- 
ing in  every  parish  the  utmost  harmony  and  good-will.  Those 
symptoms  of  discord  which,  to  the  mortification  of  every  friend  to 
his  country,  manifest  themselves  on  some  occasions  in  this  our 
favored  city  of  New  Orleans,  are  nowhere  perceptible  in  the  cir- 
cumjacent country;  and  even  in  the  city  they  are  circumscribed 
and  confined  chiefly  to  the  columns  of  gazettes,  and  perhaps  to  a 
few  persons  of  intemperate  feelings,  or  whose  views  do  not  extend 
beyond  the  mere  surface  of  things.  *  *  *  Let  us  unite  in  pur- 
suing a  course,  and  in  setting  an  example,  that  may  tend  to  unite 
the  hearts  of  all  our  fellow-citizens." 

On  the  qtiestion  of  land  claims  and  the  public  domain  he  said : 
"The  large  claims,  embracing  several  millions  of  acres,  to  which 
the  attention  of  the  legislature  has  been  called  on  several  occa- 
sions, still  remain  unadjusted.  Upward  of  twenty  years  have 
elapsed  since  we  became  a  part  of  the  American  Confederacy  and 
looked  to  the  Congress  of  the  IMted  States  for  the  redress  of  our 
grievances  in  this  respect.  Nothing  effectual,  however,  has  been 
done.  All  attempts  which  have  been  made  in  Congress  to  refer 
our  claims  to  the  United  States  district  court,  subject  to  an  appeal 
to  the  supreme  court  of  the  United  States,  and  which  was  perhaps 
the  most  expedient  method  of  settlement  that  could  be  devised, 
have  entirely  failed  of  success.     If  these  claims  are   good,  they 


LOUISIANA  595 

should  be  confirmed;  if  invalid,  they  should  be  expressly  rejected. 
It  is  not  only  the  parties  interested  who  suffer  by  keeping  them 
in  suspense ;  the  great  and  increasing  injury  inflicted  on  the  state 
calls  loudly  for  redress."  To  remedy  this  situation  he  recom- 
mended a  memorial  to  Congress  "couched  in  strong  but  respectful 
terms."  Such  a  memorial  was  forwarded  to  Congress,  but  it  proved 
ineffective.  The  legislature  at  this  session  aiithorized  the  gov- 
ernor to  borrow  $30,000  for  the  purpose  of  building  the  capitol  at 
Donaldsonville ;  refused  to  concur  in  the  Ohio  resolutions  of  1824, 
proposing  a  plan  for  the  gradual  emancipation  of  slaves;  requested 
Congress  to  have  the  boundary  between  Louisiana  and  Arkansas 
established ;  and  created  a  board  of  internal  improvement,  to  con- 
sist of  five  commissioners  to  be  appointed  by  the  governor  annu- 
ally. In  the  elections  of  1826,  Brent,  Gurley  and  Livingston  were 
again  chosen  to  ''epresent  the  state  in  the  lower  house  of  Congress. 

The  first  session  of  the  8tli  legislature  commenced  in  New  Or- 
leans on  Jan.  1,  1827,  with  Armand  Beauvais  as  president  of  the 
senate  and  Octave  La  Branche  as  speaker  of  the  house.  The 
greater  part  of  the  governor's  message  was  devoted  to  the  subject 
of  internal  improvements,  such  as  the  proposed  canals  from  the 
Mississippi  to  Lake  Pontchartraiu,  the  Attakapas  and  Barataria 
bay.  He  feelingly  referred  to  the  death  of  ex-Presidents  Adams 
and  Jefferson,  both  of  whom  died  on  July  4,  1826,  and  suggested 
relief  for  the  family  of  Jefferson,  closing  this  part  of  his  message 
with  the  words:  "Next  to  Virginia,  his  native  land,  no  state  in 
the  Union  owes  such  a  debt  of  gratitude  to  the  departed  sage  as 
Louisiana."  Accordingly,  on  March  16,  the  following  preamble 
and  act  was  approved  by  the  governor: 

"Whereas,  after  a  life  devoted  to  the  services  of  his  country  and 
that  of  the  whole  human  race,  Thomas  Jefferson  died,  leaving  to  his 
children  no  inheritance  save  tlie  example  of  his  virtues  and  the 
gratitude  of  the  people  whose  independence  he  had  proclaimed 
to  the  world  in  language  worthy  of  a  great  nation;  and,  whereas, 
the  legislature  of  Louisiana,  acquired  to  the  Union  by  his  wisdom 
and  foresight,  in  grateful  remembrance  of  the  illustrious  citizen, 
to  whom  they  are  indebted  for  the  blessings  of  political  and  civil 
liberty,  wish  to  perpetuate  to  the  latest  posterity  the  memory  of 
their  deep  sense  of  the  unrivalled  talents  and  virtues  of  their  bene- 
factor; Therefore,  be  it  enacted,  that  the  sum  of  $10,000  in  stock 
shall  be  forwarded  by  the  governor  to  Thomas  Jefferson  Randolph 
in  trust  for  his  mother,  Martha  Randolph,  and  her  heirs;  and  be 
it  further  enacted,  that  for  the  payment  of  said  stock  the  governor 
shall  execute  in  the  name  of  the  state  one  or  more  bonds  transfer- 
able by  delivery,  bearing  an  interest  not  exceeding  six  per  cent 
per  annum,  payable  yearly  and  redeemable  in  ten  years,  or  sooner 
if  so  determined  by  the  legislature."  A  subsequent  act  defined  the 
stock. 

At  this  session  the  punishment  of  white  persons  by  the  pillory 
was  abolished,  and  the  "Consolidated  Association  of  the  planters 
of  Louisiana"  was  incorporated  with  a  capital  of  $2,000,000,  which 


596  LOUISIANA 

was  subsequently  increased  to  $2,500,000,  secured  by  mortgages 
on  real  estate  and  slaves.  Through  this  medium  the  planters  ob- 
tained money  easily,  and  those  with  extravagant  notions  spent  it 
as  easily.  While  some  protitcd  by  the  association,  it  proved  the 
ruin  of  many. 

The  legislature  extended  an  invitation  to  Gen.  Andrew  Jackson 
to  visit  New  Orleans  on  Jan.  8.  1828,  the  13th  anniversary  of  the 
battle  of  New  Orleans.  He  accepted  the  invitation,  and  was  wel- 
comed by  Gov.  Johnson  as  the  "Guest  of  Louisiana."' 

The  principal  candidates  for  governor  in  1828  were  Pierre  Der- 
bigny  and  Thomas  Butler.  The  first  session  of  the  9th  legislature 
opened  on  Nov.  17.  1828.  and  when  the  votes  were  canvassed  the 
next  day  it  was  found  that  Derbigny  was  elected  by  a  substantial 
majority.  A.  B.  Roman  was  elected  speaker  of  the  house  to  suc- 
ceed Octave  La  Branche.  In  his  message  Gov.  Johnson  reported 
that  of  the  25.000,000  acres  of  vacant  lands  at  the  time  of  the  ces- 
sion to  the  United  States  in  1803,  only  182.000  acres  had  been  sold 
up  to  that  time.  For  representatives  in  Congress  Walter  H.  Over- 
ton, Henry  H.  Gurley  and  Edward  D.  AVhite  were  elected  in  1828, 
and  Edward  Livingston  was  elected  U.  S.  senator  at  this  session 
of  the  general  assembly  to  succeed  Dominique  Bouligny,  who  had 
been  elected  to  fill  the  vacancy  caused  by  the  election  of  Gov. 
Johnson  in  1821:. 

Johnson.  Isaac,  tenth  governor  of  the  State  of  Louisiana,  was  a 
native  of  the  parish  of  West  Feliciana  and  the  son  of  an  English 
officer  who  settled  in  Louisiana  while  it  was  a  Spanish  province. 
He  studied  law  and  became  a  successful  attorney.  His  political 
career  began  as  a  member  of  the  lower  house  of  the  state  legisla- 
ture, after  which  he  was  elected  judge  of  the  3d  district.  In  1845 
he  Avas  nominated  by  the  Democratic  party  for  governor  and  was 
elected  over  William  De  Buys,  the  Whig  candidate,  by  a  majority 
of  1,279.  He  was  inaugurated  just  at  the  beginning  of  the  War 
with  ]\Iexico,  and  during  that  contest  ably  upheld  the  cause  of 
the  United  States.  During  his  administration  (q.  v.)  several  impor- 
tant impi-ovements  were  made.  Gov.  Johnson  died  in  New  Orleans 
on  March  15.  1853. 

Johnson's  Administration. — Isaac  Johnson  was  inaugurated  gov- 
ernor on  Feb.  12.  1846.  In  his  address  on  that  occasion  he  took  a 
decideil  stand  in  favor  of  state  rights,  congratulated  the  people 
on  the  annexation  of  Texas,  and  urged  the  extension  of  the  free 
school  .system  to  all  parts  of  the  state.  The  new  constitution, 
which  was  adopted  in  1845,  made  a  vast  amoimt  of  work  for  the 
general  assembly  in  shaping  legislation  to  carry  into  effect  its 
various  provisions.  ^luch  of  this  work  was  assigned  to  commit- 
tees, and  on  June  1.  1846,  the  legislature  adjourned  to  meet  again 
on  Jan.  11,  1847.  When  it  convened  at  that  time  Gov.  Johnson 
submitted  a  message  dealing  at  length  with  the  Mexican  war  and 
the  part  Louisiana  had  taken  in  the  conflict.  (See  War  with  Mex- 
ico.) He  announced  the  death  of  T'.  S.  Senator  Alexander  Bar- 
row, and  Pierre  Soule  Avas  elected  to  complete  the  term.     At  this 


LOUISIANA  597 

session,  pursuaut  to  the  stipulations  of  the  constitution,  steps  were 
taken  to  provide  a  fund  for  the  maintenance  of  free  public  schools ; 
the  University  of  Louisiana  was  established  at  New  Orleans;  and 
an  appropriation  of  $10,000  was  made  for  the  establishment  of  an 
insane  asylum  at  Jackson.  The  penitentiai-y  was  leased  out  for 
five  years,  and  a  complete  census  of  the  state  was  authorized. 

Under  the  constitution  the  sessions  of  tlie  legislature  were  to 
be  held  biennially  and  were  limited  to  60  days.  In  his  message  of 
Jan.  17,  1848,  Ctov.  Johnson  expressed  'himself  in  favor  of  annual 
limited  sessions,  but  if  the  sessions  were  to  be  held  biennially  they 
should  be  unlimited  as  to  the  time.  He  announced  that  the  Uni- 
versity of  Louisiana  had  commenced  operations.  "If  the  univer- 
sity is  sustained,"  said  he,  "then  and  perhaps  not  till  then,  the 
common-school  system  will  have  become  deeply  and  firmly  fixed 
in  the  'habits  and  atfections  of  the  people,  who  with  fair  opportu- 
nity will  fully  comprehend  the  trutli  that  even  the  learning  of  one 
man  makes  a  thousand  learned."  At  this  time  it  was  clearly  seen 
that  the  war  with  Mexico  would  result  in  the  acquisition  of  terri- 
tory by  the  United  States,  and  David  Wilmot,  a  member  of  Con- 
gress from  Pennsylvania  had  introduced  in  that  body  a  measure 
calculated  to  prevent  the  extension  of  slavery  into  the  territory 
so  acquired.  This  was  known  as  the  "Wilmot  Proviso,"  and  in 
his  message  the  governor  decried  it  as  an  attack  upon  the  institu- 
tion of  slavery — a  quesion  over  which  Congress  was  not  invested 
with  the  least  authority  whatever.  "Tlie  issue  lias  been  forced," 
said  he,  "and  it  should  be  met  respectfully  and  temperately;  but 
at  the  same  time  with  a  firm  and  uncompromising  resistance.  Let 
us,  at  least,  take  care  that  they  who  have  sowed  the  speck  of  storm 
shall  not  force  us  to  reap  the  whirlwind." 

After  enacting  a  number  of  important  laAvs,  among  which  was 
one  redistrieting  the  state  for  members  of  the  general  assembly, 
the  legislature  adjourned  on  ]\Iarch  16,  to  meet  in  Baton  Rotige 
in  1850,  but  as  it  had  not  complied  with  the  requirements  of  tlie 
constitution  in  the  matter  of  making  adequate  provisions  for  the 
organization  and  support  of  the  public  schools,  an  extraordinary 
session  was  convened  on  Dec.  4,  1848,  to  correct  the  failure,  which 
was  done  by  the  appropriation  of  $550,000  for  the  use  of  the 
schools. 

In  Jan.,  1848,  the  leaders  of  the  Whig  party  called  a  mass-meeting 
at  New  Orleans  to  endorse  Gen.  Zaehary  Taylor  for  the  presidency. 
In  the  campaign  which  followed,  the  Taylor  and  Fillmoi-e  ticket 
carried  the  state,  receiving  18,117  votes,  to  15,370  for  Cass  and 
Butler.  A  spirited  contest  occurred  in  the  gubernatorial  campaign 
of  1849.  The  Democrats  nominated  Gen.  Joseph  Walker  for  gov- 
ernor and  Gen.  Jean  B.  Plauche  for  lieutenant-governor.  The 
Whig  candidates  were  Col.  Alexander  Deelouet  and  D.  F.  Kenner. 
The  election  resulted  in  a  Democratic  victory.  Walker  and  Plauche 
being  elected  by  a  majority  of  over  1,000  votes.  The  members  of 
the  legislature  chosen  at  this  election  assembled  at  Baton  Rouge 
on  Jan.  21,  1850, — the  first  time  in  the  histoi-y  of  the  state  that  a 


598  LOUISL\NA 

legislative  session  was  held  in  that  city.  Preston  TV.  Farrar,  who 
had  served  as  speaker  in  the  preceding  legislatiire.  Avas  again 
elected  to  that  office.  In  his  message  Gov.  Johnson  said  that  there 
were  22,000  children  in  attendance  in  the  public  schools  and  recom- 
mended increased  appropriations  for  educational  purposes.  On  the 
subject  of  slavery  he  observed  very  emphatically:  "It  is  with 
feelings  of  lively  "satisfaction  I  see  the  South  poising  herself  in  a 
lofty  and  patriotic  attitude  ia  defense  of  her  rights.  The  repeated, 
galling  and  unprovoked  aggressions  of  the  anti-slavery  element 
leave  no  room  to  anticipate  a  cessation  of  hostilities,  and  the  South, 
I  think,  has  been  sufficiently  warned  that  if  it  is  wise  to  hope  for 
the  best  it  is  equally  prudent  to  prepare  for  the  worst."  The 
"Wilmot  Proviso  was  again  denounced  in  unmeasured  terms,  and 
the  governor  recommended  sending  delegates  to  the  Southern 
Rights  convention  to  be  held  at  Na.sliville.  Tenn.,  in  June.  Gov. 
Johnson  retired  from  the  office  on  Jan.  28,  1850. 

Johnsons  Bayou,  a  post-hamlet  of  Cameron  parish,  is  situated 
on  the  gulf  coast,  in  the  southwestern  part  of  the  parish,  about 
10  miles  east  of  Sabine.  Tex.,  the  nearest  railroad  station,  and  25 
miles  west  of  Cameron,  the  parish  seat. 

Johnston,  Josiah  Stoddard,  U.  S.  senator  from  Louisiana,  was 
born  at  Salisbury.  Conn.,  Nov.  24,  1784.  He  graduated  at  the 
Transylvania  university  in  1805 :  studied  law  and  was  admitted 
to  the  bar ;  began  practice  at  Alexandria,  La. ;  was  a  member  of 
the  state  house  of  representatives:  served  as  district  judge;  and 
was  elected  a  representative  from  Louisiana  to  the  17th  Congress 
as  a  Clay  Democrat.  He  was  appointed  U.  S.  senator  from  Louis- 
iana in  place  of  James  Brown,  resigned ;  was  twice  reelected,  serv- 
ing from  March  12,  1824,  to  May  19,  1833,  when  he  died  at  Red 
River.  La. 

Johnston,  William  Preston,  educator,  president  of  Tulane  Uni- 
versity of  Louisiana,  was  born  at  Louis\'ille,  Ky.,  Jan.  5,  1831.  His 
father  was  Albert  Sidney  Johnston,  the  Confederate  general,  and 
his  mother  was  a  daughter  of  ilaj.  "William  Preston.  His  mother 
died  when  he  was  four  years  old.  and  as  his  father  was  going  to 
serve  in  Texas,  he  was  sent  to  live  with  relatives  in  Louis^^lle. 
He  received  his  ediication  in  the  public  schools  of  that  city;  Wo- 
mack's  academy,  Shelbyville,  Ky. ;  Centre  college,  Danville,  Ky. ; 
the  "Western  military  institute,  Georgetown,  Ky.,  and  at  Tale  col- 
lege. At  Tale  he  excelled  in  literature,  winning  a  Townsend  prize 
for  English  composition,  and  the  Clark  pi-ize  for  his  graduation 
essay.  After  graduating  at  Tale  he  studied  law  at  the  L^niversity 
of  Louisville  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1853.  He  sympathized 
with  the  South  and  took  part  in  most  of  the  stirring  political  ac- 
tions of  the  time.  "When  war  broke  out  he  spent  the  summer  of 
1861  recruiting  and  equipping  several  companies  for  the  Confed- 
erate army,  and  was  commissioned  major  of  the  2nd  Ky.  regiment, 
but  was  soon  transferred  to  the  1st  regiment,  ^vith  which  he  served 
in  northern  Virginia.  "When  the  regiment  was  disbanded,  he  was 
appointed  aide-de-camp  to  President  Davis,  and  held  this  position 


LOUISIANA  599 

throughout  the  war.  He  took  part  in  the  battles  of  Seven  Pines, 
Cold  Harbor,  Sheridan's  raid,  Petersburg  and  other  engagements, 
and  served  as  inspector-general  and  confidential  staff  officer  to 
carry  despatches  between  Davis  and  his  generals.  Near  the  end 
of  the  war  he  was  captured  with  President  Davis  in  Georgia,  and 
kept  in  solitary  confinement  for  three  months  at  Fort  Delaware. 
When  released  he  went  to  Canada  and  lived  as  an  exile  for  a  year. 
On  his  return  to  Louisville  he  practiced  law  until  1867,  when  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  History  and  English  literature  at  "Wash- 
ington college,  by  Gen  Lee,  and  from  that  time  devoted  himself 
to  education  and  literature.  In  1877  he  became  famous  as  the 
author  of  the  "Life  of  Albert  Sidney  Johnston,  Embracing  his 
services  in  the  Armies  of  the  United  States."  Col.  Johnston  left 
Lexington  in  1880  to  become  president  of  the  Louisiana  state  uni- 
versity at  Baton  Rouge,  which  he  reorganized.  In  1833  was  au- 
thorized by  the  administrators  of  the  Tulane  educational  fund  to 
take  eliarge  of  it,  and  the  following  year  the  University  of  Louisi- 
ana was  merged  into  Tulane  university,  with  Col.  Johnston  as  pres- 
ident. He  published  a  number  of  books,  wrote  for  a  number  of 
periodicals,  and  many  of  his  addresses  have  been  printed.  Wash- 
ington and  Lee  university  conferred  the  degree  of  LL.  D.  upon 
him  in  1877.  He  was  one  of  the  regents  of  the  Smithsonian  In- 
stitution.   He  died  oh  July  16,  1899,  at  Lexington,  Va. 

Joliet,  Louis,  French  explorer,  was  born  in  Quebec,  Canada,  in 
1645.  He  was  educated  for  the  priesthood  at  the  Jesuits'  college, 
but  went  west  and  engaged  in  the  fur  trade.  In  Nov.,  1672,  Fron- 
tenac,  then  governor  of  Canada,  wrote:  "The  Chevalier  de  Grand 
Fontaine  had  deemed  it  expedient  for  the  service  to  send  the  Sieur 
Joliet  to  discover  the  south  sea  by  the  Maskoutens  country  and  the 
great  river  Mississippi,  which  is  believed  to  empty  into  the  Cal- 
ifornia sea.  He  is  a  man  of  experience  in  this  kind  of  discovery  and 
has  already  been  near  the  great  river,  of  which  he  promises  to  see 
the  mouth."  Acting  under  this  authority  from  Frontenac,  Joliet, 
in  company  with  Father  Marquette,  left  Michilimackinac  in  May, 
1673,  ascended  the  Fox  river  from  Green  bay,  secured  Indian 
guides  to  the  Wisconsin  river,  and  descended  that  stream  to  the 
Mississippi,  which  they  reached  on  the  17th  of  June.  In  frail 
canoes  they  voyaged  down  the  Mississippi  to  the  mouth  of  the  Ark- 
ansas, where  they  heard  rumors  that  the  couiitry  farther  to  the 
south  was  infested  by  hostile  Indian  tribes  at  war  with  each  other, 
and  returned  to  Lake  Michigan  by  way  of  the  Illinois  river.  From 
that  point  Joliet  proceeded  alone  to  Quebec.  Unfortunately  his 
journal  and  maps  were  lost  by  the  upsetting  of  his  canoe  in  the 
La  Chine  rapids,  but  from  memory  he  prepared  a  map  and  report 
of  the  expedition.  This  map  and  report  were  sent  to  France  by 
Frontenac,  with  the  following  communication,  under  date  of  Nov. 
14,  1674. 

"The  Sieur  Joliet,  whom  M.  Talon  advised  me  when  I  arrived 
from  France  to  send  to  discover  the  South  Sea,  returned  here  three 
months  ago,  and  has  discovered  some  admirable  countries,  and  a 


600  LOUISIANA 

navigation  so  easy  by  fine  rivers,  that  he  found  that  from  Lake 
Ontario  and  Fort  Frontenac  they  could  go  in  bi.rques  to  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico,  having  only  to  unload  once,  whei-e  Lake  Erie  falls  into 
Lake  Ontario.  These  are  some  of  the  enterprises  they  could  work 
upon  when  peace  is  established,  and  it  shall  please  the  king  to  push 
these  discoveries.  He  has  been  witliin  ten  days  of  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  and  believes  that  (through)  the  rivers  which  empty  into 
the  great  river  from  the  west  *  •  *  they  will  tind  some  com- 
munication by  these  waters  which  will  lead  to  the  Vermillion  sea 
and  that  of  California.  I  send  you  by  secretary  the  map  which 
he  has  made  and  the  remarks  which  he  is  able  to  remember,  having 
lost  all  his  memoirs  and  journals  in  the  shipwreck  which  he  suf- 
fered in  sight  of  ^Montreal,  where,  after  a  voyage  of  1,200  leagues, 
he  came  near  being  drowned  and  lost  all  his  papers  and  a  little 
Indian  that  he  was  bringing  back  with  him.  He  had  left  at  Lake 
Superior,  with  the  Fathers  at  Sault  Ste.  Marie,  copies  of  his  jour- 
nals, which  we  cannot  obtain  until  next  year;  through  these  you 
will  learn  more  of  the  particulars  of  that  discovery  in  which  he 
acquitted  himself  very  creditably." 

History  does  not  record  the  recovery  of  the  copies  of  the  journals 
left  at  Sault  Ste.  JLirie,  and  but  little  is  known  of  Joliet's  subse- 
quent career,  further  than  that  he  held  the  seigneuries  of  Anacosti 
island  and  Joliet,  the  latter  of  which  still  belongs  to  his  family, 
lie  died  about"  1730.  Although  he  failed  to  reach  the  mouth  of 
the  Mississippi,  and  was  never  in  what  is  now  the  State  of  Louis- 
iana, his  expedition  developed  the  fact  that  the  great  river  emptied 
into  the  Gulf  of  ilexico  instead  of  the  Pacifie  ocean,  and  opened 
the  eyes  of  the  French  government  to  the  future  possibilities  of 
the  Mississippi  as  an  artery  of  commerce.  (See  also  Marquette, 
Jacques.) 

Jonas,  Benjaanin  Franklin,  lawyer  and  statesman,  was  born  at 
Williamstown,  Grant  Co.,  Ky.,  July  19,  1834.  While  he  was  still 
young  his  family  removed  to  Illinois,  where  he  was  educated.  In 
1853  he  went  to  New  Orleans  and  studied  law  at  the  University 
of  Louisiana,  where  he  graduated  in  1855.  When  the  Civil  war 
broke  out  he  enlisted  in  the  Confederate  ai-my  as  a  private  of  artil- 
lery in  Hood's  corps.  Army  of  tlie  Tennessee,  and  served  until 
hostilities  ceased.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Louisiana 
state  legislature  in  1865,  where  he  served  until  reconstruction  in 
1868,  and  was  that  year  chairman  of  the  Louisiana  delegation  in 
the  Democratic  national  convention.  He  was  elected  to  the  state 
senate,  but  refused  to  take  his  seat  in  the  Kellogg  legislature  and 
adhered  to  the  ^IcEnery  government.  Tn  1874  he  was  elected  at- 
torney of  tlu'  city  of  New  Orleans  and  reelected  2  years  later. 
From  1876  to  1877  he  was  a  member  of  the  Loiiisiana  legislature, 
acting  as  chairman  of  tlu'  judiciary  committee  of  the  house.  He 
was  elected  U.  S.  senator  as  a  Democrat,  to  succeed  James  B.  Eus- 
tis,  and  took  his  seat  on  jMareh  18,  1879. 

Jones,  a  village  and  station  in  the  northeastern  part  of  ^lore- 
hou.se  parish,  on  the  St.  Louis,  Iron  ^Fountain  &  Soiithern  R.  R., 


LOUISIANA  601 

about  20  miles  nortlieast  of  Bastrop,  the  parish  seat.  It  is  located 
in  one  of  the  richest  agricultural  regions  of  the  state  and  is  a  ship- 
ping and  supply  town  of  considerable  importance.  It  has  a  money 
order  postoffiee  and  a  population  of  125. 

Jones,  Roland,  member  of  Congress,  was  a  native  of  South  Caro- 
lina. He  removed  to  Louisiana  and  located  at  Shreveport,  where 
he  was  elected  a  representative  to  the  33d  Congress  as  a  Democrat. 

Jones,  Thomas  Ap  Catesby,  naval  officer,  was  born  in  Virginia  in 
1789,  a  son  of  Maj.  Catesby  and  Lettice  Carbin  (Turberville) 
Jones.  His  brother,  Roger  Jones,  was  adjutant-general  of  the  U. 
S.  army.  Thomas  entered  the  navy  in  1805,  became  a  lieutenant 
7  years  later,  was  promoted  to  commander  in  1820,  and  to,  captain 
in  1829.  During  these  years  of  service  he  was  engaged  in  sup- 
pressing piracy,  smuggling,  and  the  prohibited  slave  trade  in  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  Carribbean  sea.  He  was  in  command  of 
the  American  fleet  that  tried  to  intercept  the  British  squadron  in 
Dec.,  1814,  on  Lake  Borgne  (q.v.),  where  he  was  wounded  and 
forced  to  surrender,  but  was  commended  for  brave  conduct.  While 
commanding  a  squadron  on  the  Pacific  ocean,  'he  took  temporary 
possession  of  IMonterey,  having  been  misinformed  that  the  United 
States  and  Mexico  were  at  war.  He  was  married  July  1,  1823,  to 
Mary  W.  Carter,  and  died  at  Georgetown,  D.  C,  May  30,  1858. 

Jonesboro,  the  capital  town  of  Jackson  parish,  is  located  in  the 
southwestern  part,  at  the  junction  of  the  Chicago,  Rock  Island  & 
Pacific,  and  the  Tremont  &  Gulf  railroads,  in  one  of  the  great 
pine  forests  of  western  Louisiana,  and  has  important  lumber  in- 
dustries. As  the  timber  has  been  cut  the  surrounding  country  has 
rapidly  developed  into  a  fine  agricultural  district,  of  which  Jones- 
boro is  the  center  of  trade.  It  has  a  bank,  a  money  order  post- 
office,  express  office,  telegraph  station,  a  large  retail  trade,  and 
population  of  1,134.  As  a  result  of  an  election  held  for  the  pur- 
pose of  changing  the  parish  site  Jonesboro  was  chosen.  A  fine 
new  county  courthouse  has  been  erected  and  the  town  is  growing 
rapidly. 

Jonesville,  a  village  in  the  southeastern  part  of  Catahoula  parish, 
is  on  the  Black  river,  just  opposite  the  town  of  Black  River,  which  is 
the  terminus  of  the  Natchez  &  Western  R.  R.  Jonesville  is  one  of  the 
largest  and  most  important  villages  in  the  parish.  It  was  laid  out  in 
1871  by  a  Mrs.  Jones,  and  named  in  her  honor.  Richard  Yancy  biiilt 
tihe  first  store.  Before  the  railroad  was  built  it  did  not  grow  very 
rapidly,  but  it  now  lias  a  bank,  several  stores,  2  hotels,  good  schools, 
a  saw  and  shingle  mill,  a  moncv  order  postoffiee,  and  a  population 
of  287. 

Joutel,  Henri  M.,  who  ranks  with  Henri  de  Tonti  as  one  of  the 
most  intimate  and  faithful  friends  of  the  great  La  Salle,  was  selected 
by  the  latter  to  accompany  him  in  1684  on  his  last  and  fatal  voyage  to 
rediscover  the  Mississippi  and  colonize  Louisiana.  During  those  try- 
ing years,  1784-87,  Joutel  repeatedly  proved  himself  as  devoted  a 
friend  to  La  Salle  as  ever  a  man  had,  and  ultimately  became  the 
historian  of  the  unfortunate  expedition  in  which  the  great  explorer 


602  LOUISIANA 

met  his  sad  and  imtimelj'  fate.  Joutel's  extremely  rare  and  interesting 
work,  entitled  "Historical  Journal  of  Monsieur  de  La  Salle's  Last 
Voyage  to  Discover  the  River  Mississippi,"  has  been  characterized  by 
the  historian  B.  F.  French  as  "one  of  the  most  aiithentic  works  on 
Louisiana."  His  "description  of  the  country  of  Texas,  although  writ- 
ten one  hiindred  and  fifty  yeairs  ago,  is  still  among  the  best  we  have. ' ' 
After  tlie  expedition  had  landed  in  1684  at  what  is  now  the  Bay  of 
St.  Bernard  or  Matagorda.  La  Salle  twice  left  Joutel  in  responsible 
command  of  the  temporary  fort  near  tie  coast,  while  he  himself,  ac- 
companied by  a  small  force,  conducted  long  journeys  of  exploration 
north  and  east,  in  search  of  the  elusive  ^lississippi.  Returning  from 
the  second  of  these  fruitless  expeditions  in  Aug.,  1686,  during  which 
he  had  lost  throiigh  death  or  desertion  12  of  the  20  men  who  had  set 
forth  with  him,  he  nevertheless  remained  cheerful  in  the  midst,  of  all 
the  calamities  which  had  overtaken  him.  Says  Joutel:  "The  even 
temper  of  our  chief  made  all  men  easj',  and  he  found  by  his  great 
vivacity  of  spirit  expedients  which  revived  the  lowest  ebb  of  hope." 
"When  La  Salle  finall.v  set  out  from  the  coast  Jan.  12.  1687,  with  the 
view  of  finding  the  "fatal  ]Mississippi."  as  Joutel  calls  it.  and  with 
the  further  object  of  journeying  to  the  Illinois  country,  and  thence 
to  Canada,  to  seeui-e  needed  succor  for  his  colony.  Joutel  formed  one 
of  the  17  men  who  accompanied  him.  and  he  was  not  far  away,  though 
not  actually  present,  when  his  chief  was  treacherously  murdered  in 
Marcli  by  some  of  his  disaffected  companions.  Not  long  after  this 
event,  the  party  divided,  and  Joutel,  together  with  Father  Anasta- 
sius,  ilM.  Cavelier,  the  bi'other  and  nephew  of  La  Salle,  Sieur  de 
Marie,  one  Teissier,  a  young  Parisian  named  Bartholomew,  and  3 
Indian.^,  for  guides,  set  out  alone  in  a  northeast  direction  for  the  Mis- 
sissippi. Passing  through  present  Louisiana  they  finally  reached,  aft^r 
great  hardships  and  dangere.  the  Arkansas  villages  on  the  Mississippi, 
where  they  discovered  Tonti's  post  and  3  of  the  men  he  had  left  there. 
Joutel  later  ascended  to  the  Illinois  post,  where  he  foirad  Tonti,  and 
then  proceeded  to  Montreal  and  Quebec,  where  he  sailed  for  France. 
Judgments. — Every  parish  in  Louisiana  has  an  officer  known  as 
parish  recorder,  in  whose  office  all  mortgages,  deeds  and  privileges 
must  be  recorded  before  they  can  have  any  effect  against  third  parties. 
Judgments  recorded  in  this  office  operate  as  mortgages  upon  all  real 
estate  of  the  debtor  from  the  date  of  record.  Foreign  judgments  may 
be  sued  on  and  judgments  recovered  on  them  here.  They  are  proved 
by  a  duly  certified  transcript  of  the  record.  Non-resident  creditors 
are  not  affected  by  the  state  insolvent  laws  when  their  claims  exceed 
$2,000,  unless  they  participate  in  the  insolvent  proceedings.  They 
can  obtain  judgment  on  their  claims  in  the  Federal  courts.  Judgment 
may  be  rendered  for  reasonable  attorney  "s  fees,  when  the  contract  stip- 
ulates they  are  to  be  paid  by  the  defendant.  They  are  not  taxed  as 
costs  except  in  a  few  special  cases.  Justices  of  the  peace  and  city 
courts  have  jurisdiction  where  the  amount  involved  does  not  exceed 
$100.  Judgments  may  be  obtained  in  the  city  courts  of  New  Orleans, 
when  no  defense  is  interposed,  in  about  8  days;  in  justices'  courts,  in 


LOUISIANA  603 

about  15  days ;  in  district  court  in  New  Orleans,  in  about  15  days, 
when  court  is  in  session.    (See  Actions.) 

Juanita,  a  village  and  station  of  Beauregard  parish,  is  located 
on  the  Kansas  City  Southern  R.  K.,  about  30  miles  northwest  of  Lake 
Charles.  It  is  in  the  western  long  leaf  yellow  pine  district,  has  lum- 
ber industries,  a  money  order  postofSce,  express  office,  telegraph 
station  and  telephone  facilities,  and  is  an  important  shipping  point. 
Population  300. 

Junior,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  central  part  of  Plaquemines  parish, 
is  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Mississippi  river  and  the  New  Orleans, 
Fort  Jackson  &  Grand  Isle  R.  R.,  about  5  miles  northwest  of  Pointe 
a  la  Hache,  in  one  of  the  finest  orange  districts  of  the  state. 

Jute. — The  jute  of  commerce  is  the  fiber  of  two  plants  of  the 
order  Tilliaca;  (Corchorus  capsularis  and  C.  olitorius)  and  comes 
chiefly  from  India  and  China,  the  so-called  Mexican  jute  being  the 
fiber  of  an  allied  family.  To  obtain  the  fiber  the  plants  are  cut  as  soon 
as  the  bloom  makes  its  appearance  and  macerated  in  water,  after 
which  the  bark  or  fiber  is  separated  from  the  stalks.  The  fiber,  which 
resembles  hemp,  except  that  it  is  softer,  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
gunny  bags,  coarse  coffee  sacks,  burlaps,  cheap  carpets,  etc.  Some  of 
the  finer  varieties  have  been  substituted  for  silk  and  wool  in  the  manu- 
facture of  curtains,  tapestries  and  upholstery.  The  plants  require  a 
rich  alluvial  soil,  a  warm,  moist  atmosphere,  and  an  abundant  rain- 
fall. These  conditions  make  India  the  greatest  jute  producing  country 
in  the  world,  though  the  plants  have  long  been  successfully  cultivated 
in  China,  the  Philippine  islands,  and  elsewhere  in  the  Eastern  Hemis- 
phere. In  1880  there  were  four  establishments  in  the  United  States 
engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  jute  goods,  their  combined  capital 
being  $415,000.  About  that  time  efforts  were  made  to  introduce  jute 
culture  into  this  country.  Appleton's  Ajinual  C.vclopedia  for  1881 
says :  "Experiments  in  the  cultivation  of  jute  on  the  reclaimed  marsh 
lands  of  Louisiana  have  been  attended  with  encouraging  results.  The 
returns  from  the  efforts  made  show,  according  to  statements  that  have 
been  published  in  New  Orleans,  that  land  just  (reclaimed  from  the 
marsh,  and  still  matted  with  roots,  can  be  at  once  seeded  with  jute; 
and  that  the  plaoit  will  then  make  so  vigorous  a  growth  as  to  sup- 
plant all  other  vegetation.  Mr.  John  Sloane,  of  the  Dolphin  Mills, 
who  is  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  jute,  has  represented,  after  his 
observations  of  experiments  in  growing  the  plant  in  the  Southern 
states,  that  as  good  a  product  can  be  raised  there  as  in  India,  but  that 
difficulties  arise  in  securing  a  proper  treatment  of  the  plant  after  it 
is  cut ;  so  that  it  is  hardly  practicable,  under  the  American  system  of 
labor  and  wages,  to  obtain  a  good  fiber  for  an  economical  price.  And 
in  view  of  the  difference  between  the  rates  of  wages  in  the  United 
States  and  in  India,  no  hopeful  prospect  exists  that  American  jute  will 
be  able  to  compete  with  the  Indian  product,  until  machinery  has  been 
devised  and  applied  to  take  the  place  of  manual  labor. ' ' 

The  same  authority  for  1882  announced  that  a  decorticating  ma- 
chine had  been  invented  by  a  St.  Louis  man,  but  upon  actual  test  it 
failed  to  do  the  work  satisfactorily.   In  1892  the  U.  S.  department  of 


604  LOUISIANA 

agricultuir,  autlioi-ized  the  trial  of  decorticating  machines  at  the 
Louisiana  experiment  stations.  Three  machines  were  entered  for  a  ten- 
hour  test,  but  none  of  them  was  able  to  run  more  than  a  short  time 
before  they  became  clogged  with  the  fiber,  and  the  same  conditions 
practically  prevail  to  date.  What  has  been  said  regarding  the  decorti- 
cation of  jute  is  also  true  of  ramie  (Boehmeria  nivea).  tlie  fiber  of 
which  is  almost  as  valuable  as  silk.  A  hand  book  issued  liy  the  Louisi- 
ana state  board  of  agriculture  and  immigration  several  years  after  the 
tests  above  mentioned,  says  with  reference  to  ramie:  "The  recent 
trials  of  machines  for  decorticating  this  plant,  at  the  sugar  experiment 
station.  Audubon  Park,  New  Orkans,  gave  promise  of  an  early  solu- 
tion of  this  vexatious  problem.  "When  the  farmer  can  obtain  a  machine 
to  work  up  the  product  of  his  soil,  he  will  not  be  slow  in  cultivating 
this  plant,  since  the  demand  for  this  fiber  is  practically  xinlimited.  So, 
too,  with  .I'utes.  »  »  *  These  plants  can  be  grown  to  great  per- 
fection, and  will  be  largely  cultivated  when  the  fiber  can  be  success- 
fully detached  by  machinery.'' 

Notlnvithstanding  the  difficulties  attending  the  separation  of  the 
fiber  from  the  stalk,  some  jute  is  raised  in  Loiiisiana.  the  parishes  of 
Jeffei'son,  Orleans.  St.  Bernard.  St.  John  the  Baptist,  and  others  of 
the  coast  niareh  region  producing  considerable  quantities  of  it.  In 
1900  the  number  of  concerns  manufacturing  jute  goods  had  increased 
to  18,  with  a  combined  capital  of  over  $7,000,000.  The  imports  of  jute 
for  the  first  nine  months  of  1908  amounted  to  81.778  tons,  an  increase 
of  4.773  tons  over  the  coiTe.sponding  period  in  1907,  and  8.217  tons 
over  the  same  months  in  1906.  This  constant  increase  in  the  quantity 
imported,  and  the  fact  that  the  prices  of  jute  goods  do  not  decline  to 
any  extent,  demonstrate  that  there  is  a  good  profit  to  be  derived  from 
its  culture  whenever  the  obstacles  attending  its  decortication  are  re- 
moved. 

K 

Kaplan,  a  village  of  Vermilion  parish,  is  a  station  on  the  South- 
ern Pacific  R.  R..  9  miles  west  of  Abbeville,  the  parish  seat.  It  is 
located  in  the  southwestern  rice  district  of  Louisiana,  has  rice  mills, 
sugar  indu.stries,  a  money  order  postoffiee,  and  is  the  trading  center 
for  a  rich  farming  district.   Population  315. 

Keatchie,  sometimes  Mritten  Keatchi,  is  an  old  college  town  sit- 
uated in  the  northwestern  part  of  De  Soto  parish,  on  the  Houston  & 
Shreveport  R.  R..  about  15  miles  northwest  of  Many,  the  parish  seat. 
It  was  named  after  some  Indian  more  tiian  50  years  ago.  In  1865  a 
store  wa.s  established  at  Keatchie.  a  number  of  houses  were  built  after 
the  war,  and  in  1866  the  postoffiee  was  restored.  The  Keatchie  church 
was  organized  in  1852  and  Avas  instrumental  in  establishing  the  Bap- 
tist college  of  Keatchie  in  1857.  This  town  has  a  money  order  post- 
office,  telegraph  and  express  offices,  and  is  the  supply  center  for  a 
large  agricultural  and  lumber  district.    Population  500. 


LOUISIANA  605 

Kedron,  a  post-hamlet  of  St.  Helena  parish,  is  situated  near  the 
eastern  boundary,  4  miles  west  of  Areola,  tlie  nearest  railroad  station, 
and  6  miles  southeast  of  Greenshurg',  the  parish  seat. 

Keithville,  a  village  of  Caddo  parish,  is  situated  in  tlie  southern 
part  at  the  junction  of  the  Houston  &  Slureveport  and  the  Texas  & 
Pacific  railroads,  and  about  12  miles  southwest  of  Shreveport,  the 
;^arish  seat.  It  has  a  money  order  postoffice,  express  office,  telegraph 
station  and  telephone  facilities,  and  is  the  trading  center  for  a  large 
district.   Population  100. 

Kellogg,  William  Pitt,  lawyer  and  19th  governor  of  the  State  of 
Louisiana,  was  born  at  Orwell,  Vt.,  Dec.  8,  1831,  the  .son  of  Sherman 
Kellogg,  a  Congregational  minister.  He  was  educated  in  a  military 
academy  at  Norwich,  Vt.,  and  at  the  age  of  16  years  went  to  Peoria, 
111.,  where  he  engaged  in  teaching  school  for  aljout  two  yeare,  studying 
law  in  the  meantime.  In  1860  he  was  a  delegate  to  the  Rcfpublican 
state  convention  in  Illinois,  and  the  same  year  was  a  presidential 
elector  from  that  state.  President  Lincoln  appointed  him  chief  jus- 
tice of  Nebraska  in  1861,  but  when  the  Civil  war  broke  out  he  re- 
turned to  Illinois,  where  he  assisted  in  raising  a  Tegiment  of  cavaliy, 
which  he  commanded  at  Cape  Girardeau,  ]\Io.,  and  afterward  in  Gen. 
Pope's  Mi.s.souri  campaigns.  lie  was  in  command  of  a  cavalry  brigade 
at  Grand  Junction,  Corinth  and  Parmington,  Miss.,  but  was  com- 
pelled to  leave  the  army  on  account  of  his  health.  Prom  that  time 
until  1863  he  served  as  chief  justice  of  Nebraska,  and  then  accom- 
panied Gov.  Yates,  of  Illinois,  on  a  visit  to  the  soldiers  of  that  state  in 
the  field.  While  at  Vickslmrg  Gen.  Grant  commissioned  him  to  carry 
important  despatches  to  Washington.  Prom  1865  to  1868  he  was 
collector  of  the  port  of  New  Orleans,  resigning  his  position  to  enter 
the  U.  S.  senate  from  Louisiana.  While  in  the  senate  he  was  chair- 
man of  the  committee  on  I\lississii)pi  river  levees,  and  also  served  on 
other  important  committees.  In  1872  he  was  nominated  by  the  Repub- 
lican party  for  governor  of  the  state,  and  by  means  of  an  injunction 
gtt'anted  by  the  IT.  S.  district  court,  restraining  the  returning  board 
from  announcing  the  result  of  the  election,  M'as  declared  elected.  The 
election  of  John  McEnery  (q.  v.)  was  claimed  by  the  opposition,  and 
for  a  time  the  state  had  two  administrations.  On  Sept.  14,  1874,  the 
people  of  New  Orleans  overthrew  Kellogg,  but  the  Federal  govern- 
ment recognized  his  administration,  and  with  the  aid  of  troops  he 
was  retained  in  the  office  until  Jan.,  1877,  the  end  of  the  term  for 
which  he  was  elected.  Upon  retiring  firom  the  governor's  office  he  was 
elected  illegally  U.  S.  senator,  and  in  1882  was  elected  Congressman 
from  the  3d  district.  At  the  close  of  his  term  he  retired  from  political 
life.  Mr.  Kellogg  was  a  delegate  to  every  Republican  national  conven- 
tion from  1868  to  1892,  and  served  as  chairman  in  five  of  them. 

Kellogg's  Administration. — Two  bodies,  each  claiming  to  be  the 
legal  legislature  of  Louisiana,  assembled  on  Jan.  7,  1873, — the  one 
supporting  Gov.  Kellogg  at  the  Mechanics'  Institute,  and  the  other 
supporting  Gov.  McEneiy,  at  Odd  Fellows  hall.  On  the  14th  the 
former  inaugui-ated  Kellogg  and  the  latter  McEnery.  One  of  the  first 
acts  of  the  Kellogg  legislature  was  to  pass  a  bill  providing  for  the  im- 


606  \       LOUISIANA 

mediate  collection  of  taxes  uudei-  severe  penalties  for  those  who  re- 
fused to  pay.  This  led  to  the  organization  of  the  "People's  League" 
for  the  pui-pose  of  resisting  the  collection.  A  proclamation  by  Kel- 
logg stated  the  amount  of  unpaid  teixes  to  be  over  $2,300,000,  and  he 
■urged  the  citizens  to  make  prompt  payment,  in  order  to  avoid  ex- 
treme measures.  An  act  was  passed  organizing  the  metropolitan  po- 
lice into  the  metropolitan  brigade  and  placing  it  at  the  absolute  dis- 
posal of  the  governor,  to  be  used  in  any  part  of  the  state  to  enforce 
his  orders.  In  the  parish  of  St.  [Martin  the  people  resisted  the  collec- 
tion of  taxes  and  the  metropolitan  brigade  was  sent  to  the  assistance 
of  the  collectors,  t'nder  the  leadership  of  Col.  Aleibiade  DeBlanc, 
the  citizens  defeated  the  police,  and  Federal  troops  were  sent  to  the 
scene.  De  Blanc  siirrendered  to  the  soldiers,  but  the  incident  de- 
veloped the  fact  that  only  Federal  power  could  xiphoid  the  Kellogg 
administration. 

Another  act  of  the  general  assembly  was  one  "to  protect  the  civil 
rights  of  citizens."  It  required  all  transportation  companies,  keepers 
of  hotels  and  places  of  public  amusement,  etc.,  to  give  equal  and  im- 
partial accommodation  to  citizens  without  regard  to  race  or  color,  and 
provided  severe  fines,  forfeitures  and  imprisonment  for  those  found 
guilty  of  misdemeanor  in  making  s\ieh  distinctions. 

No  retiirns  of  pai-ish  oiBeers  had  been  made  in  Grant  parish  by 
the  returning  board,  and  Kellogg  attempted  to  make  appointments 
there.  Trouble  resiilted  and  U.  S.  troops  were  ordered  to  Colfax  to 
quell  the  disturbance.  Steamboat  o'miers  refused  to  carry  them  be- 
cause it  would  injure  their  ti-ade  and  the  soldiers  did  not  reach  Col- 
fax imtil  April  23,  order  having  been  restored  before  their  arrival. 

The  legislature  which  assembled  on  Jan.  5,  1874.  authorized  the 
issue  of  "the  consolidated  bonds  of  the  State  of  Louisiana"  to  the 
amount  of  $15,000,000.  or  so  much  thereof  as -might  be  neeessaiy,  for 
the  purpose  of  reducing  and  consolidating  the  bonded  and  floating 
debt  of  the  state,  and  created  a  sinking  fund  for  the  pa\Tuent  of  the 
bonds,  which  were  to  nin  40  years  at  7  per  cent.  At  this  session  was 
passed  a  general  law  for  the  registration  of  voters,  under  the  opera- 
tions of  which  the  elections  of  1874  were  conducted.  A  Republican 
convention  on  Aug.  5  nominated  Antoine  Dubuclet  for  the  office  of 
state  treasurer — the  only  state  office  to  be  filled  that  year — and 
adopted  resolutions  indorsing  the  "liberal,  enlightened  and  just  pol- 
icy of  President  Grant"  and  the  state  administration.  The  Demo- 
cratic state  convention  met  at  Baton  Rouge  on  Aug.  24.  John  C.  Mon- 
cure  was  nominated  for  state  trea.surer.  and  candidates  for  Congress 
were  nominated  in  each  of  the  six  Congressional  districts. 

Late  in  August,  six  Republican  officials  were  shot  at  Coushatta  in 
Red  River  parish.  Reports  of  the  occurrence  were  conflicting,  one 
side  claiming  that  the  tragedy  was  due  to  a  merciless  war  waged  by 
the  white  people  against  the  negroes,  and  the  other  insisting  that  it 
was  due  to  an  uprising  of  the  blacks.  On  Sept.  3  Kellogg  offered  a 
reward  of  $5,000  for  the  capture  of  each  one  implicated,  but  it  does 
not  appear  that  the  reward  was  ever  claimed  by  any  one.  On  the  day 
that  this  reward  was  offered,  U.  S.  Atty.-Gen.  George  H.  Williams 


LOUISIANA  607 

sent  word  that  troops  would  be  stationed  at  various  places  iu  the 
state  to  aid  Kellogg  in  the  discharge  of  his  ofScial  duties.  This  brought 
a  reply  from  the  committee  of  70,  on  the  8th,  to  the  effect  that  the 
Federal  government  misunderstood  the  situation  iu  Louisiana;  that 
the  trouble  lay  in  the  fact  the  people  had  no  confidence  in  the  present 
usurping  government;  that  it  failed  to  command  their  respect  and 
obedience  because  it  was  not  founded  on  "the  consent  of  the  gov- 
erned ; ' '  and  that  the  true  remedy  would  be  the  restoration  of  the  state 
government  to  the  legally  elected  officers.  The  committee  further 
declared  that  the  blood  of  every  man  killed  in  consequence  of  politi- 
cal strife  in  the  last  two  years  lay  at  the  door  of  William  P.  Kellogg. 
No  attention  was  paid  by  the  president  to  the  address  of  the  commit- 
tee, and  Kellogg,  knowing  that  he  had  the  support  of  the  Federal 
government,  grew  more  despotic.  His  metropolitan  brigade,  acting 
under  orders,  seized  guns  and  ammunition  belonging  to  private  citi- 
zens, under  pretense  that  they  were  to  be  used  in  making  war  upon 
the  negroes.  Dealers  in  arms  were  arrested  on  fictitious  or  trumped- 
up  charges  and  their  stock  confiscated.  Arms  were  sent  to  the 
negroes  in  the  country  parishes,  and  for  a  time  the  state  was  threat- 
ened with  civil  war. 

The  White  League,  which  was  organized  in  the  spring  and  sum- 
mer of  1874,  had,  in  September,  a  consignment  of  aiius  ou  the  steam- 
ship Mississippi,  and  to  prevent  the  police  from  seizing  them  a  conflict 
was  precipitated.  On  the  13th  there  appeared  in  the  New  Orleans 
papers  an  appeal  to  the  citizens  of  that  city.  It  was  written  by  Dr. 
J.  Dickson  Bruns,  and  was  as  follows:  "For  neai-ly  two  years  you 
have  been  silent  but  indignant  sufferers  of  outrage  after  outi-age 
heaped  upon  you  by  an  usurping  government.  One  by  one  your  dear- 
est rights  have  been  trampled  upon,  until,  at  last,  in  the  supreme 
height  of  its  insolence,  this  mockery  of  a  republican  government  has 
dared  even  to  deny  you  that  right  so  solemnly  guaranteed  by  the 
very  constitution  of  the  United  States,  which,  in  article  two  of  the 
amendments,  declares  that  'the  right  of  the  people  to  keep  and  bear 
arms  shall  not  be  infringed.'  In  that  same  saci-ed  instrument,  to 
whose  inviolate  perpetuity  our  fathers  pledged  'their  lives,  their  for- 
tunes, and  their  sacred  honor, '  it  was  also  declared  that  Congress  shall 
make  no  law  abridging  'the  right  of  the  people  peaceably  to  assemble 
and  to  petition  the  government  for  a  redress  of  grievances.'  It  now 
remains  for  us  to  ascertain  whether  this  right  any  longer  remains  to 
us.  We  therefore  call  upon  you  on  Monday  morning,  the  14th  day 
of  September,  1874,  to  close  your  places  of  business,  without  a  single 
exception,  and  at  11  o'clock  a.  m.  to  assemble  at  the  Clay  statue,  on 
Canal  street,  and  in  tones  loud  enough  to  be  heard  throughout  the 
length  and  breadth  of  the  land,  Declare  That  You  Are  Of  Right, 
Ought  to  Be,  And  Mean  To  Be  Free." 

This  call  was  signed  by  a  number  of  well  known  citizens,  and  in 
response  to  it  about  5,000  men  assembled  at  the  appointed  place  the 
following  day.  Robert  H.  Marr,  who  had  presided  at  the  Demo- 
cratic convention  at  Baton  Rouge  the  previous  month,  called  the  meet- 
ing to  order,  and  after  the  election  of  Michael  Musson  as  president 


608  LOUISIANA 

offered  a  series  of  resolutions,  declaring  that  John  McEnery  had  been 
elected  governor  by  nearly  10,000  majority:  that  Kellogg  was  a 
nsnnier  and  denounced  him  as  such ;  that  his  government  was  arbi- 
trary, unjust  and  oppressive,  and  could  only  maintain  itself  through 
Federal  interference ;  that  the  election  laws  under  which  the  election 
of  1874  was  to  be  conducted  were  intended  to  perpetuate  the  usurpa- 
tion ;  and  demanding  the  immediate  abdication  of  William  Pitt  Kel- 

Robert  H.  Marr.  Jules  Tuyes.  J.  M.  Sexias.  John  ]>.  Woods  and 
Dr.  Samuel  C'ho]ipin  wci-e  ai>pointed  to  wait  on  Kellogg,  present  him 
with  a  copy  of  the  resolutions,  demand  of  him  an  immediate  answer, 
■and  report  the  i-esult  to  the  meeting.  The  committee  returned  about 
1  p.  m.  and  reported  that  they  called  at  Kellogg 's  offices,  but  he  was 
absent.  H.  C.  Dibble,  a  member  of  Kellogg 's  staff,  received  the  com- 
mittee, and  a  little  later  reported  that  he  had  communicated  with  the 
governor,  who  declined  to  receive  any  communication,  and  that  he 
regarded  the  Canal  street  meeting  as  a  menace.  When  this  report 
Avas  made  Jlarr  asked  the  jieople  what  they  should  do.  and  the  reply 
came  as  from  one  man.  "We'll  tight!""  ilari-  then  told  them  to  go 
home  and  get  their  arms  and  to  report  at  Canal  street  again  at  2:30, 
when  they  find  men  to  lead  thean.  In  the  absence  of  Gk)v.  McEnery, 
Lieut. -Gov.  D.  B.  Penn  i.ssued  a  proclamation,  calling  upon  the  militia 
of  the  state,  embi-acing  all  persons  between  the  ages  of  18  and  45,  Avith- 
out  regard  to  color  or  previous  condition,  to  arm  and  assemble  under 
their  respective  officers,  for  the  purpose  of  driving  the  usurpers  frooii 
power.  In  the  tight  that  ensued,  the  people  won  a  victory  (See 
White  League),  but  it  was  of  comparatively  short  duration,  for  on 
the  lath,  President  Grant  issued  a  proclamation,  stating  that  it  had 
been  "satisfactorily  represer.ted  to  me  that  turbulent  and  disorderly 
persons  have  combined  together,  with  force  and  arms,  to  overthrow 
the  .state  government  of  Louisiana,  and  to  resist  the  laws  and  consti- 
tuted authority  of  the  state,"'  and  commanded  ".said  turbulent  and 
di.sorderly  persons  to  disperse  and  retire  peaceably  to  the  homes,  etc." 
More  troops  were  orderetl  to  Louisiana  and  Gen.  W.  II.  Emory  was 
instructed  not  to  recognize  the  McEnery  government  under  any  cir- 
cumstances. 

On  Sept.  30  Kellogg  issued  an  address  to  the  people  of  the  United 
States,  in  which  he  claimed  a  reduction  of  the  state  debt  under  his 
administration:  statetl  that  he  had  offered  to  arbitrate  the  situation 
with  Mr.  McEnery;  upheld  the  election  law,  and  promi.sed  a  fair 
election.  (As  to  the  nuunier  in  which  this  promise  was  kept,  see 
the  article  on  Ketiu-ning  Boards.)  As  the  revolution  had  failed  to  es- 
tabli.sh  the  administration  of  Gov.  McEnery.  a  conference  of  promi- 
nent leaders  of  the  two  political  parties  were  held  with  a  view  to  the 
establislunent  of  sonie  kind  of  an  arrangement  that  would  secure  a 
fair  election.  In  this  conference  the  Republicans  were  represented 
by  Kellogg.  S.  B.  Packard,  A.  A.  Atocha.  B.  P.  Plianders.  James 
Lewis.  B.  V.  lilandin.  W.  G.  Brown  and  B.  F.  Joubert.  The  Demo- 
cratic or  Conservative  conferees  were  John  McEnerv.  D.  B.  Penn, 
B.  F.  Jonas.  Dr.  Samuel  Chappin,  Albert  Voorhies,  D,  F.  Kenner.  C. 


LOUISIANA  609 

Beard,  G.  "W.  Mott  and  Duncan  S.  Cage.  The  result  of  the  confer- 
ence was  an  agreement  to  establish  an  advisoiy  committee  to  partici- 
parte  dn  the  work  of  registering  the  voters,  etc.  The  Conservatives 
selected  as  their  members  of  the  advisory  committee,  Albert  Voorhies 
and  E.  A.  Burke,  and  the  Republicans  selected  S.  B.  Packard  and  B. 
F.  Joubert.  These  four  men  agreed  on  Dr.  M.  F.  Bonzano  for  an 
umpire,  and  hopes  for  a  fair  registration  and  election  were  entertained 
by  the  people.  But  the  movement  was  not  a  success.  On  Oct.  15, 
Dr.  Bonzana  resigned  and  the  other  members  of  the  committee  met 
to  select  his  successor.  No  agreement  could  be  reached  and  the  ad- 
visory committee  came  to  an  end. 

In  a  special  message  to  the  U.  S.  senate  on  Jan.  13,  1875.  President 
Grant  gave  a  review  of  the  troubles  in  Louisiana  since  the  election  of 
1872,  smd  said :  "It  has  been  bitterly  and  persistently  alleged  that 
Kellogg  was  not  elected.  "Whether  he  was  or  not,  it  is  not  altogether 
certain,  nor  is  it  any  more  that  his  competitor,  McEnery,  wias 
chosen.  The  election  was  a  gigantic  fraud,  and  there  are  no  reliable 
returns  of  the  result.  Kellogg  obtained  possession  of  the  ofSce,  and, 
in  my  opinion,  he  has  more  right  to  it  than  his  competitor."  The 
president,  however,  neglected  to  state  that  his  opinion  was  based 
entirely  upon  information  he  received  from  the  Kellogg  side,  as  he 
refused  to  hear  any  argument  from  a  committee  sent  by  the  Conser- 
vatives to  Washington  on  purpose  to  enlighten  him.  He  also  neglected 
to  state  how  Kellogg  obtained  possession  of  the  office — by  the  aid  of 
Federal  troops,  of  which  the  president  himself  was  the  commander- 
in-chief. 

After  the  election  of  1876  it  seemed  for  a  time  as  though  the  old 
warfare  was  to  be  resumed.  The  Republicans  claimed  the  election  of 
S.  B.  Packard  as  governor  and  C.  C.  Antoine  as  lieutenant-governor, 
and  the  Democrats  just  as  firmly  maintained  the  election  of  Francis 
T.  Nicholls  and  Louis  A.  Wiltz.  "  On  Jan.  1,  1877,  Kellogg  barricaded 
the  state  house  and  admitted  as  membei-s  of  the  legislature  only  those 
who  held  certificates  from  the  returning  board.  The  Democratic  legis- 
lature was  organized  at  St.  Patrick's  hall.  Antoine  and  Wiltz  were 
the  presiding  officers  of  the  respective  senates,  Michael  Hahn  was 
elected  speaker  of  the  Republican  house  of  representatives,  and  Louis 
Bush  of  the  Democratic  house.  On  the  8th,  Packard  and  Antoine 
were  inaugurated  at  the  state  house,  and  Nicholls  and  Wiltz  at  St. 
Patrick's  hall.  KeUogg  retired  from  the  office  and  President  Grant 
directed  Gen.  Augur  to  maintain  the  status  quo  between  the  two  gov- 
ernments. The  story  of  the  final  settlement  of  the  dispute  between 
Nicholls  and  Packard  is  told  in  Nicholls'  Administration. 

The  constant  political  turmoil  during  Kellogg 's  administration  had 
a  deleterious  effect  upon  the  industries  and  the  commercial 
and  financial  condition  of  the  staite.  A  good  cotton  crop  was 
raised  iu  1873,  but  as  a  rule  aginculture  was  allowed  to  lan- 
guish because  of  the  unstable  state  of  government  affairs.  On  Feb. 
26,  1876,  an  exhibition  of  the  products  of  the  state  was  opened  at  New 
Orleans  under  the  auspices  of  the  Louisiana  mechanics  and  agricul- 
tural fair  association.  The  opening  address  was  made  by  Hon. 
1—39 


610  LOUISL\NA 

Thomas  A.  Hendricks  of  Indiana,  and  the  fair  proved  to  be  a  success, 
attracting  considerable  attention  to  the  resources  and  capabilities  of 
Louisiana. 

Kellogg 's  Landing,  a  post-hamlet  of  Madison  parish,  is  situated 
on  the  Mississippi  river  in  the  southeastern  part  of  the  parish,  about 
20  miles  below  Vicksburg,  Miss.  It  is  the  shipping  point  for  the 
southeastern  part  of  the  parish  and  is  a  trading  center  for  a  consider- 
able district.    Population  350. 

Kelly,  a  village  in  the  southwestern  part  of  Caldwell  parish,  is 
situated  on  Black  creek  and  the  St.  Louis,  Iron  Moimtain  &  Southern 
E.  R.,  9  miles  southwest  of  Columbia,  the  parish  seat.  It  has  a  money 
order  postoffice  and  a  population  of  150. 

Kemper  Insurrection. — Although  the  United  States  acquired  the 
title  to  the  French  possessions  in  America  known  as  Louisiana,  the 
Spanish  set  up  the  claim  to  West  Florida,  and  continued  to  exercise 
dominion  over  it.  In  the  district  between  the  Perdido  river  and  Baton 
Rouge  there  were  a  large  number  of  inhabitants  who  were  American 
by  birth  and  in  sentiment.  Many  of  this  class  had  joined  Gen.  Galvez 
in  the  movement  to  overthrow  the  British  authority,  and  they  now 
chafed  at  the  thought  of  being  compelled  to  live  under  the  .jurisdiction 
of  the  Spanish  monarchy  when  they  felt  that  they  owed  their  alle- 
giance to  the  republic  of  the  United  States.  In  Aug.,  1804.  the  Mar- 
quis de  Casa  Calvo,  who  had  been  one  of  the  commissionei*s  to  transfer 
the  province  to  Fi-ance,  and  who  still  remained  in  New  Orleans  under 
pretense  of  looking  after  Spanish  interests,  complained  to  Gov.  Clai- 
borne that  he  had  just  been  informed  that  Reu^ben  Kemper,  of  New 
Orleans,  had  been  writing  threatening  letters  to  the  officials  in  the 
Baton  Rouge  district,  and  that  his  brothere,  Samuel  and  Nathan  Kem- 
per, who  lived  near  Fort  Adams,  were  engaged  in  fomenting  an  in- 
surrection among  the  people  of  the  Baton  Rouge  and  Tunica  districts. 
He  asked  Gov.  Claiborne  to  prevent  the  rebellious  subjects  from  find- 
ing a  refuge  in  Mississippi  territory,  where  they  would  be  beyond 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  Spanish  authorities.  To  this  Claiborne  replied 
that ' '  the  insurgents  in  West  Florida  have  received  no  encouragement 
from  the  United  States  or  its  ofiBcers. ' ' 

Casa  Calvo 's  information  was  in  the  main  correct.  About  100  of 
Kemper's  followere  had  made  an  attempt  to  surprise  the  fort  at 
Baton  Rouge  and  capture  the  governor.  Col.  de  Grandpre,  but  failing 
in  that  had  captured  the  captain  of  militia,  Don  Vincent  Pintard.  the 
magistrate,  John  O'Connor,  and  a  planter  named  Terry.  The  affair 
apparently  quieted  do\\ai.  but  the  movements  of  the  Kempei"s  were 
watched,  and  on  the  night  of  Sept.  3.  1805,  while  Reuben  was  visiting 
his  brothers  in  Mississippi  territory,  the  homes  of  Nathan  and  Samuel 
were  surrounded  by  al)out  20  armed  men,  some  negroes  and  some  white 
men  in  disguise,  the  three  brothei-s  taken  from  their  beds  and  after 
being  beaten  with  clubs  they  were  spirited  across  the  line  and  turned 
over  to  a  detachment  of  the  Spanish  militia  under  the  command  of 
Capt.  Solomon  Alston,  who  took  his  prisoners  to  Tunica  landing,  where 
they  were  placed  in  a  boat  and  under  a  guard  of  6  men  started  for 
Baton   Rouge.      As  they  were  passing  Pointe  Coupee,  the  Kempei-s 


LOUISIANA  611 

found  an  opportunity  to  communicate  their  situation  to  Dr.  Powles, 
who  immediate^  set  about  securing  their  release.  Lieut.  Wilson, 
commanding  the  U.  S.  garrison  at  Pointe  Coupee,  manned  a  boat,  over- 
hauled and  boarded  the  Spanish  pirogue,  and  took  the  whole  party 
into  custody.  A  few  days  dater  the  Kempere  were  taken  to  Fort 
Adams,  where  they  were  turned  over  to  Capt.  Sparks,  who  soon  after 
delivered  them  to  the  civil  authorities.  Through  the  influence  of 
Gov.  Claiborne  the  prisoners  were  liberated,  but  on  recognizance  to 
keep  the  peace,  especially  toward  the  subjects  of  the  king  of  Spain. 
To  prevent  further  disturbance,  the  two  companies  of  the  Jliasissippi 
militia  were  ordered  to  Pinckneyville  by  Gov.  Williams.  Gov.  Grand- 
pre  wrote  to  Gov.  Williams  that  he  was  about  to  take  measures  to 
put  a  stop  to  the  trouble  "which  has  risen  to  its  full  height  on  the 
territory  of  this  government, — disorder,  confusion,  ^aolations,  out- 
rages, plunder,  insult  to  the  magistrate,  dragging  him  by  a  rope  about 
his  neck,  attempts  on  the  flag  of  the  king,  my  master,  and  now  the 
violations  committed  with  the  Kempers,  authors  of  all  the  above,  on 
the  government  of  your  excellepcy. ' ' 

The  affair  came  into  national  prominence  when  John  Randolph, 
of  Virginia,  reported  a  bill  in  Congress  for  the  raising  of  an  army 
to  punish  Spanish  aggressions  and  expel  them  from  the  territory, 
but  the  measure  was  opposed  b.v  President  Jefferson.  The  Kemper 
brothers,  however,  needed  no  suppoi-t  from  Congress  nor  the  national 
administration.  They  were  able  to  make  war  for  themselves.  Not- 
withstanding they  were  under  bonds  to  keep  the  peace,  they  furtively 
lent  their  aid  to  keep  alive  the  opposition  to  Spanish  rule,  and  a  few 
years  later  took  an  active  part  in  the  West  Florida  Revolution,  (q. 
V.)  Of  their  part  in  this  uprising  the  historian  Pickett  says:  "The 
Kempers,  apart  from  mercenary  motives  for  engaging  in  this  rebellion, 
desired  to  gratify  a  feeling  of  revenge.  Reuben  and  Samuel  captured 
Kneeland,  one  of  the  kidnappers,  and  inflicted  upon  his  bare  back  one 
hundred  lashes,  then  one  hundred  more  for  their  brother  Nathan, 
who  was  absent,  cut  off  his  ears  with  a  dull  knife,  and  permitted  him 
to  retire.  These  trophies  of  resentment  were  long  preserved  in  spirits 
of  wine,  and  hung  up  in  one  of  the  Kempers'  parlor.  Reuben  caught 
another  of  these  wretches  named  Horton,  and  chastised  him  as  long 
as  the  latter  could  receive  it  and  live.  Barker,  seized  b.y  the  Kem- 
pers at  the  courthouse  at  Fort  Adams,  under  the  nose  of  the  judge, 
was  dragged  forth  and  flayed  until  they  were  content.  Capt.  Alston, 
who  received  the  Kempers  at  the  line,  with  a  Spanish  guard,  died  of 
dropsy,  contracted  in  lying  in  an  open  boat,  at  anchor,  eveiy  night, 
Jo  avoid  the  attacks  of  the  injured  brothers." 

Kemper,  Reuben,  was  a  native  of  Fauquier  county,  Va.,  who 
settled  in  Louisiana  about  the  time  the  province  was  ceded  to  the 
United  States.  Two  of  his  brothers,  Nathan  and  Samuel,  located  near 
Pinckneyville,  Mass.,  and  all  three  were  interested  in  the  movement  to 
annex  West  Florida  to  the  United  States.  Reuben  was  also  connected 
with  the  Texas  Revolution.  He  died  while  at  Natchez  on  business, 
Jan.  28,  1826.  Col.  Gilbert  C.  Russell,  of  the  3d  U.  S.  infantry,  said 
of  him :    ' '  He  was  an  extraordinary  man,  possessing  a  vigorous  mind, 


612  LOUISIANA 

■with  a  large  stock  of  information,  and  an  irresistible  resolution  and 
fii-mness  of  purpose,  which  carried  him  straight  ahead  to  his  object, 
in  the  attainment  of  which  he  always  believed  himself  right.  He  was 
as  sincere  in  his  attachments  as  he  was  implacable  in  his  resentments, 
when  he  felt  that  he  had  been  injured  or  betrayed.  In  everything  he 
did.  he  always  exercised  the  utmost  candor;  was  warmly  attached  to 
our  government  and  country  and  in  every  sense  a  true  patriot." 

Kenner,  a  town  of  Jeiferson  parish,  was  incorporated  March  27, 
1867,  and  is  one  of  the  modern  towns  of  Louisiana.  It  is  located  on 
the  Illinois  Central,  the  line  of  the  Louisiana  Railway  &  Navigation 
company  and  the  Yazoo  &  Mississippi  Valley  railroads,  about  10  miles 
west  of  New  Orleans,  in  the  sugar  and  rice  district  and  has  sugar  in- 
dustries and  rice  mills  as  well  as  other  manufactories.  It  has  a  money 
order  postoffice.  express  offices,  telegi-aph  and  telephone  facilities,  and 
a  population  of  1,235. 

Keno,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  western  part  of  Morehouse  parish,  is 
about  3  miles  east  of  Ouachita,  the  nearest  railroad  station,  and  8 
miles  southwest  of  Bastrop,  the  parish  seat. 

Kents  Store,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  eastern  part  of  East  Feliciana 
parish,  is  situated  on  a  confluent  of  the  Amite  river,  about  5  miles 
northeast  of  Clinton,  the  parish  seat. 

Kentwood,  an  incorporated  town  of  Tangipahoa  parish,  is  located 
aboiit  5  miles  south  of  the  state  line,  at  the  junction  of  the  Illinois 
Central,  the  Kentwood  &  Eastern,  and  the  Kentwood,  C4reensburg 
&  Southeastern  railroads,  and  is  one  of  the  busiest  Louisiana  towns 
east  of  the  Mississippi  river.  Being  in  the  heart  of  the  long  leaf 
pine  district,  it  has  extensive  lumbering  interests,  some  of  the 
largest  siiwmills  in  this  section  of  the  state  being  located  in  the 
immediate  vicinity.  The  town  also  has  a  cotton  seed  oil  mill,  some 
wood-working  establishments,  a  bank,  large  brickyards,  an  inter- 
national money  order  postoffice,  express  and  telegraph  offices,  a 
large  retail  trade,  and  is  connected  by  telephone  with  the  sur- 
rounding coimtry.     Population  in  1910  was  3,609. 

Kerlerec,  Louis  Billouaxt,  Chevalier  de,  governor  of  Louisiana 
from  1753  to  1762,  was  born  in  France  in  1704.  Upon  arriving  at 
man's  estate  he  entered  the  French  navy,  and  in  20  years  of  service 
rose  to  the  rank  of  captain  and  distinguished  himself  by  his  brav- 
ery on  numerous  occasions.  He  was  appointed  governor  to  succeed 
the  Marquis  de  Vaudreuil ;  arrived  in  New  Orleans  on  Feb.  3,  1753, 
and  six  days  later  was  inducted  into  office.  Bossu,  the  French 
traveler  and  explorer,  who  was  in  Louisiana  at  the  time,  says  of 
Kerlerec:  "He  has  qualities  of  heart  very  different  from  those  of 
his  predecessor ;  bxit  this  new  governor  may  give  as  an  excuse  that 
he  did  not  come  so  far  only  for  a  change  of  air."  His  qualities  of 
sound  judgment  were  displayed  at  the  outset  in  his  treatment  of 
the  Indians,  to  whom  he  was  especially  kind,  particularly  to  the 
Alibamons  and  the  powerful  Choctaw  nation.  English  traders  con- 
tinued to  go  among  the  Choctaws  in  large  numbers,  claiming  and 
exercising  the  right  to  come  to  the  left  bank  of  the  IMississippi,  as 
well  as  to  both  banks  of  the  Wabash    and    Ohio.      They    closely 


LOUISIANA  613 

studied  the  wants  of  the  Indians,  and  were  able  to  furnish  them 
with  merchandise  at  a  smaller  price  than  the  French  traders.  Ker- 
lerec  met  this  state  of  affairs  by  calling  upon  his  government  for 
larger  shipments  of  goods  wherewith  to  satisfy  the  demands  of 
the  Indians,  and  succeeded  in  gaining  the  good  will  of  the  Choc- 
taws  to  such  an  extent  that  he  was  known  among  them  as  the 
"Father  of  the  Choctaws. "  The  commissary  La  Rouvilliere  hav- 
ing died,  d'Auberville  was  appointed  as  his  successor  in  1754,  and 
in  marked  contrast  to  the  usual  state  of  affairs,  there  was  har- 
monious agreement  between  him  and  the  governor. 

Strict  economy  had  been  enjoined  upon  Kerlerec  by  his  govern- 
ment, and  he  early  took  steps  to  reduce  the  number  of  the  military 
establishment  to  about  1,300  ofScers  and  men;  even  thus,  the 
colonial  budget  for  the  year  1754  amoimted  to  nearly  1,000,000 
livres.  The  province  was  never  more  neglected  by  the  home  gov- 
ernment than  at  this  time.  In  1754  Kerlerec  wrote:  "The  English 
are  moving  everywhere  about  us,  and  threaten  to  interrupt  our 
commimications. "  He  added  to  the  garrison  of  Ship  island,  and 
repaired  and  strengthened  the  French  posts  on  the  Mississippi. 
Though  the  Seven  Years'  "War  did  not  begin  in  Europe  until  1756, 
hostilities  between  France  and  England  began  two  years  earlier 
in  the  New  World.  Active  hostilities  broke  out  in  Canada  and  the 
upper  Ohio  valley  before  any  formal  declaration  of  war,  and  Ker- 
lerec fully  expected  to  be  attacked  himself.  His  appeal  to  France 
for  500  additional  troops  was  disregarded  by  the  dissolute  and  in- 
different Louis  XV,  who  was  chiefly  responsible  for  the  calamitous 
results  of  the  long  Seven  Years'  "War.  By  the  year  1757  the  Brit- 
ish fleets  were  sweeping  the  seas,  and  practically  all  communica- 
tion between  France  and  Louisiana  was  severed.  Kerlerec  wrote 
in  1757  that  he  had  not  heard  from  France  in  two  years,  and  he  was 
even  forced  to  send  to  Vera  Cruz  for  a  supply  of  ammunition  and 
stores.  He  keenly  felt  the  neglect  of  the  mother  country  and  the 
insecurity  of  his  own  position.  Unable  to  obtain  even  tlie  neces- 
sary supplies  with  which  to  satisfy  the  demands  of  the  Indians,  the 
latter  began  to  grow  restless  and  once  more  threatened  trouble.  In 
1758  he  reported  concerning  the  Choctaws  and  Alibamons  that  they 
were  able  to  muster  between  them  7,000  warriors,  that  the  two  na- 
tions were  the  bulwarks  of  the  colony,  and  that  they  must  be  con- 
ciliated at  any  cost.  A  shipload  of  supplies  arrived  in  1758  just 
in  time  to  buy  their  continued  allegiance. 

Up  in  Canada  the  brave  Montcalm  accomplished  wonders  with 
the  slender  resources  at  his  command,  but  his  brilliant  victories  at 
Forts  Oswego  and  William  Henry  were  soon  followed  by  a  chain 
of  disaster  to  the  French  arms.  The  British  captured  the  islands  of 
Cape  Breton  and  St.  John,  razed  Fort  Frontenac,  and  in  the  fall  of 
!1758  captured  Fort  Duquesne.  The  garrison  of  the  latter  fort  came 
down  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  to  New  Orleans,  where  Gov.  Ker- 
lerec erected  barracks  for  them  in  the  lower  part  of  the  city.  It 
was  at  this  period  of  the  war  that  Kerlerec  formulated  a  plan  to 
unite  all  the  tribes  of  the  Mississippi  valley,  attack  the  English  on 


614  LOUISIANA 

the  Atlantic  coast  from  the  rear,  and  thereby  effect  a  diversion  in 
favor  of  Canada.  The  plan  was  really  an  able  one,  and  properly 
supported  might  have  saved  France  at  least  a  portion  of  her  Amer- 
ican domain.  But  Louis  XV  was  iitterly  incapable  of  directing  any 
energetic  measures  at  this  time  for  the  preservation  of  his  Ameri- 
can colonies,  and  the  end  of  French  dominion  in  America  was  rap- 
idly approaching.  Canada  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy,  many 
Canadians,  imwilling  to  live  under  English  rule,  came  down  to 
Louisiana,  where  they  either  joined  the  Acadians  on  the  Missis- 
sippi or  crossed  the  river  and  began  the  settlements  of  Attakapas, 
Opelousas  and  Avoyelles.  Another  result  of  the  war  was  the  ces- 
sion of  Louisiana  to  Spain  by  the  secret  treaty  of  Nov.  3,  1762. 
(See  Treaties.) 

Though  the  pro^dnce  of  Louisiana  lay  well  without  the  actual 
theatre  of  war  and  was  never  invaded  by  hostile  armies,  Kerlerec 
was  compelled  with  the  feeble  forces  at  his  command  to  guard  the 
whole  line  of  the  Mississippi,  and  to  maintain  the  colony  in  the 
best  possible  condition  to  resist  an  attack  which  might  occur  at 
any  time.  In  addition  to  the  grossest  kind  of  neglect  by  the  mother 
country  during  the  war,  Louisiana  was  also  torn  with  internal  dis- 
sensions. The  commissary  d'Auber^Tlle  died  in  1757  and  was  suc- 
ceeded the  following  year  by  Eochemore,  between  whom  and  the 
governor  serious  misunderstandings  arose  almost  from  the  start. 
Says  Judge  Martin:  "It  was  the  practice  of  the  government  to 
send  large  quantities  of  goods  for  the  Indian  trade ;  they  were  in- 
trusted to  the  officers  sent  in  command  to  distant  posts,  to  whom 
they  furnished  the  means  of  considerably  increasing  their  fortunes. 
The  ordonnateur,  who  had  the  disposal  of  these,  foimd  it  an  oppor- 
tunity of  attaching  those  officers  to  his  party,  which,  the  governor 
complained,  he  did  not  neglect."  Thus  the  old  quarrels  between 
governor  and  commissary  were  again  renewed  to  the  serious  detri- 
ment of  the  province,  the  air  was  filled  with  tales  of  peculation, 
Kerlerec  continually  lost  ground  at  court  as  evil  reports  of  his  ad- 
ministration reached  the  ears  of  the  king,  and  the  financial  condi- 
tion of  the  province  only  added  fuel  to  the  flame.  In  1761  Roche- 
more  returned  to  France  and  was  succeeded  by  Foucault,  who  ap- 
pears to  have  been  guiltj-  of  grave  duplicity,  and  while  apparently 
keeping  on  friendly  terms  with  Kerlerec.  maligned  him  severely  in 
his  reports  to  his  home  government.  On  his  return  to  France, 
Boehemore  made  a  good  case  at  court,  and  his  charges  against  Ker- 
lerec were  in  the  main  sustained.  The  following  report  was  ren- 
dered after  an  investigation  into  the  facts:  "It  follows  from  the 
papers  submitted  to  our  inspection,  1st — that  Rochemore  has  kept 
himself  within  the  limits  of  his  office,  while  Kerlerec  has  always 
abused  his  powers:  2nd — that  Kerlerec  has  not  only  violated  the 
ordinances  by  receiving  interloping  vessels,  without  being  com- 
pelled by  necessity,  since  at  that  time  the  colony  was  not  in  want, 
but  that  he  has  committed  a  great  imprudence,  knowing  that  these 
interlopers  were  spies;  that,  besides,  it  is  probable  that  interest  has 
guided  him  in  these  circumstances,  his  secretarv  and  himself  hav- 


LOUISIANA  615 

ing  relations  with  Jamaica,  whence  come  most  of  the  interlopers. 
Another  fact  is,  that  the  interlopers,  according  to  a  law  established 
by  M.  de  Kerlerec,  were  to  land  at  New  Orleans,  and  nowhere  else 
in  the  colony;  otherwise  they  were  not  admitted,  whatever  were 
the  needs  of  the  colony;  that,  besides,  Kerlerec,  according  to  the 
allegation  of  Roehemore,  has  received  10,000  livres  from  an  inter- 
loper to  assure  himself  that  he  would  return  to  bring  what  he  (Ker- 
lerec) needed;  b^it  that,  on  his  return,  the  said  interloper  has  not 
been  able,  by  order  of  Kerlerec,  to  go  up  the  river  to  New  Orleans, 
or  get  back  his  money."  (See  Portier,  History  of  Louisiana,  Vol. 
1,  p.  145.)  In  this  report  a  grave  injustice  was  done  to  Kerlerec, 
as  he  is  credited  with  honesty,  whatever  other  faults  of  adminis- 
tration he  was  guilty  of.  In  March,  1763,  the  king  of  France  an- 
nounced that  he  had  determined  to  disband  his  troops  in  Louisiana 
and  maintain  only  a  factory  (trading  establishment),  with  a  guard 
of  four  companies  of  infantry.  On  June  29,  1763,  D'Abbadie  ar- 
rived at  New  Orleans  in  the  capacity  of  director  of  the  factory  and 
commandant  of  the  troops,  and  Kerlerec  thereupon  returned  to 
Paris,  where  he  was  thrown  into  the  Bastile  upon  charges  of  usur- 
pation and  extravagance.  He  .subsequently  regained  his  liberty 
and  died  in  the  year  1770. 

Kilbourne,  a  village  and  station  of  "West  Carroll  parish,  is  sitii- 
ated  on  the  St.  Louis,  Iron  Mountain  &  Southern  R.  R.,  about  2 
miles  south  of  the  state  line  and  2  miles  north  of  Floyd,  the  parish 
seat.  It  has  a  money  order  postoffice,  is  the  trading  center  of  a 
large  tract  of  country,  and  has  a  population  of  175. 

Killian,  a  post-hamlet  in  the  southeastern  part  of  Livingston 
parish,  is  situated  on  the  Tickfaw  river,  about  4  miles  southwest  of 
Springfield,  the  nearest  railroad  station. 

Killona,  a  village  of  St.  Charles  parish,  is  in  the  northwestern 
part  on  the  Texas  &  Pacific  R.  R.,  about  5  miles  west  of  Hahnville, 
the  parish  seat.  It  is  located  in  a  rich  truck  farming  district,  has 
sugar  industries,  a  money  order  postoffice,  express  office,  telegraph 
station  and  telephone  facilities,  and  a  population  of  150. 

Kinder,  a  village  in  the  southern  part  of  Allen  parish,  is  situated 
at  the  junction  of  the  New  Orleans,  Texas  &  Mexico  and  the  St. 
Louis,  Iron  Mountain  &  Southern  railroads,  about  30  miles  by  rail 
northeast  of  Lake  Charles.  It  is  the  center  of  trade  for  a  large 
area  and  in  1910  had  a  population  of  635.  It  has  a  money  order 
postoffice,  express  office,  telegraph  station  and  some  wood-working 
factories. 

King,  a  post-village  in  the  southeastern  part  of  Madison  parish, 
is  located  on  Boixndaway  bayou,  about  10  miles  southeast  of  Tul- 
lulah,  the  parish  seat,  and  iu  1910  reported  a  population  of  30. 
Quimby  and  Alligator  bayou,  on  the  St.  Louis,  Iron  Mountain  & 
Southern  R.  R.,  are  the  nearest  railroad  stations. 

King,  Grace  Elizabeth,  authoress,  was  born  in  New  Orleans,  La., 
Nov.  29,  1859,  the  daughter  of  William  "Woodsen  and  Sarah  Ann 
(Miller)  King.  Her  father  was  one  of  the  noted  jurists  of  New 
Orleans  and  prominent  in  the  social  and  political  life  of  that  city 


616  LOUISIANA 

before  the  Civil  war.  She  was  born  and  reared  in  a  semi-French 
population,  as  part  of  her  life  was  spent  on  her  father's  plantation 
in  St.  ]\Iartin  parish.  She  was  educated  in  the  public  schools  of 
her  native  city,  and  by  tutors.  At  an  early  age  she  began  to  de- 
scribe New  Orleans  in  stories  and  historical  sketches.  Her  literary 
work  first  received  attention  in  the  New  Princeton  Review,  and  be- 
came the  basis  for  the  novel.  Monsieur  Motte  (1888).  She  has  a 
remarkable  sympathy  and  understanding  of  the  French  culture  of 
New  Orleans  which  she  has  portrayed  in  her  books.  Her  aim  has 
been  to  show  the  different  phases  of  woman's  character  developed 
in  Louisiana  by  the  intermixture  of  races,  slavery  and  the  sudden 
plunge  of  the  "aristocratic  famiUes  into  poverty  by  the  Civil  war. 
Some  of  her  more  recent  works  include  "Tales  of  Time  and  Place," 
"Earthlings,"  "New  Orleans,  the  Place  and  the  People,"  "Jean 
Baptiste  Lemoyne,  Founder  of  New  Orleans."  "Balcony  Stories," 
"DeSoto  and  His  Men  in  the  Land  of  Florida."  She  has  pursued 
original  research  and  collaborated  in  a  school  history  of  Louisiana. 

King,  J.  Floyd,  soldier,  lawyer  and  planter,  was  born  in  Monti- 
cello,  near  the  town  of  St.  Mary's,  Ga.,  April  20,  1842.  He  attended 
the  Rizssell  school.  New  Haven,  Conn.;  Bartlett's  College  Hill 
school,  Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y.,  and  the  military  institute  of  Georgia; 
prepared  for  "West  Point,  but  was  sent  to  the  University  of  Vir- 
ginia ;  enlisted  in  the  Confederate  army ;  served  in  the  Army  of  Vir- 
ginia ;  was  promoted  by  various  grades  to  the  rank  of  colonel  of 
artillery.  At  the  close  of  the  war,  his  property  having  been  confis- 
cated, he  located  in  Louisiana,  where  he  became  interested  in  plant- 
ing. After  settling  in  Louisiana  he  studied  law;  was  appointed 
brigadier-general  of  the  state  troops ;  was  elected  inspector  of  lev- 
ees and  president  of  the  board  of  school  directors  of  his  district, 
and  also  a  trustee  of  the  University  of  the  South.  In  1878  he  was 
elected  to  the  46th  Congress  as  a  Democrat,  and  was  reelected  to 
the  47th,  48th  and  49th  Congresses. 

Kingston,  a  money  order  post-village  in  the  northern  part  of 
DeSoto  parish,  is  on  the  Kansas  City  Southern  R.  R.,  about  11 
miles  north  of  Mansfield,  the  parish  seat.  It  is  an  old  settlement, 
as  a  postofiBce  was  established  here  as  early  as  1854.  Since  the 
railroad  was  built  it  has  become  the  supply  point  for  a  considerable 
farming  and  lumber  district.     Population  200. 

Kipling,  a  post-hamlet  in  Beauregard  parish,  is  situated  on  Bun- 
dick  creek,  about  5  miles  northeast  of  Lilly,  the  nearest  railroad 
station. 

Kirks  Ferry,  a  post-hamlet  of  Catahoula  parish,  is  situated  on 
the  Tensas  river  in  the  extreme  northeastern  part  of  the  parish, 
about  3  miles  north  of  Wells  Lake,  the  nearest  railroad  station. 

Kisatchie,  a  post -hamlet  in  the  southwestern  part  of  Natchitoches 
parish,  is  situated  on  Devil  creek,  about  6  miles  northwest  of  Jergu- 
son,  the  nearest  railroad  station. 

Kleinwood,  a  post-hamlet  and  station  in  the  eastern  part  of 
Avoyelles  parish,  is  on  the  line  of  the  Louisiana  Railway  &  Navi- 


LOUISIANA  617 

gation  company,  about  20  miles  southeast  of  Marksville,  the  parish 
seat.     Population  100. 

Klotzville,  a  post-village  of  Assumption  parish,  is  located  on  the 
Bayou  Lafourche,  2  miles  east  of  Star,  the  nearest  railroad  station, 
and  6  miles  north  of.  Napoleonville,  the  parish  seat.  It  is  located  in 
the  sugar  region  and  has  a  population  of  300. 

Knights  of  Columbus. — (See  Catholic  Societies.) 

Knights  of  Honor. — The  fraternal  organization  known  by  this 
name  was  introduced  into  Louisiana  on  July  8,  1881,  when  Alpha 
Lodge,  No.  2501,  was  instituted  at  Shreveport.  On  the  25th  of  the 
same  month  Pelican  Lodge,  No.  2511,  was  organized  at  New  Or- 
leans. By  Sept.  15,  1881,  there  were  24  lodges  in  the  state,  and  on 
that  date  representatives  of  these  lodges,  assisted  by  a  delegation 
from  Galveston,  Tex.,  assembled  in  the  city  of  New  Orleans  for 
the  purpose  of  organizing  a  grand  lodge  for  the  state.  Otis  Harris 
was  elected  past  grand  dictator;  George  Soule,  grand  dictator;  P. 
"W.  Sherwood,  grand  recorder ;  and  E.  "W.  Thomas,  grand  treasurer. 
During  the  next  ten  years  the  order  had  a  steady  growth,  but  in 
more  recent  years  the  membership  has  fallen  off  somewhat,  though 
the  society  is  in  a  healthy  condition,  membership  being  about 
2,335.  Some  lodges  give  relief  in  the  way  of  sick  benefits,  but  all 
death  benefits  are  paid  by  the  supreme  lodge  at  St.  Louis,  Mo. 
During  yellow  fever  epidemics,  etc.,  the  order  has  dispensed  large 
sums  of  money  in  giving  relief,  not  only  to  its  own  members  and 
their  families,  but  also  to  sufferers  outside  of  the  organization,  the 
society  proceeding  on  the  principle  that  charity  should  not  be  con- 
fined to  any  society  or  creed. 

Knights  of  Pythias. — The  order  of  the  Knights  of  Pythias  was 
founded  at  Washington,  D.  C,  on  Feb.  19,  1864,  by  Justus  II.  Rath- 
bone.  It  had  its  conception  in  the  exemplification  of  the  test  of 
genuine  friendship  as  portrayed  in  the  lives  of  Damon  and  Pythias, 
and  its  motto  is  "Friendship,  Charity  and  Benevolence."  The 
history  of  the  order  in  Louisiana  really  dates  from  April  10,  1876, 
when  a  charter  was  granted  to  Orleans  Lodge,  No.  1.  Some  pre- 
vious attempts  had  been  made  to  introduce  Pythianism  into  the 
state  during  the  days  of  reconstruction,  but  they  were  not  success- 
ful. Four  days  after  the  institution  of  Orleans  Lodge,  Damon 
Lodge,  No.  2,  was  instituted  at  Shreveport.  For  a  time  the  growth 
of  the  order  was  comparatively  slow,  but  by  the  spring  of  1880 
there  were  16  lodges  in  the  state,  to  wit:  Orleans,  No.  1,  at  New 
Orleans ;  Damon,  No.  2,  at  Shreveport ;  Algiers,  No.  3,  at  Algiers ; 
"Webster,  No.  4,  at  Minden ;  Bossier,  No.  5,  at  Redland  (subsequent- 
ly removed  to  Plain  Dealing)  ;  Royal  Arch,  No.  6,  at  New  Orleans ; 
Delta,  No.  7,  at  Delta ;  Stonewall,  No.  8,  at  Monroe ;  Samaritan,  No. 
9,  at  New  Orleans ;  Calanthe,  No.  10,  at  Shreveport ;  Ezilda.  No.  11, 
at  Milliken's  Bend;  C.  R.  Balfour,  No.  12,  at  Rayville;  Friendship, 
No.  13,  at  Bellevue ;  Eureka,  No.  14,  at  Delhi ;  Bayou  Sara,  No.  15, 
at  St.  Francisville ;  Germania  (now  Paragon),  No.  16,  at  New  Or- 
leans. All  these  lodges  except  Delta  and  Friendship  are  stiU  in 
existence.     On  May  6,  1880,  delegates  from  these  16  lodges  met  in 


618  LOUISIANA 

the  eastle  hall  of  Stonewall  Lodge  at  Monroe,  at  which  time  and 
place  Supreme  Chancellor  D.  B.  "Woodruff  instituted  the  Grand 
Lodge  of  the  State  of  Louisiana.  Since  the  organization  of  the 
grand  lodge  the  growth  of  the  order  has  been  more  rapid,  the  mem- 
bership being  above  7,200. 

In  addition  to  the  regular  lodge  work  of  the  order,  there  are  uni- 
form and  endowment  ranks.  The  former  is  what  its  name  implies, 
the  members  being  uniformed  and  well  drilled  in  Pythian  tactics 
adding  much  to  the  impressiveness  of  the  ceremonies  of  the  order, 
especially  on  public  occasions.  The  endowment  rank  offers  mem- 
bers of  the  order  an  opportunity  to  carry  fraternal  insurance  in 
amounts  ranging  from  $500  to  $3,000.  There  is  also  an  auxiliary 
society  or  degree  known  as  the  "Rathbone  Sisters,"  to  which  the 
wives"  sisters  and  daughters  of  Knights  are  eligible. 

Knights  of  the  White  Camelia.— (See  Ku  Klux  Klan.) 

Knowles,  a  money  order  postoffice  in  the  northwestern  part  of 
Lincohi  parish,  is  a*  station  on  the  D'Arbonne  Valley  R.  R.,  about 
10  miles  northwest  of  Ruston,  the  parish  seat.  It  is  in  the  heart 
of  a  lumber  district,  and  is  a  shipping  point  of  some  consequence. 

Know  Nothings. — This  was  a  secret  political  organization,  the 
fundamental  principle  of  which  was  opposition  to  the  admission  of 
foreigners  to  full  citizenship  until  after  a  residence  of  21  years  in 
the  United  States.  As  early  as  1835  an  effort  was  made  in  New 
York  to  crystallize  the  sentiment  opposed  to  the  naturalization  of 
foreigners  upon  a  short  residence  in  this  country,  but  nothing  came 
of  it.  In  1843  the  field  of  activity  was  transferred  to  New  Jersey 
and  Pennsylvania,  where  the  cause  gained  sufficient  headway  by 
1852  to  justify  the  establishment  of  a  national  organization.  The 
order  received"  its  name  from  the  fact  that  when  any  one  of  its  mem- 
bers was  asked  to  explain  the  purposes  the  universal  answer  was 
"I  don't  know."  In  a  short  time  the  order  gained  prominence  all 
over  the  country,  especially  in  the  Southern  states,  and  it  then  as 
rapidly  declined.  At  a  convention  of  the  order,  held  at  New  York 
in  1855,  the  following  declaration  of  principles  was  enunciated: 
"The  American  shall  rule  America;  the  union  of  these  states;  no 
north,  no  south,  no  east,  no  west;  the  United  States  of  America, 
as  they  are,  one  and  inseparable;  no  sectarian  interferences  in  our 
legislation,  or  in  the  administration  of  American  law ;  hostility  to 
the  assumption  of  the  pope,  through  the  bishops,  etc.,  in  a  republic 
sanctified  by  Protestant  blood ;  thorough  reform  in  the  naturaliza- 
tion laws  (requiring  21  years'  residence  of  all  foreigners  previous 
to  voting) :  free  and  liberal  educational  institutions  for  all  sorts 
and  classes,  with  the  Bible  as  a  universal  text-book." 

Another  convention  of  the  order  was  held  in  Philadelphia  the 
same  year.  Gayarre  says  that  Loiiisiana  sent  6  delegates  to  this 
convention,  5  of  whom  were  Protestants  and  1  was  a  Catholic.  The 
former  were  readily  granted  admission,  but  the  latter  was  rejected 
unless  he  would  agree  to  make  certain  concessions  that  no  self-re- 
specting man  could  make,  whereupon  the  5  Protestant  delegates 
refused  to  enter  the  convention  without  their  Catholic  colleague. 
The  whole  delegation  then  returned  to  New  Orleans,  where  an  im- 


LOUISIANA  619 

mense  mass  meeting  was  held,  and  the  Louisiana  Know  Nothings 
refused  further  affiliation  with  the  party  of  that  name  in  other 
states.  In  1856  the  larger  part  of  the  Kjiow  Nothing  order  united 
with  the  Republican  party  in  the  nomination  of  John  C.  Fremont 
for  the  presidency.  The  minority,  under  the  name  of  the  "Ameri- 
can party,"  nominated  Millard  Fillmore.  Most  of  the  Louisiana 
historians  agree  that  this  date  marks  the  decline  of  the  Know  Noth- 
ing party  in  the  state,  but  Thompson,  in  his  Story  of  Louisiana 
(p.  255)  says:  "The  excitement,  for  several  years  systematically 
worked  up  at  each  election  in  Louisiana  against  foreigners,  culmi- 
nated finally  in  1858  and  for  a  few  days  a  battle  was  every  moment 
expected  at  New  Orleans.  Five  hundred  men  armed  to  the  teeth 
and  acting  under  direction  of  a  vigilance  committee  seized  the 
courthouse  in  the  city  and  also  took  possession  of  the  state  arsenal 
at  Jackson  Square.  This  was  on  the  4th  of  June,  three  days  before 
the  time  set  for  the  city  election.  On  the  following  day  reinforce- 
ments amounting  to  1,000  armed  men  joined  them.  They  fortified 
their  positions  and  erected  strong  barricades  across  the  streets.  On 
the  other  hand  the  Know  Nothings  occupied  Lafayette  Square  with 
a  strong  force  and  a  battery  of  cannon.  Actual  collision  was 
avoided,  however,  and  by  dint  of  much  parleying  peace  was  re- 
stored in  time  to  insure  a  quiet  election,  the  Know  Nothings  elect- 
ing the  mayor." 

Koran,  a  village  of  Bossier  parish,  is  situated  in  the  southeastern 
part  on  Clarks  bayou,  6  miles  south  of  Allentown,  the  nearest  rail- 
road station.  It  has  a  money  order  postoffice  and  is  a  trading  cen- 
ter for  the  neighborhood. 

Kraemer,  a  post-village  in  the  northern  part  of  Lafourche  parish, 
is  a  station  on  the  Bowie,  Lafourche  &  Northwestern  R.  R.,  which 
connects  with  the  Southern  Pacific  at  Bowie.  It  is  in  the  "sugar 
belt,"  is  surrounded  by  fine  plantations,  and  is  a  shipping  point  of 
considerable  importance.     Population  100. 

Ku  Klux  Klan. — For  some  years  after  the  final  surrender  of  the 
Confederate  armies  in  1865,  the  government  of  the  Southern  states 
was  entrusted  to  men  appointed  by  the  national  administration  and 
backed  up  Tjy  the  military  power.  Unfortunately  the  men  thus 
appointed  were  too  often  actuated  by  motives  of  self-aggrandize- 
ment and  sought  to  perpetuate  their  power  by  enlisting  the  unqual- 
ified support  of  the  recently  emancipated  negroes.  To  this  end  a 
society  of  negroes  and  others  was  formed  under  the  name  of  the 
Union  League  (q.  v.),  and,  as  frequently  happens  in  such  eases,  some 
of  the  more  enthiisiastie  members  of  this  organization  soon  began 
to  boast  of  their  power,  and  assuming  that  "Liberty  meant  license" 
commenced  to  commit  petty  depredations  which  portended  serious 
disorders.  This  condition  of  affairs  so  far  threatened  the  peace  and 
good  order  of  the  South  that  the  better  class  of  white  citizens 
formed  local  associations,  each  independent  of  the  other,  but  all 
having  the  same  object  in  view.  Some  of  these  local  societies  were 
the  "Knights  of  the  White  Camelia,"  the  "White  Brotherhood, 
the  "Pale  Faces,"  the  "Invisible  Circle,"  the  "Constitutional 
Union  Guards,"  the  "Invisible  Empire,"   and  in  Alabama  there 


620  LOUISIANA 

-was  a  secret  organization  known  as  the  "Black  Cavalry."  In  Lou- 
isiana the  Knights  of  the  Wliite  Camelia  were  known  also  as  the 
Caucasion  Club,  which  asserted  the  superiority  of  the  white  race 
over  the  negro.  In  1874  the  club  threw  off  the  cloak  of  secrecy  and 
openly  organized  as  the  "White  League."     (q.  v.) 

The  Ku  Klux  proper  had  its  origin  in  the  efforts  of  some  young 
men  at  Pulaski,  Tenn.,  in  May,  1866,  to  form  a  secret  society. 
Among  the  names  suggested  was  Kuklux.  from  the  Greek  word 
kuklos  (circle),  and  the  word  klan  was  added  to  carry  out  the  al- 
literation. The  whole  idea  was  based  on  the  mysteries  of  college 
fraternities.  By-laws  and  a  ritual  were  adopted;  the  officers  were 
the  grand  cyclops,  the  grand  magi,  the  grand  Tm-k.  etc. ;  and  the 
lodge  or  meeting  place  was  called  the  den.  Absolute  secrecy  was 
the  corner-stone,  and  to  increase  the  mystery  the  solicitation  of 
members  was  prohibited.  Each  member  was  required  to  provide 
himself  with  a  fantastic  robe  and  a  white  mask,  underneath  which 
was  a  cardboard  extension  tp  increase  the  apparent  height  of  the 
wearer.  The  newspapers  gave  the  klan  considerable  attention,  with 
the  result  that  applications  soon  came  flowing  in  for  the  organiza- 
tion of  other  dens,  and  the  klan  spread  rapidly  over  the  South. 
The  Pulaski  den  met  in  a  partly  ruined  hoi^se  on  the  outskirts  of 
the  town,  and  when  some  chance  passerby  happened  to  meet  one 
of  the  disguised  sentinels  and  asked  who  he  was,  the  reply  would 
come  in  sepulclu-al  tones:  "A  spirit  from  the  other  world.  I  was 
killed  at  Chickamauga."  These  challenges  and  replies,  the  un- 
canny noises  emanating  from  the  meetings,  the  air  of  mystery  sur- 
rounding the  organization,  struck  terror  to  the  hearts  of  the  igno- 
rant, superstitious  negroes,  and  "even  the  most  highly  cultured 
were  not  able  wholly  to  resist  the  Meird  and  peculiar  feeling  which 
pervaded  every  commimity  where  the  Ku  Klux  appeared." 

In  May,  1867,  about  two  months  after  the  passage  of  the  recon- 
struction act,  the  grand  cyclops  of  the  Pulaski  den  called  a  conven- 
tion of  the  klan  at  Nashville,  and  a  general  reorganization  was  ef- 
fected. The  region  covered  by  the  klan  was  designated  the  Invis- 
ible Empire ;  the  states  were  realms,  the  Congressional  districts  were 
dominions,  and  the  comities  were  provinces.  Officers  were  pro- 
vided for  each  as  follows :  For  the  empire,  the  grand  wizard  with 
his  staff  of  10  genii,  with  autocratic  power;  for  the  realm,  the 
grand  dragon  and  his  8  hydras ;  for  the  dominion,  the  grand  Titan 
and  his  6  furies;  for  the  pro-\ance,  the  grand  giant  and  his  4  gob- 
lins, and  for  his  den  the  grand  cyclops  and  his  2  night-hawks.  "The 
body  politic  shall  be  known  and  designated  as  ghouls."  The  grand 
councils  of  Yahoos  and  Centaurs  were  the  tribunals.  Candidates 
for  membership  were  to  be  asked  if  they  belonged  to  the  Repub- 
lican party,  the  Loyal  League,  the  Grand  Army  of  the  Republic  or 
the  Federal  army ;  if  they  were  opposed  to  negro  equality,  both 
social  and  political:  if  they  were  in  favor  of  a  white  man's  govern- 
ment, constitutional  liberty  and  a  government  of  equitable  laws, 
instead  of  a  government  of  violence  and  oppression:  if  they  were 
in^  favor  of  maintaining  the  constitutional  rights  of  the  South,  the 


LOUISIANA  621 

restitution  of  the  white  men  of  the  South  to  all  theu-  rights,  and 
the  inalienable  right  of  self-preservation  of  the  people  against  the 
exercise  of  arbitrary  and  unlicensed  power. 

The  organization  soon  absorbed  most  of  the  different  local  so- 
cieties. There  is  no  doubt  that  the  intentions  of  the  members  of 
the  original  klan  were  conservative  of  the  public  good.  It  was  or- 
ganized as  a  measure  of  defense.  Avery,  in  his  History  of  Georgia, 
says  it  was  "the  perilous  effect  of  which  the  Loyal  League  was  the 
unhealthy  cause."  Its  weapon  was  mystery.  Knowing  the  igno- 
rance and  superstition  of  the  negroes,  the  klan  sought  to  awe  them 
into  good  behavior  by  appealing  to  their  dread  of  the  supernatural 
and  without  resort  to  physical  violence.  Glad  in  white,  to  repre- 
sent the  ghosts  of  the  Gonfederate  dead,  the  Ku  Klux  rode  silently 
througli  the  villages  and  the  country  at  night,  usually  one  behind 
the  other  some  yards  apart,  often  traversing  in  a  single  night  a 
large  section  inhabited  by  the  negro  population.  This  simple  pro- 
cedure produced  a  most  wholesome  effect  and  averted  very  serious 
domesiic  trouble.  But  in  the  course  of  time  there  were  reckless 
parties,  frequently  acting  independent  of  the  klan,  who  committed 
outrages  in  its  name.  Fleming,  in  his  History  of  Keconstruction 
in  Alabama,  says:  "The  Ku  Klux  movement  was  an  understand- 
ing among  Southern  whites,  brought  about  by  the  chaotic  condition 
of  social  and  political  institutions  between  1865  and  1876.  It  re- 
sulted in  a  partial  destruction  of  reconstruction  and  a  return,  as 

near  as  might  be,  to  ante-bellum  conditions.  This  imder standing 
or  state  of  mind  took  many  forms  and  was  called  by  many  names. 
The  purpose  was  everywhere  and  always  the  same:  to  recover  for 
the  white  race  control  of  society,  and  destroy  the  baneful  influence 
of  the  alien  among  the  blacks." 

When  the  order  was  reorganized  in  Maj^,  1867,  Gen.  Nathan  B. 
Forrest  became  grand  ^vizard.  The  klan  was  formally  disbanded 
by  his  order  in  the  spring  of  1869,  though  some  of  the  dens  con- 
tinued in  existence  independently  until  about  1876.  In  March,  1871, 
President  Grant  called  the  attention  of  Congress  to  the  outrages 
said  to  have  been  committed  by  the  klan,  and  in  April  the  enforce- 
ment act  was  passed,  which  extended  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Fed- 
eral com'ts  to  cases  of  this  character.  The  habeas  corpus  was  sus- 
pended in  parts  of  South  Carolina  and  Arkansas,  and  a  committee 
was  appointed  by  Congress  to  investigate  the  outrages  and  the 
scope  of  the  klan.  The  testimony  before  this  committee  showed 
that  the  organization  extended  from  Virginia  to  Mississippi.  It 
seldom  extended  into  the  black  belt,  where  the  Knights  of  the 
White  Camelia  held  sway.  The  reports  of  the  Congressional  inves- 
tigation fill  twelve  large  volumes,  and  if  the  klan  began  to  wane  in 
power  from  that  time  it  was  not  so  much  due  to  the  investigation 
as  to  the  order  of  Gen.  Forrest  the  year  before,  and  because  the 
right  of  self-government  was  restored  to  the  people  of  the  Southern 
states,  which  gave  them  the  power  to  cheek  the  lawlessness  of  the 
times  Avithout  having  to  resort  to  the  medium  of  secret  societies. _ 


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